ADAPTING TO A CHANGING CLIMATEIN THE CARIBBEAN AND SOUTH PACIFIC REGIONS

Guide to the Integration ofClimate Change Adaptationinto the EnvironmentalImpact Assessment (EIA)Process

Adapting to Climate Change in the Caribbean (ACCC) ProjectCC

caricom

Canadian InternationalDevelopment Agency

Agence canadienne dedéveloppement international

South Pacific RegionalEnvironment Progamme

The Guide to the Integration of Climate Change Adaptation into theEnvironment Impact Assessment Process has been developed as acollaborative effort between the Capacity Building for the Developmentof Adaptation Measures in Pacific Islands Countries (CBDAMPIC) Projectand the Adapting to Climate Change in the Caribbean (ACCC) Project.Support for the publication of this document has been provided, in part,by the Mainstreaming Adaptation to Climate Change (MACC) project,funded by the Global Environment Facility (GEF) and implemented by theWorld Bank.

Capacity BBuilding ffor tthe DDevelopment oof AAdaptation MMeasuresin PPacific IIslands CCountries ((CBDAMPIC) PProject OOverviewThe CBDAMPIC project focuses on improving the sustainable livelihoodof Pacific Island people by increasing their adaptive capacity to climate-related risks. The CDN $2.2 million initiative of the CanadianInternational Development Agency (CIDA) is being executed by theSouth Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP). This is Canada'sresponse to the call by Pacific island countries for assistance to developand implement a capacity building programme that will reduce climaterelated risks at the national and community level. The three-year project(January 2002 to March 2005) involves four countries:

Cook IslandsFijiSamoa Vanuatu

The overall project purpose is to develop and implement a capacity-building programme that will increase four Pacific Island countries'capability to reduce climate-related risks at the national and communitylevel. Principal project outcomes include:1. Climate change adaptation is mainstreamed into national and sectoralplanning and budgeting processes; and2. Communities' adaptive capacity to climate related risks andvulnerabilities increased.

The Projects five main outputs will ensure that these outcomes arerealised.

Output 11 Increased awareness by policy and decision makers on climatechange risks for their people's livelihoods and economic sectors and theadaptation options that could be put in place at national and communitylevel to increase adaptive capacity.

Output 22 Senior government policy makers committed to integrate andmainstream climate change adaptation into national and sectoral policiesand a process is in place to incorporate climate change risk managementinto national planning.

Output 33 Increased awareness by communities of the vulnerabilitiesassociated with climate change and the adaptation options available(traditional and contemporary).

Output 44 Pilot projects implemented in communities to reduce theirvulnerabilities to climate change related risks.

Output 55 Regional linkages developed and maintained that will ensuremutual advocacy platforms in the international arena and joint activitiescarried out to reduce vulnerabilities of Caribbean and Pacific regions toclimate related risks.

It is expected that the project will increase the capabilities of Pacific islandgovernment institutions and communities to deal with vulnerabilitiesrelated to climate change and climatic extremes.

Further information on the CBDAMPIC project can be obtained from:Taito Nakalevu, Climate Change Adaptation OfficerSouth Pacific Regional Environment ProgrammePO Box 240, Apia, SamoaPhone: (685) 21929Fax: (685) 20231taiton@sprep.org.wswww.sprep.org.ws

Adapting tto CClimate CChange iin tthe CCaribbean ((ACCC) PProject OOverviewAdaptation to climate variations and change, and to sea level rise, is offundamental economic and social importance to the countries of theCaribbean. The Adapting to Climate Change in the Caribbean (ACCC)project is funded by the Canadian International Development Agency(CIDA) and runs from October 2001 to March 2004. The project builds onthe initial experience gained through the Caribbean Planning forAdaptation to Climate Change (CPACC) project, which concluded inDecember 2001. This US$2.1 million project involves 9 individualcomponents that continue from CPACC in order to consolidate, extendand make sustainable climate change responses. They are also designed tolead into and complement the Global Environment Facility (GEF) program. Mainstreaming Adaptation to Climate Change (MACC). The ninecomponents of the ACCC Project include: Component 1: Development of Business Plan for Caribbean Climate

Change Centre Component 2: Public Education and Outreach (PEO) Component 3: Risk Management Approach to Physical Planning Component 4: Strengthening Regional Technical Capacity Component 5: Adaptation Planning in Environmental Assessments Component 6: Strategies for Adaptation in the Water Sector Component 7: Adaptation Strategies to Protect Human Health Component 8: Adaptation Strategies for Agriculture and FoodComponent 9: Fostering Collaboration with non-CARICOM Countries

The outcomes from this initiative aim to ensure that:The Caribbean Community Climate Change Centre (soon to beestablished) becomes a sustainable institution for coordinating allclimate change related activities in the region;The region builds climate change adaptation into planning andassessment processes in key economic and social sectors;The scientific and technical competence to address climate changeissues is strengthened in the region;National and regional agencies can constructively engage ininternational climate change negotiations; andCitizens, the private sector and governments of the region have theknowledge tosupport and conduct appropriate climate change responses.

CARICOM countries participating in the ACCC Project:Antigua & BarbudaBahamasBarbadosDominicaGrenadaGuyana

The ACCC project is executed through the Canadian Executing Agency(CEA) which comprises Canadian firms, de Romilly and de Romilly Ltd.and GCSI - Global Change Strategies International Inc. Day-to-dayimplementation is the responsibility of the Regional ProjectImplementation Unit (RPIU), based in Barbados that was originallyestablished for the CPACC Project. However, implementation is the fullresponsibility of the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) Secretariat.

For further information, please visit our website:http://www.caribbeanclimate.org

Canadian International Development AgencyAgence canadienne de développement international

ISBN 976-600-170-7 (pbk). CARICOM Adapting to Climate Change inthe Caribbean (ACCC) Project. Guide to the Integration of ClimateChange Adaptation into the Environmental Impact Assessment Process.September 2004. ????.

© 2004 Caribbean Community Secretariat

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be photocopied,recorded, or otherwise reproduced, stored in a retrieval system ortransmitted in any form or by any electronic or mechanical meanswithout the prior permission of the copyright owner.

JamaicaSt. LuciaSt. Kitts & NevisSt. Vincent & the GrenadinesTrinidad & Tobago

ADAPTING TO A CHANGING CLIMATEIN THE CARIBBEAN AND SOUTH PACIFIC REGIONS

Guide to the Integration ofClimate Change Adaptation intothe Environmental ImpactAssessment (EIA) Process

Published by:Caribbean Community (CARICOM) andSouth Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP)

With assistance from:Global Environment Facility (GEF)World BankCanadian International Development Agency (CIDA)

September 2004

TABLE OFCONTENTS

Foreword i

Executive Summary iii

Peer Panel v

Glossary of Terms and Definitions viii

SECTION 1 - Introduction 11.0 Background 11.1 Why do We Need a Guide on the Integration

of Climate Change into the Environmental Impact Assessment Process?

1.2 Climate Variability and Change – The Challenge for the EIA Process

1.3 What is Climate Change?1.4 What are the Likely Impacts from

Global Climate Change?1.5 What are the Likely Impacts from Global Climate

Change in the Caribbean Region?1.6 What are the Likely Impacts from Adaptation

Climate and Sea-level Variability and Change in the South Pacific Island States?

1.7 What Natural “Hazards” are Associated with Climate Change?

1.8 Do All Impacts from Climate Change Constitute a “Natural Hazard”?

1.9 Climate Change Hazard Management, Development Planning and EIAs

SECTION 2 - Integration Climate Change into EIAs2.0 Overview of the EIA Process2.1 Climate Change and the EIA Process2.2 Step 1: Define Project and Alternatives2.3 Step 2: Preliminary Vulnerability Assessment

(Qualitative Analysis)2.4 Step 3: Initial Screening2.5 Step 4: Scoping

(Category A and Category B Study)2.6 Step 5: Assessment and Evaluation

(Category A and Category B Study)2.7 Step 6: Environmental Management Plan

(Climate Change Adaptation Plan)2.8 Step 7: Cost Benefit Analysis 332.9 Step 8: Monitoring Program 332.10 Step 9: Prepare Final Report 332.11 Step 10: Project Appraisal 35

2.12 Step 11: Implementation and Monitoring 35

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SECTION 3 - Cumulative Effects 37

3.0 Introduction 37

3.1 Cumulative Effects Defined 373.2 Cumulative Climate Change Effects Assessment

and the Environmental Impact Assessment Process

3.3 Cumulative Climate Change Effects Assessment 39

3.3.1 Preliminary Vulnerability Assessment 39

3.3.2 Scoping 41

3.3.3 Assessment and Evaluation 42

3.4 Adaptation Plan 423.5 Where is the Cululative Effects Assessment

(CEA) Placed in the Environmental ImpactAssessment Submission?

SECTION 4 - Integration of Climate Change Considerations into EIAs at the National Level – Caribbean

4.0 Background4.1 Possible Mechanisms for Incorporating

Climate Change Considerations into EIAs at the National Level

4.1.1 Establishment of Formal EIA Procedures4.1.2 Provision of Criteria for Screening and

Scoping Environmental Impacts4.1.3 Provision of EIA Guidelines for the

Preparation of EIA Reports

4.1.4 Provision of Criteria Governing EIA Experts4.2 Integration of Climate Change Adaptation

into the EIA Process within CARICOM Countries – Practical Considerations

4.2.1 Antigua and Barbuda 46

4.2.2 The Bahamas 48

4.2.3 Barbados 49

4.2.4 Belize 51

4.2.5 The British Virgin Islands 54

4.2.6 Cayman Islands 55

4.2.7 Dominica 56

4.2.8 Grenada 58

4.2.9 Guyana 59

4.2.10 Jamaica 63

4.2.11 St. Kitts and Nevis 65

4.2.12 St. Lucia 65

4.2.13 St. Vincent and the Grenadines 67

4.2.14 Trinidad and Tobago 68

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43

SECTION 5 - Integration of Climate Change Considerations into EIA’s at the National Level – South Pacific

5.0 Background

5.1 EIA Status in the Pacific

5.2 Possible Modalities for Incorporating Climate Change Impacts into the EIA Process

5.2.1 Terms of Reference (ToR) 73

5.2.2 EIA Review-Sheet/Checklist 73

5.2.3 Compliance, Monitoring and Evaluation Systems 73

5.2.4 Establishment of Formal EIA Procedures 73

5.2.5 EIA Experts Roster 74

5.3 Integration of Climate Change Adaptation into the EIA Process within Pacific Island Countries - Practical Considerations

5.3.1 Cook Islands 75

5.3.2 Fiji Islands 76

5.3.3 Samoa 79

5.3.4 Vanuatu 81

ANNEX 1 - Summary of Climate Change Scenarios for the Caribbean Region and the South Pacific Regions

ANNEX 2 - Climate Change Induced Hazards 90

ANNEX 3 - Modeling the Climate System and Future Scenarios

ANNEX 4 - Guide to the Use of Risk Management Procedures to Address Scientific Uncertainty

ANNEX 5 - Summary of Anticipated Impacts Resulting from Climate Change and Climate Variability in the Caribbean Region

ANNEX 6 - “Model” Terms of Reference for Undertaking Detailed Vulnerability Assessment of Climate Change

ANNEX 7 - Sample of Terms of Reference (ToR) for EIA 105

ANNEX 8 - Sample Project Appraisal/Review Checklist 109

ANNEX 9 - References and Further Reading 116

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FIGURE 1 - Trends in Global Average SurfaceTempertures

FIGURE 2 - The Greenhouse Effect

FIGURE 3 - Variations of the Earth's Surface Temperature

FIGURE 4 - Indicators of the Human Influence on theAtmosphere During the Industrial Era

FIGURE 5 - Potential Climate Change Impact

FIGURE 6 - IPCC Third Assessment Report (TAR) 2001 FIGURE 7 - CO2 Concentration, Temperature and

Sea-Level Continue to Rise Long AfterEmmissions are Reduced

FIGURE 8 - What Causes the Sea-Level to Change?

FIGURE 9 - Potentially Hazardous Natural PhenomenaAssociated with Climate Change andClimate Valiability

FIGURE 10 - Key Steps in the Environmental ImpactAssessment (EIA) Process

FIGURE 11 - Modifications to the Environmental ImpactAssessment Process to Address ClimateChange Adaptation Considerations

FIGURE 12 - Sensitivity, Adaptability and Vulnerability

FIGURE 13 - Estimating Frequency or Probability of an Event

FIGURE 14 - Estimating Severity of the Impacts

FIGURE 15 - Example of the Evaluation that should beUndertaken During this Stage in the EIAProcess

FIGURE 16 - Linkages Between Climate Change andOther Environmental Issues

FIGURE 17 - Detailed Climate Change ImpactsEvaluation

FIGURE 18 - Types of Adaption to Climate Change

FIGURE 19 - Impacts on Sectors in St. Lucia

FIGURE 20 - Adaptation Planning and Management

FIGURE 21 - Climate Change Adaptation Program toAddress Impacts on Select Sectors in St. Lucia

FIGURE 22 - Potential Adaptation Measures to AddressClimate Change Impacts on WaterResources, Agriculture and Food Security

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LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE 23 - Costs and Benefits of Building Resilient Infrastructure: the Case of Port Zante in St. Kitts & Nevis

FIGURE 24 - Examples of Cumulative Climate Change Effects 38

FIGURE 25 - Scoping - a Series of Questions to be Asked 42

FIGURE 26 - Assessment and Evaluation 42

FIGURE 27 - Status of EIA Procedures Incorporating Climate 44

FIGURE 28 - Status of EIA Institution and Practice in Pacific Island Countries and Territories

FIGURE 29 - The Global Climate of the 21st Century

FIGURE 30 - The Emissions Scenarios of the Special Report onEmissions Scenarios (SRES)

FIGURE 31 - The Development of Climate Models - Past, Presentand Future

FIGURE 32 - Downscaled Climate Change Projections

FIGURE 33 - Steps in the Natural Hazzard Risk Management Process

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FOREWORDThe landmarkUnitedNations GlobalConference onSustainableDevelopmentof Small IslandDeveloping

States (SIDS) held in Barbados in1994 brought the issue of climatechange impacts on the Caribbean,amongst others, to the fore. Inthe key strategic documentemerging out of the Conference –the Barbados Programme ofAction (BPOA) – “climate changeand sea level rise” was one of thefourteen priority issues requiring“urgent action” from Caribbeannations. The small states in theCaribbean can do little to directlymitigate the tendency to globalclimate change. Consequently,their focus must necessarily be onadaptation. There have been twoCaribbean regional climate changeprojects implemented over thepast six years to plan foradaptation to the likely effects ofclimate change. From studiesundertaken over this period, it hasbeen established that the Region,already vulnerable to the effects ofclimate variability, will be more soaffected by the impacts fromprojected climate change. Thesmall island and low-lying coastalStates will be vulnerable to thecombined impacts of climatechange and climate variability.Practical country – specificadaptation options have to bedeveloped for countries in theRegion to take account of thenature of the threat.

This document, “Guide to theIntegration of Climate ChangeAdaptation into the EnvironmentalImpact Assessment Process,” has been

i

informed by ongoing work onadaptation in the Caribbean. It isone of the many outcomes of theCARICOM/CIDA “Adapting toClimate Change in the Caribbean(ACCC) Project,” and benefitsfrom collaboration between theregional disaster and the climatechange communities in the effortto better manage potentialdisaster situations and reduce thelosses associated with the yearlydevastation experienced fromclimate-related events.

The ACCC project has alsocollaborated with the “CapacityBuilding for the Development ofAdaptation Measures in PacificIsland Countries (CBDAMPIC)Project,” implemented in theSouth Pacific, since the tworegions share similarvulnerabilities to climatevariability and change. Thisdocument speaks to how climatechange considerations – such as,for example, projected stormactivity and sea level rise scenarios– can be included in the process ofenvironmental impact assessment(EIA). Conventional EIAsconsider the impact of thedevelopment project on theenvironment. New thinking, asreflected in this document,suggests that we also need toconsider the impact of theenvironment on the Project. Therecent trends of increased damageto coastal infrastructure due toclimate-related events, and thecosts of rebuilding orrehabilitation clearly demonstratethe need for such consideration.

The collaboration of the ACCCand CBDAMPIC projects wasmade possible by resources fromthe Canadian International

Development Agency (CIDA),whose foresight has resulted in aground-breaking activity that willserve to better guide developmentplanning decisions in both theCaribbean and South Pacific

ii

regions. It is hoped that theapproach adopted in thisdocument will inform futureplanning and developmentdecisions in small island andcoastal developing countries

which stand to be most adverselyaffected by climate change.

Edwin CarringtonSecretary-GeneralCaribbean CommunityGeorgetown, Guyana

Climateextreme eventsarecatastrophic tothe socio-economic andbiophysicalsystems ofPacific and

Caribbean island nations. Theseevents draw back the curtain ofdevelopment a number of years.Extreme climate events musttherefore be part of themainstream decision-makingprocesses of island governments.

This guide to the integration ofclimate change adaptation withinthe Environmental ImpactAssessments (EIA) process is anattempt by Caribbean and Pacificclimate experts to mainstreamclimate change issues into theeveryday decision-makingprocesses of governmentministries and departments. Thisguide is not an end in itself. It isan important first step towardbuilding resilience into currentand future development projectsthat will in turn contribute toreducing vulnerability. If adopted,the guide should help to ‘trigger’climate change adaptation.

The Caribbean and Pacific regionshave been working very closely onseveral important initiatives andthematic areas. This joint efforthas resulted in this guide entitled:“Guide to the Integration of ClimateChange Adaptation into theEnvironmental Impact Assessment(EIA) Process.” This guide willassist EIA and climate change

experts to address issues related tointegrating climate change intothe EIA process. This is cuttingedge work and SPREP is privilegedto collaborate with the Caribbeanon this project. The higheconomic costs of climate-relateddisasters in the Pacific region haveprompted the awareness of theneed to be proactive in findingways and means of reducingvulnerability and build resiliencethrough adaptation. This guidepoints out some very practicalways in which climate changeissues and concerns can befactored into the planning,evaluation and monitoring phasesof an EIA process.

The effort between the tworegions is made possible fromassistance by the Government ofCanada through funding of twoclimate change adaptationprojects. I believe that working incollaboration and sharinginformation and resources is animportant precedent for the tworegions. This initiative needs to besupported and built upon further.

The foresight and efforts of therelevant officers and experts whoauthored this document should becommended. They have done agreat service that will make adifference in preparations to adaptto the negative impacts ofextreme events.

Asterio TakesyDirectorSouth Pacific Regional EnvironmentProgram (SPREP)Apia, Samoa

These guidelines have beendeveloped to assist CARICOMand SPREP country practitionerswith the integration of climatechange adaptation considerationsinto the environmental impactassessment (EIA) process, therebyensuring the selection andimplementation of feasibleoptions for development projects.The guidelines adopt a riskmanagement approach for dealingwith the existent uncertaintiesassociated with the present statusof our knowledge to climatechange.

The document has been guided bythe:

a)..Review of Environmental ImpactAssessment in Selected Countriesof Latin-America and theCaribbean that has recentlybeen undertaken by the Inter-American Development Bank(IADB); and

b)..review of environmentalimpact assessment proceduresin CARICOM countries thathas been undertaken under theAdapting to Climate Changein the Caribbean (ACCC)program.

It is also informed in terms of itsapproach to environmentalimpact assessments by the WorldBank's Environmental AssessmentSourcebook.

Although the document has beendeveloped as an integral part ofthe Guide to the Integration ofNatural Hazards into theEnvironmental Impact AssessmentProcess being developed by theDisaster Mitigation Facility forthe Caribbean (DMFC) program,

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

it serves as a “stand alone”reference source setting out themethodology and detailing theissues of relevance whenundertaking the climate changeadaptation component ofEnvironmental ImpactAssessments (EIAs). The mainreason for this approach is that itallows climate change parametersto be developed and expanded onwithout any fear that it may beviewed as being too detailed andweighty for inclusion orintegration into the EIA Process.The other reason is that theformat and parameters used inEIAs are pretty much standard,with “Climate” being consideredas one of the physical parameters(soils, hydrology, etc.) which hasto be assessed and evaluated.

The Guide does not propose toestablish a new or parallel EIAprocess but rather identifies a fewsimple steps to be taken whenutilizing existing EIA processesand procedures. Section 2 of theGuide provides that whenconsidering the impacts of climatechange, the EIA process should:

a)..evaluate a project's potentialenvironmental risks andimpacts in its area of influence;

b)..identify and evaluate potentialimpacts from climate changeon the project's area ofinfluence;

c)..examine project alternatives;

d)..identify ways of improvingproject selection, siting,planning, design, andimplementation by preventing,minimizing, mitigating, orcompensating for adverse

iii

environmental impacts andanticipated adverse impactsfrom climate change, andenhancing positive impacts;and

e)..include the process ofmanaging and adapting toadverse environmental impactsand anticipated adverseimpacts from climate changethroughout projectimplementation.

In addressing anticipated adverseimpacts from climate change, theGuide favours theimplementation of appropriateadaptation planning andmanagement mechanisms as partof the environmentalmanagement plan. Section 3 of thedocument provides guidance onthe process to address “cumulativeeffects” arising from multiple

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climate change related events. Theguide includes a glossary ofstandard terms/definitions relatedto climate change and EIA. Theannexes to the Guide provide theuser with a range of relevantinformation on climate changemodelling, climate scenarios andadaptation choices depending onthe specific climate risk beingaddressed.

Sections 3, 4 and 5 of the Guideprovide guidance on practicalmechanisms that may beemployed to ensure theintegration of climate changeconsiderations into the EIAprocess at the national level in theCaribbean and South Pacificregions. Broadly speaking, theprocess outlined in the guidewould be subsumed under thenormal EIA process, and therefore

would serve as “matters forconsideration” or issues to becovered during the EIA process.This approach will ensure that theintegration of climate changeconsiderations into the EIAprocess does not become a costlyor cumbersome additionalrequirement.

It is anticipated that the Guidewill be further refined based onfeedback from users in the fieldand on an improvement of ourknowledge of the science ofclimate change. It is hoped thatthis Guide will develop into anessential tool for Caribbean andSouth Pacific planners dealingwith the identification andimplementation of climate changeadaptation responses in proposeddevelopment activities withintheir respective regions.

PEER PANELThis Guide has been developedthrough a collaborative exerciseinvolving the following climatechange, natural hazard and EIAspecialists.

AHMADMr. Rafi AhmadLecturer in GeologyUnit for Disaster StudiesDepartment of Geography andGeology, University of the West Indies (UWI)Mona, Kingston 7, Jamaica Tel: (876) 927-2728Fax: (876) 977-6029Home Tel: 876-927-2928Email: rahmad@uwimona.edu.jmwww.uwimona.edu.jm/uds/

BLACK-LAYNEMs. Diann Black-LayneChief Environment OfficerMinistry of Tourism andEnvironmentGovernment Office ComplexBuilding No 2 St. John's, Antigua and BarbudaTel: (268) 462-4625Fax: (268) 462-6398Email: dcblack11@yahoo.comenvironment@antiguabarbuda.net

CHASEDr. Vasantha ChaseHeadEnvironment and SustainableDevelopment Unit - Organizationfor Eastern Caribbean StatesP. O. Box 1383Castries, Saint LuciaTel: (758) 453-6208Fax: (758) 452-2194Email: oecsnrmu@candw.lc

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DIXONMs. Cheryl DixonProject Officer (Environment)Caribbean Development BankWildey, St. Michael, BarbadosTel: 431-1600 Fax: 426-7269Email: dixonc@caribank.org

DOUGLASNovlette Mae Douglas Programme SpecialistNational Environment andPlanning Agency10 Caledonia AvenueKingston 5, JamaicaTel: (876) 908-2928;

754-7549-50(758) Fax: (876) 754-7597Email: ndouglas@nepa.gov.jmwww.nepa.gov.jm

JOHNMr. Mark JohnDirectorDivision of Forestry and Wildlife Ministry of Agriculture and theEnvironment, Botanical Gardens,Roseau, Commonwealth ofDominicaTel: 1-767 448 2401Fax: 1-767 448 7999Email: bmjohn75@hotmail.com

JONESMs. Eleanor JonesManaging DirectorEnvironmental Solutions Ltd.20 West Kings House RoadKingston 10, JamaicaTel: (876) 960-8627/960-0794Fax: (876) 929-5731Email: ebj@mail.infochan.com

KUMARMs. Premila KumarSenior Environmental OfficerDepartment of the EnvironmentP. O. Box 2131Government Building, SuvaFiji IslandsTel: (679) 331 1699Fax:(679) 331 2879Email: premila_k@yahoo.comor epeli_nasome@hotmail.com

MC DONALDFranklin McDonaldChief Executive OfficerNational Environment and Planning Agency John McIntosh Building 10 Caledonia AvenueKingston 5, JamaicaTel: (876) 754-7526Fax: (876) 754-7594Email: fmcdonald@nepa.gov.jm

MOSELEYProf. Leo MoseleyDean of the Faculty of Pure andApplied SciencesUniversity of the West IndiesCave Hill, St. Michael, BarbadosTel: (246) 417-4310Fax: (246) 417-4597Email: lmoseley@uwichill.edu.bb

MURRAYDr. Reynold MurrayEnvironmental Services CoordinatorMinistry of Health andEnvironment Kingstown St. Vincent and the GrenadinesTel: 784-485-6992Fax: 784-457-2684; 456-1785Email: carms@caribsurf.com

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NAKALEVUMr. Taito NakalevuClimate Change Adaptation OfficerSouth Pacific RegionalEnvironmental Programme(SPREP )P. O. Box 240, Apia, Samoa Tel: (685) 21929 Fax: (685) 20231 Email: taiton@sprep.org.ws

ODERSONMr. Derrick OdersonEnvironmental OfficerMinistry of Physical Developmentand EnvironmentFrank Walcott Building Culloden Road, St. Michael, BarbadosTel: 246-426-2390Fax: 246-437-8859Email: meenr@sunbeach.net

RILEYMs. Elizabeth Riley Programme ManagerMitigation and ResearchCaribbean Disaster EmergencyResponse AgencyThe Garrison St. Michael, BarbadosTel: 246-436-9650Fax: 246-437-7469Email: cdera@caribsurf.com;lizriley@cdera.org

SAMMYDr. George SammyEnvironmental EngineerEcoengineering Consultants Ltd62 Eastern Main Road St.Augustine, Trinidad and TobagoTel: 868-663-9812 Fax: 868-662-7292 Email: ecoeng@tstt.net.tt

SIMMONSMr. David SimmonsPresidentSimmons & Associates Inc#2 Ingleside House, 7th AvenueBelleville, St. Michael, BarbadosTel: 246-228-7013Fax: 246-228-7018Email: asimmons@sunbeach.net

SINGHDr. David SinghDirector - Environmental ManagementEnvironmental Protection AgencyUniversity of GuyanaTurkeyen, Greater GeorgetownGuyana Tel: 011-59222-22277, 22231

ext 21Fax: 59222 22442Email: dsingh@epaguyana.org www.epaguyana.org

SPRINGERMr. Cletus SpringerPrincipal ConsultantImpact Consultancies Services Inc.Castries, Saint LuciaTel/Fax: 1-758-452-1007Email: springerc@candw.lc

SQUIRESMr. Clairvair SquiresPortfolio ManagerProject Financing DivisionCaribbean Development BankWildey, St. Michael, BarbadosTel: 246-431-1653Fax: 246-426-7629Email: squirec@caribank.orgwww.caribank.org

THOMASJoyce ThomasEconomic Affairs DivisionMinistry of FinanceThe Carenage St. George’s, GrenadaTel: 473-440-2101Fax: 473-440-0075 Email: jthomascalliste@yahoo.com

PROJECT CO-ORDINATORSDr. Ulric TrotzProject ManagerRPIU/ACCCWest Indian Commission BuildingLazaretto, Black Rock St. Michael, BarbadosTel: 246-417-4581Fax: 246-417-0461Email: trotzcpacc@sunbeach.net

Mr. George de RomillyCanadian Executing Agency(CEA) Adapting to ClimateChange in the Caribbean (ACCC)ProgramPresident - de Romilly & de Romilly Limited5 Spray Avenue, Mason's PointSt. Margaret’s Bay, HalifaxNova Scotia, Canada B3Z 1Z3Tel/Fax: 1-902-826-7708Email: romillyg@istar.ca

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Dr. Cassandra T. RogersConsultant Project Manager

Disaster Mitigation Facility forthe CaribbeanPoverty Reduction andEnvironment Unit

Caribbean Development Bank,Wildey, St. Michael, Barbados

Tel: 246-431-1740

Fax: 246-431-1601

Email: rogersc@caribank.org;cassietrogers@yahoo.com

Ms. Judi ClarkeComponent Manager

RPIU/ACCCWest Indian Commission BuildingLazaretto, Black Rock St. Michael, Barbados

Tel: 246-417-4581

Fax: 246-417-0461

Email: clarkecpacc@sunbeach.net

GLOSSARY OFTERMS AND

DEFINITIONS

Adaptation - Adjustment in natural or humansystems to a new or changingenvironment. Adaptation toclimate change refers toadjustment in natural or humansystems in response to actual orexpected climatic stimuli or theireffects, which moderates harm orexploits beneficial opportunities.Various types of adaptation can bedistinguished, includinganticipatory and reactiveadaptation, private and publicadaptation, and autonomous andplanned adaptation. (IPCC,Climate Change 2001: Impact,Adaption and Vulnerability. TAR,2001)

Adaptation benefits- The avoided damage costs or theaccrued benefits following theadoption and implementation ofadaptation measures. (ClimateChange 2001: Impacts, Adaptationand Vulnerability. IPCC TAR, 2001)

Adaptation costs- Costs of planning, preparing for,facilitating, and implementingadaptation measures, includingtransaction costs. (Climate Change2001: Impacts, Adaptation andVulnerability. IPCC TAR, 2001)

Adaptive capacity- The ability of a system to adjustto climate change (includingclimate variability and extremes)to moderate potential damages, totake advantage of opportunities,or cope with the consequences.(Climate Change 2001: Impacts,Adaptation and Vulnerability.IPCC TAR, 2001)

ACCC- Adapting to Climate Change inthe Caribbean - CIDA fundedprogram 2001-2004

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Baseline Information - A description of existingenvironmental, social andeconomic conditions at andsurrounding an action.

Cause-effect Relationship- The connection between anaction’s disturbance (cause) andits effect on the environment.

Combined Effects- The effects caused by variouscomponents of the same action.

CCCCC- Caribbean Community ClimateChange Centre(www.caribbeanclimate.org)

CARICOM- Caribbean Community

Climate change- A change of climate attributeddirectly or indirectly to humanactivity that alters thecomposition of the globalatmosphere and which is inaddition to natural climatevariability observed overcomparable time periods.(UNFCCC)

Climate scenario- A projection of future climaticconditions.

Climate variability- Fluctuations in climate over ashorter term - the departures fromlong-term averages or trends, overseasons or a few years, such asthose caused by the El NiñoSouthern Oscillationphenomenon.

Consequences- Risk is often expressed as theproduct of the consequencesflowing from an event and thefrequency of the event. In thisGuide, the term “impacts” is usedfor consistency with theterminology of climate change.

Cumulative Effects Assessment- An assessment of theincremental effects of an action orevent on the environment whenthe effects are combined withthose from other past, existingand future actions/events.

Disaster- A serious disruption of thefunctioning of a community or asociety causing widespreadhuman, material, economic orenvironmental losses whichexceed the ability of the affectedcommunity/society to cope usingits own resources. A disaster is afunction of the risk process. Itresults from the combination ofhazards, conditions ofvulnerability and insufficientcapacity or measures to reduce thepotential negative consequencesof risk.

EIA- Environmental ImpactAssessment

EIA Administrator- Individual designated orresponsible for administering theenvironmental impact assessmentprocess for, or on behalf of anygovernment or any approvalauthority.

El Niño-Southern Oscillation(ENSO)- An irregularly occurring patternof abnormal warming of thesurface coastal waters off Ecuador,Peru and Chile. This coupledatmosphere-ocean phenomenon is

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associated with the fluctuation ofintertropical surface pressurepattern and circulation in theIndian and Pacific oceans, calledthe Southern Oscillation. Anumber of attempts have beenmade to define El Niño, bothquantitatively and qualitatively,but none has achieved universalrecognition. This phenomenontriggers a shift in seasonalpatterns of weather systems overmany subtropical and mid-latitude parts of the globe. La Niña is the opposite of an ElNiño event, during which watersin the west Pacific are warmerthan normal and trade winds arestronger.

Environmental Components- Fundamental elements of thenatural and human environment;examples include: social, air,water, soils, terrain, vegetation,wildlife, fish, avifauna and landuse.

Evaluation- The determination of thesignificance of effects. Evaluationinvolves making judgements as tothe value of what is being affectedand the risk that the effect willoccur and be unacceptable.

Frequency- The number of occurrences of anevent within a specific period oftime.

Green-house Gases- Defined to be: carbon dioxide(CO2), carbon monoxide (CO),nitrous oxide (N2O), oxides ofnitrogen (NOx), methane (CH4),and non-methane volatile organiccompounds (NMVOCs). TheKyoto Protocol also addresseshydrofluorocarbons (HFCs),perfluorocarbons (PFCs), andsulphur hexafluoride (SF6).

Hazard- A source of potential harm, or asituation with a potential forcausing harm, in terms of humaninjury; damage to health,property, the environment, andother things of value; or somecombination of these.

Hazard Identification- The process of recognizing that ahazard exists and defining itscharacteristics.

Impact- Something that logically ornaturally follows from an actionor condition related to climatechange or climate variability.

IPCC- Intergovernmental Panel onClimate Change

Likelihood- The degree of certainty of anevent occurring. Likelihood can bestated as a probability.

Loss- An injury or damage to health,property, the environment, orsomething else of value.

Magnitude- A measure of how adverse orbeneficial an effect may be.

Mitigation- Structural and non-structuralmeasures undertaken to limit theadverse impact of natural hazards,environmental degradation andtechnological hazards. In thecontext of climate change,mitigation means a humanintervention to reduce the sourcesor enhance the sinks ofgreenhouse gases (Climate Change2001: The Scientific Basis. IPCCTAR, 2001)

Monitoring- A continuing assessment ofconditions at and surrounding theaction. This determines if effectsoccur as predicted or if operationsremain within acceptable limits,and if mitigation measures are aseffective as predicted.

Organization- A company, corporation, firm,enterprise, or institution, or partthereof, whether incorporated ornot, public or private, that has itsown functions andadministration.

Pathway Diagram- A simple diagrammaticrepresentation of a cause-effectrelationship between two relatedstates or actions that illustrates animpact model. Pathway diagramstake network diagrams one-stepfurther by evaluating each linkageand assessing the cause-effectrelationship in the context of ascientific hypothesis.

Pathway- A series of consecutive validlinkages in a Pathway Diagram.

Qualitative Analysis- Analysis that is subjective (i.e.,based on best professionaljudgement).

Quantitative Analysis- Analysis that usesenvironmental variablesrepresented by numbers or ranges,often accomplished by numericalmodelling or statistical analysis.

Resilience / resilient- The capacity of a system,community or society potentiallyexposed to hazards to adapt, byresisting or changing in order toreach and maintain an acceptablelevel of functioning and structureThis is determined by the degree

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to which the social system iscapable or organising itself toincrease this capacity for learningfrom past disasters for betterfuture protection and to improverisk reduction measures.

Risk- The chance of injury or loss asdefined as a measure of theprobability and severity of anadverse effect to health, property,the environment, or other thingsof value.

Risk analysis- The systematic use ofinformation to identify hazardsand to estimate the chance for,and severity of, injury or loss toindividuals or populations,property, the environment, orother things of value.

Risk assessment- The overall process of riskanalysis and risk evaluation.

Risk communication- Any two-way communicationbetween stakeholders about theexistence, nature, form, severity,or acceptability of risks.

Risk management- The systematic application ofmanagement policies, procedures,and practices to the tasks ofanalysing, evaluating, controlling,and communicating about riskissues.

Risk perception- The significance assigned to risksby stakeholders. This perception isderived from the stakeholders’expressed needs, issues, andconcerns.

Risk scenario- A defined sequence of eventswith an associated frequency andconsequences.

SPREP- South Pacific RegionalEnvironment Program

Stakeholder- Any individual, group, ororganization able to affect, beaffected by, or believe it might beaffected by, a decision or activity.The decision-maker(s) is/are astakeholder(s).

TAR- Third Assessment Report of theIPCC

UNFCCC- United Nations FrameworkConvention on Climate Change

Valued Ecosystem Component- Any part of the environmentthat is considered important bythe proponent, public, scientistsor government involved in theassessment process. Importancemay be determined on the basis ofcultural values or scientificconcern.

Vulnerability - The degree to which a system issusceptible to, or unable to copewith, adverse effects of climatechange, including climatevariability and extremes.Vulnerability is the function ofthe character, magnitude, and rateof climate variation to which asystem is exposed, its sensitivity,and its adaptive capacity. (ClimateChange 2001: Impacts, Adaptationand Vulnerability. IPCC TAR, 2001)

SECTION 1Introduction

1.0 BackgroundThis guide has been developed toassist CARICOM and SPREPcountry practitioners in theintegration of climate changeadaptation into theenvironmental impact assessment(EIA) process. The guidancedocument constitutes oneelement of the Guide to theIntegration of Natural Hazards intothe Environmental Impact AssessmentProcess that has been developed incollaboration with the CaribbeanDevelopment Bank (CDB) underthe Disaster Mitigation Facilityfor the Caribbean (DMFC)program.

The methodology employed inthis Guide is based, in part on theWorld Bank’s EIA procedures (seeEnvironmental AssessmentSourcebook) in addition to commonelements of environmental impactassessment processes andprocedures employed in theCaribbean region as summarisedin Review of Environmental ImpactAssessment in Selected Countries ofLatin-America and the Caribbean(Inter-American DevelopmentBank, 2001). The Guide is to beused in conjunction with otherdecision-making “tools” includingregional climate scenarios andmodels, and the Risk-ManagementGuide for Climate Change AdaptationDecision-Making (ACCC, July 2003).

1.1 Why Do We Need aGuide on the Integrationof Climate Change intothe EIA Process?

One of the major environmentalchallenges facing Caribbean andSouth Pacific island and coastaldeveloping States is that of globalclimate change (see Section 1.3.)

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and increased climate variabilitythat affects many aspects ofisland/coastal life and economy -human settlements, agriculture,water availability, health, thecoastal zone, tourism and, ofcourse, the frequency and severityof disasters from storms, floodsand droughts. The importance ofthe Environmental ImpactAssessment (EIA) process as aneffective instrument for climatechange adaptation planning andmanagement has been identifiedin the UUnniitteedd NNaattiioonnss FFrraammeewwoorrkkCCoonnvveennttiioonn oonn CClliimmaattee CChhaannggee(UNFCCC). However, it has alsobeen recognized thatenvironmental impactassessments cannot adequatelyserve as an instrument foradaptation planning andmanagement since currently,assessments do not involve theconsideration of climate changeimpacts on proposed activities.Under existing EIA processes theimpacts of climate change on thesustainability of construction orother long-term infrastructureprojects are not assessed.Additionally, ecological and socio-economic evaluations undertakenduring environmental assessmentdo not require a review of climatechange impacts and possibleadaptation programs, and noevaluation is undertaken as towhether institutional programsenhance adaptive capabilities.

1.2 Climate Variability andChange – The Challengefor the EIA Process

Many projects for which EIA’s arerequired have relatively long lifespans, twenty to hundreds ofyears. This includes theconstruction of buildings,

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highways, port and harbourfacilities and physicalinfrastructure of all kinds. Thus, itis important to consider howchanging climate will influencethe project and how the projectwill affect nearby resources,society and environment underfuture conditions, not just thoseof the present.

One of the most compellingreasons for considering climatechange in EIAs is that everyproject is designed with someassumption about the climate inwhich it will function. Theconventional way is to assumethat the climate of the past is areliable guide to the future. This isno longer a good assumption. Thusdesign criteria must be based onprobable future climate, that isclimate change over the life of theproject. Accordingly,Environmental ImpactAssessments of projects andactivities should consider not onlythe effects on emissions orsequestration of greenhouse gases,(e.g., energy or reforestation

projects), but also the impacts ofimpending climate-related changeson the project or activity. Inaddition to an evaluation of theimpacts of the project on theenvironment – which is the traditionalpractice – the EIA process must alsoconsider the impacts of the ever-changing environment on the project.

1.3 What is Climate Change?Global, regional and local climatehas changed greatly over millionsof years. Scientific evidencehighlights that for the last severalthousand years, to about 1900,our planet has enjoyed relativelystable climates, with only veryminor changes in the global meantemperature.

However, the advent of theindustrial revolution in the 1800’s,and removal of vast areas offorests for agriculture and humanhabitation, has unbalanced thecomplex natural climate system.In particular, burning of fossilfuels, and to a lesser extent loss offorests, have resulted in a rapidincrease of what are termed

“greenhouse gases” that also occurnaturally in the atmosphere,particularly carbon dioxide.Greenhouse gases have the effectof reducing the amount of energyearth sends back to space,although allowing the usualamount of energy from the sun topenetrate to the earth. Thiscombination warms the surface ofthe planet. (see Figure 2)

The basic understanding of howhuman activities can warm theearth in this way has been knownsince the late 1800’s (Fourier,Arrhenius). However, it is only inthe past few decades that highspeed computers have permittedthe mathematical modelling ofthe climate system (air, ocean,vegetation, land and watersurfaces) to provide reasonablequantitative estimates of changesin temperature, precipitation,storms and other climatic factorswith past and projected increasesin greenhouse gases. In addition,it has become clear that the globalwarming of the past 50 years,particularly the 30 years to 2000

Source: School of Environmental Sciences, Climate Reseach Unit, University of East Anglia, Norwich, United Kingdom, 1999.

FIGURE 1 - Trends in Global Average Surface Temperatures

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AD has been caused by thesehuman activities. The carbondioxide equivalent concentrationin the atmosphere (convertingother greenhouse gases to CO2equivalent and adding to CO2itself) at the turn of this centurywere the highest in earth’satmosphere in the past 250,000years and some ice coremeasurements suggest in the past20 million years.

FIGURE 2 - The Greenhouse Effect

1.4 What are the LikelyImpacts from GlobalClimate Change?

Several United Nations agencies,led by the World MeteorologicalOrganization (WMO) and theUnited Nations EnvironmentProgram (UNEP), in response torequests from many countries,established in 1988 theIntergovernmental Panel onClimate Change (IPCC). ThisPanel was charged withsummarising from the extensiveavailable scientific literature, thestate of knowledge ofanthropogenic climate change.

IPCC has produced threeauthoritative main reports (in1990, 1995 and 2001) involvingseveral thousand climate scientistsand economists from more than70 countries. These main findingshave been endorsed by theNational Academies of Science of20 countries.

The IPCC identifies what isknown, what is only partiallyknown, and what are the mainremaining uncertainties. Oneuncertainty in projecting futureclimate lies in estimating thefuture emissions of greenhousegases which depend on future

4Souce: IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

FIGURE 4 - Indicators of the Human Influence on the Atmosphere During the Industrial Era

FIGURE 3 - Variations of the Earth’s Surface Temperature

Souce: IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

energy sources, economic andpopulation growth rates – all ofwhich are uncertain. Thedifferent results from the dozen orso Atmosphere-Ocean GlobalClimate Models lends a seconduncertainty. For a given emissionscenario, the models are fairlyconsistent in amount of warmingprojected, precipitation changesand sea level rise (due to thermalexpansion of sea water andmelting of glaciers), on a globalscale. However, they show muchlarger differences on a regional orlocal scale. These differences aredue to the different ways eachmodel expresses in mathematicalform the many physical chemicaland biological processes involved.The main findings of the mostrecent IPCC Report 2001, are givenin Figure 6.

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consequences would be morecomplicated because impacts onone sector can also affect othersectors indirectly. To assesspotential impacts, it is necessaryto estimate the extent andmagnitude of climate change,especially at the national and locallevels. Although much progresshas been made in understandingthe climate system and climatechange, projections of climatechange and its impacts still

contain many uncertainties,particularly at the regional andlocal levels.

Techniques have been developedto take the global climate modeloutcomes for a given future dateand “downscale” these to aspecific area to provide a range ofestimates of future climaticfactors. Such techniques fall intotwo categories: statistical methodsand dynamical approaches. The

FIGURE 5 - Potential Climate Change Impact

Humanity’s greenhouse gasemissions are expected to leadto climatic changes in the 21st century and beyond.These changes will potentiallyhave wide-ranging effects onthe natural environment aswell as on human societies andeconomies. Scientists havemade estimates of thepotential direct impacts onvarious socio-economic sectors,but in reality the full

FIGURE 6 - IPCC Third Assessment Report (TAR) 2001

KEY MESSAGESGlobal average sea level rosebetween 0.1 and 0.2 m lastcentury and is projected to rise 0.1to 0.9 m this century (see TAR forfull range of emission Scenarios)Northern Hemisphere temperatureincrease last century was largestin past 1000 years. There is new and strongerevidence that most of the warmingobserved over the last 50 years isattributable to human activities.Human influences will continue tochange atmospheric compositionthroughout the 21st century.Globally, average surfacetemperatures are projected toincrease by 1.4 to 5.80C from 1990to 2100 (higher than 1.0 to 3.50Cpredicted in the SecondAssessment Report).

For Caribbean and Atlantic islandsan increase of 2.60C (ensemblemean of models) in averagesurface temperatures areprojected.There is “very high” or “high”confidence that some extremeevents have increased infrequency and intensity and willcontinue to do so.A diverse set of physical andbiological systems have alreadybeen affected by climate change.Changes in climate extremes(especially hurricanes) have majorconsequences.Coastal areas will experienceincreased flooding, erosion, loss ofwetlands and mangroves, andsea-water intrusion into estuariesand aquifers. Future sea surfacewarming will increase stress on

coral reefs and frequency ofmarine-transmitted diseases. Adaptation measures can lessenvulnerability.A key misconception is that alladaptation is a task carried out bygovernments. For Small IslandStates long exposed to climatichazards, adaptation shouldincorporate traditional copingskills.A large portfolio of energyefficiency and non-fossil energytechnologies are available –Renewable energy in Small IslandStates is a “Win-Win” strategy.Costs of implementing the KyotoProtocol in OECD countries areestimated at 0.2 to 2% of GDPwithout emission trading, but onlyhalf that with a full trading regime.

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latter attempts to build regionalmodels “nested” in the globalmodels to better take into account

1.5 What are the LikelyImpacts from GlobalClimate Change in theCaribbean Region?

Although there is much climaticvariation between localities, somefactors and characteristics arecommon to most small islands –mainly as a result of their insularnature and tropical location. Forinstance, it is generally true that:

The ocean exerts a stronginfluence on the climate ofislands.topographic, water-land interface

and other factors that affect localand regional climate. However, the

FIGURE 7 - C02 Concentration, Temperature and Sea-LevelContinue to Rise Long After Emissions areReduced

science to do this well is stillevolving and as of 2002, statisticaltechniques are generally moreuseful.

Souce: IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

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750 to 1400 mm in Grenada to1270 to 7620 in Dominica. Highinter-annual and sub-decadalvariations of tropical storms areevident.

Most small islands are too smallto be identified with a grid pointin global climate models. Thislimits the ability to generatefuture projections of climatechange for individual smallislands. However, some projectedeffects are regionally robust.Surface air temperatures can beexpected to rise in the future.Because oceans are expected towarm in the future, albeit at aslower rate than land masses,small island states are alsoexpected to experience moderatewarming.2

Models do not all agree on thefuture changes to annualprecipitation in the Caribbean,although most show drying

conditions. Recent records showtrends towards increasingprecipitation in the northernCaribbean, for example northernBahamian Islands; and less in thesouthern Bahamas and in mostcountries as far south asSuriname. Evaporation generallyrises with temperature, but alsodepends on other factorsincluding vapour pressure, soevaporation rates will varyspatially and temporally withinthe region, but less so thanrainfall. Several models project anincrease in precipitation intensity andflash flooding for latitudes withinwhich many small island statesare located. This effect has alreadybeen observed over the past fewdecades in the Caribbean. Increasesin the incidence of drought also havebeen projected. Sea level rise varieswith factors such as the rate ofwarming, the efficiency of oceancirculation, and local atmospheric

Temperatures now are usuallyhigh, with mean annual valuesof 20oC and above.Diurnal and seasonal variationsin temperature are low, withranges around 5oC and less.Small island Caribbean statesare strongly affected by tropicalstorms and hurricanes.

Average annual temperatures haveincreased by at least 0.5oC overthe period 1900-1995, and in someCaribbean countries by 1oC ormore. Seasonal temperature dataare consistent with the higheraverage temperatures. Rainfalldata for the same period showmuch greater seasonal, inter-annual, and decadal-scalevariability, although a decliningtrend in average annual rainfall –on the order of 250 mm in somelocations – is evident.1 Annualrainfall varies considerably acrossthe CARICOM countries from

1Nurse, et al., 1998, p. 339.2Nurse, et al., 1998, p. 340.

FIGURE 8 - What Causes the Sea - Level to Change?

Souce: IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

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3References: CHARM and Caribbean Risk Management Climate Change Guidelines for Adaption Desision Making (2003)

effects, and currents, and hence isnot uniform.

Recognizing that while there isgeneral agreement on trends andglobal effects, there will always beuncertainty in projections offuture climate for a givenlocation, “risk management”techniques have been developedwith climate change applicationsspecifically in mind.3 Thesetechniques systematize theprocess of considering thevulnerability of a location orproject to changing climate andrelated rising sea level, andassessing adaptation options inlight of a range of climateoutcomes and their probability ofoccurrence within a given timeperiod. It is recommended thatthese techniques, originallydeveloped for businesses andmodified for climate changeconsiderations, be used in thedevelopment of project relevantclimate scenarios for any EIAprocess (see Section 2). A summaryof climate change scenarios forthe Caribbean region is providedin Annex 1.

1.6 What are the LikelyImpacts from Climateand Sea-level Variabilityand Change in the SouthPacific Island States?4

Pacific Island Countries arealready experiencing the adverseeffects of a changing climate, andare the first to be forced to adapt.Most countries are alreadyexperiencing disruptive changesconsistent with many of theanticipated consequences of global

climate change, includingextensive coastal erosion,droughts, coral bleaching, morewidespread and frequentoccurrence of mosquito-bornediseases, and higher sea levelsmaking some soils too saline forcultivation of traditional crops.Rice yields have been shown todecline with higher temperatures.

While much attention is focusedon global warming causinggradual, long-term changes inaverage conditions, the mostimmediate and more significantimpacts are likely to arise fromchanges in the nature orfrequency of extreme events (e.g.,flooding, tropical cyclones, stormsurges) and climatic variability(e.g., drought, storm windsaccelerating coastal erosion).Present problems resulting fromincreasing demand for water, andfrom current patterns of extremeevents and climate variability,dwarf those which will resultfrom climate change over the nextfew decades in all but a fewcountries in the Pacific IslandsRegion. Examination of theimpacts of climate extremes andvariability, including thoseassociated with seasonal andinter-annual phenomena, offersvaluable insight into the likelypotential effects of climate changeon agriculture. Given that in thePacific Islands Region most goodquality land is already underintense cultivation, increasingpopulation numbers combinedwith climate change impacts willthreaten food security, as will theincreasing reliance on importedfood and the consequential

vulnerability to short-term breaksin supply and world foodshortages due to climate events.

Even though terrestrial andfreshwater ecosystems have beenable to evolve and adapt over timeto both climate extremes andvariability, and to humanpressures, there are indicationsthat changes in climaticconditions coupled withunsustainable use will renderterrestrial and freshwaterecosystems increasinglyvulnerable in the longer term.Many of the likely impacts ofclimate change on coastal zonesand marine ecosystems are alreadyfamiliar to island populations, andsome have experience in copingwith them. However, in mostcountries and for most coastaland marine areas, coping withclimate extremes and variabilitywill be of more significance overthe next few decades.

The impacts of climate variabilityand change on human health aremost likely to be adverse innature, and frequently will arisethrough initial impacts onecosystems, infrastructure, theeconomy and social services. Forexample, economic hardshipresulting from the diverse butcollective impacts of climatevariability and change may wellbecome one of the key factorsexacerbating and perpetuatingimpacts on human health. Povertyis likely to contribute to most ifnot all health impacts and to thereduced capacity and ability ofindividuals and communities tocope with them.

4Adapted from John, H., Mimura, N., Campbell, J., Fifita, S., Koshy, K., McLean, R.F., Nakalevu, T. Nunn, P., and N. Wet. 2002. Climate Variability and Changeand Sea-level Rise in the Pacific Islands Region. A Resource Book for Policy and Decision Makers, Educators and other Stakeholders. South Pacific Regional EnvironmentProgramme and the Ministry of the Environment, Japan. Marfleet Printing, Apia, Samoa.

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1.8 Do All Impacts fromClimate ChangeConstitute a “NaturalHazard”?

It must be recognized that not allclimate change impacts can betermed “hazards” – for examplechanges to ecosystem biodiversityand impacts on the resilience ofnatural ecosystems. All climatechange related impacts – whethernatural hazards or not – should beconsidered as part of the EIAprocess (e.g., the spread ofinfectious disease in humans,animals and plants). Additionally,special consideration should begiven to the issue of “cumulativeimpacts” (see Section 3). Forexample, several seasons ofdrought followed by an incidentof heavy rain can result inflooding, landslides and otherhazards.

The growing “urbanness” andcentralization of Pacific Islandpopulations is increasing thelikelihood of adverse impacts fromclimate variability and change,while repairs and rehabilitationfor rural populations after anextreme event may well receivedecreasing priority. The possibilityof more extreme events such astropical cyclones and stormsurges, coupled with currentlyprojected rates of sea-level rise andflooding, places criticalinfrastructure such as health andsocial services, airports, portfacilities, roads, vital utilities suchas power and water, coastal

protection structures and tourismfacilities at increased risk. A highisland such as Viti Levu (Fiji)could experience average annualeconomic losses of $US23 to 52million by 2050, equivalent to 2to 4% of Fiji’s GDP. A low groupof islands, such as Tarawa atoll,could face average annualdamages of $US8 to 16 million by2050, as compared to a currentgross domestic product (GDP) of$US47 million. These indicativecosts could be considerably higherin individual years when extremeevents such as cyclones, droughtsor significant storm surges occur.

FIGURE 9 - Potentially Hazardous Natural PhenomenaAssociated with Climate Change and ClimateVariability

ATMOSPHERIC Increases in Ultra Violet (U.V.) penetration with ozone layer depletion Increased (or variation in) temperatureHailstorms and intense rainsLightningTropical storms (wind and rain) and Hurricanes

HYDROLOGICINCREASED (OR VARIABILITY IN) PRECIPITATION

Flooding (river and coastal) Erosion and sedimentationStorm surges

DECREASED (OR VARIABILITY IN) PRECIPITATIONDesertificationSalinizationDrought Wildfire (Brush, Forest, Grass, Savannah)

HYDRO-METEOROLOGICALDebris avalanchesIncreased erosionLandslides and Rock fallsSubmarine slidesSubsidence

SEA-LEVEL RISECoastal InundationIncreased Storm Surge Impacts

1.7 What Natural “Hazards”are Associated withClimate Change?

As noted above, the natural“hazards” associated with climatechange include floods anddroughts associated withchanging rainfall patterns, coastalinundation associated with sea-level rise, and impacts fromextreme events (storms andhurricanes). A summary ofpotentially hazardous naturalphenomena associated withclimate change are summarised inFigure 9. An explanation of someof the key natural hazardsassociated with climate changeand climate variability is providedin Annex 2.

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1.9 Climate Change HazardManagement,Development Planningand EIAs

It is recognised that climatechange considerations need to beintegrated into all elements ofnatural hazard management, andthat to be effective suchconsiderations should become anintegral part of the physicalplanning process. It is importantin particular to distinguishbetween the “EIA Process” and the“Physical Planning Process” sinceboth terms have differentmeanings. The term “EIA process”covers a variety of tools includingproject level EIAs, Strategic andSectoral EIAs, country level E.A,

Environmental Audits andAppraisals. The “Physical PlanningProcess” covers the whole gamutfrom policy, legislative andadministrative framework toproject specific elements withinthat framework which willinclude project specific EIA’s usedas a planning tool. Both processeswill offer different entry pointsfor natural hazard vulnerability/climate change risk assessmentsthat will therefore determine thenature, level and degree ofvulnerability and risk assessmentto be carried out. This Guide islimited to the integration of climatechange considerations into the EIAprocess.

The following section of theGuide outlines the processwhereby climate changeconsiderations and adaptationplanning can be integrated intothe EIA process withinCARICOM and SPREP countries.The Guide has attempted toaddress the needs of diverse users(e.g., EIA administrators, EIAconsultants, developmentfinancial institutions, commercialbanks, private developers) who allcome to the table with differentneeds, and have differentflexibility in how they will, or canutilise the Guide to prepare soundprojects.

SECTION 2Intergrating

Climate ChangeAdaptation into

EIAs

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2.1 Climate Change and theEIA Process

Every project is designed withsome assumption about theclimate in which it will function.The conventional way is to assumethat the climate of the past is areliable guide to the future. This is nolonger a good assumption. Thusdesign criteria must be based onprobable future climate, that isclimate change over the life of theproject. Accordingly,Environmental ImpactAssessments of projects andactivities should consider not onlythe effects of the project on theenvironment, but also the impacts ofimpending climate-related changes onthe project or activity (i.e., theimpacts of the environment onthe project). Potential risks can beidentified for each of thesesectors. To determine the risks towhich sectors are exposed it isnecessary to examine theirvulnerability to specific hazards.

2.0 Overview of the EIAProcess

The purpose of an environmentalimpact assessment (EIA) is toensure that the developmentoptions under consideration areenvironmentally sound andsustainable, and that anyenvironmental consequences arerecognized early in the projectcycle and taken into account inproject design (World Bank). EIAsidentify ways of improvingprojects environmentally, andminimizing, mitigating, orcompensating for adverse impacts.The process also provides a formalmechanism for inter-agencycoordination and for addressingconcerns of affected groups andlocal non-governmentalorganizations (NGOs).

EIA is a process whose breadth,depth, and type of analysisdepend on the nature, scale, andpotential environmental impact ofthe proposed project, and whenconsidering the anticipatedimpacts of climate change, theppootteennttiiaall eennvviirroonnmmeennttaall iimmppaacctt oonn tthheepprrooppoosseedd pprroojjeecctt. EIA should takeinto account the naturalenvironment (air, water, andland), and changes to the naturalenvironment brought about byclimate change; human healthand safety and anticipatedimpacts to human health andsafety from climate change; socialaspects (involuntary resettlement,indigenous peoples, and culturalproperty) and anticipated impactsfrom climate change; andtransboundary and globalenvironmental aspects.

The EIA process evaluates aproject’s potential environmentalrisks and impacts in its area of

influence; identifies and evaluatespotential impacts from theproposed project on the project’sarea of influence; examinesproject alternatives; identifiesways of improving projectselection, siting, planning, design,and implementation bypreventing, minimizing,mitigating, or compensating foradverse environmental impacts,and enhancing positive impacts;and includes the process ofmitigating and managing adverseenvironmental impactsthroughout projectimplementation. The key steps inthe environmental impactassessment process are outlined inFigure 10.

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Potential hazards expected fromclimate variability and climatechange include:

Increased surface temperatures

Decreased precipitation

More frequent and intensestorms1

Changing weather patterns

Sea level rise

Changes in ultra-violetpenetration levels.

Among the sectors with greatestvulnerability are:

Tourism (temperature changesin region and abroad, sea levelrise, water availability)

Coastal area infrastructure (sealevel rise, more severe storms)

Housing and otherinfrastructure (heavier, shortduration rains and storms,water availability)

Agriculture (highertemperatures, changes inrainfall, more CO2 inatmosphere)

Water resources (greaterevaporation, changes in rainfall,increasing demands in warmerclimate, salt water intrusionwith sea level rise

Human Health (greater risks ofvector borne and water bornediseases, greater heat stress, andexposure to ultra-violetradiation)

Biodiversity and NaturalEcosystems (greater risks of lossof vulnerable coastal andmarine ecosystems includingwetlands and coral reefs,increased risk of desertificationand loss of biodiversity, impacton migratory species).

The integration of climate changeadaptation considerations shouldbe undertaken within the existingenvironmental impact assessment

framework, with littlemodification to existing processesand procedures. When consideringthe impacts of climate change, the

1 IPCC projects that tropical cyclones (hurricanes) are unlikely to increase in frequency, but the most severe ones would increase in intensity in a warmerworld. For heavy rain events, an increase in frequency is also projected.

FIGURE 10 - Key Steps in the Environmental ImpactAssessment (EIA) Process (Courtesy - EcoEngineering Consultants Limited (Trinidad and Tobago) 2003.)

EIA process evaluates a project’spotential environmental risks andimpacts in its area of influence;identifies and evaluates potentialimpacts from climate change onthe project’s area of influence;examines project alternatives;identifies ways of improvingproject selection, siting, planning,design, and implementation bypreventing, minimizing,mitigating, or compensating foradverse environmental impactsand anticipated adverse impactsfrom climate change, andenhancing positive impacts; andincludes the process of mitigatingand managing adverseenvironmental impacts andanticipated adverse impacts fromclimate change throughoutproject implementation. Inaddressing anticipated adverseimpacts from climate change, theimplementation of appropriateadaptation planning andmanagement mechanisms is

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favoured. Figure 11 highlights themodifications required to existingenvironmental impact assessmentprocedures to address climatechange adaptation considerations.

FIGURE 11 - Modifications to the Environment Impact Assessment Process to Address Climate Change Adaptation Considerations

2.2 Step 1: Define Project and Alternatives

Objective: Clearly describe the proposed project, identify alternatives toproject and approaches to implementation.

Information needs:Project information: plan(s), design(s), costs, expected benefitsProject scope: spatial and temporal boundariesSite information: location, environment, hazards, development andsocial setting

Process: Prepare project description and information on the site(s)identified, as per requirements of review agency, with natural hazard-relatedinformation added, as necessary.

Responsibility: Client/proponent

The following steps should beundertaken to effectively ensurethat climate change adaptationconsiderations are integrated intoexisting EIA processes.

Adapted from EIA Flowchart provided by courtesy EcoEngineering Consultants Limited (Trinidad and Tobago) 2003.

Climate change adaptation components of this step in the EIA

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Project

Design criteria (e.g., buildingcode used)

Project site

Soils, GeologySlopes anddrainageLocation relative tocoast, riversHazard or damagehistory

Project scope

Timeframe forconstruction, useand abandonment

2.3 Step 2: Preliminary Vulnerability Assessment (Qualitative Analysis)

Objective: Preliminary identification of significant hazards and hazardimpacts to inform EIA screening and scoping (steps 3 and 4).

Information needs:Prevalent hazards in project's zone of influence-frequency,distribution and magnitude. Climate scenarios. Factors influencinghazard occurrence. Disaster history.Characteristics of the project-the site, structures and processesUnderstanding of vulnerability to hazard impacts.

Process:Using existing information and expert knowledge, estimatefrequency or probability of hazard events [initial hazardidentification]Estimate severity of impacts on project components and zone ofinfluence [initial assessment of vulnerability

An application for an EIA shouldpresent detailed informationconcerning the nature, scope,setting (legal, financial,institutional) and timing for theproposed project or activity. Theproject/activity description shouldcontain sufficient information toframe the EIA investigation sothat time and resources areconcentrated in areas wherepotential impacts are mostsignificant. The description of theproject/activity should identifyenvironmental or social issues ofconcern, including any naturalhazards that may affect projectdesign, construction,implementation, or abandonment,and outline any alternatives thatmay be technically feasible. At thevery least, all impact assessmentsshould consider the ‘no project’alternative (i.e., what the impactswould be if the project were notcarried out). Any concerns orissues affecting local communitiesshould be identified.

The initial project informationform is intended to provide theEIA reviewing agency withsufficient information tounderstand the range andcomplexity of environmentalissues raised by the project andthe project site. Typically, the firstuse of the information providedon a project information form isto determine if an EIA is required.Consequently, the content ofsuch forms is generally derivedfrom the enabling authority orlegislation for environmentalassessment. While descriptions ofthe project and the project site arecentral components of all suchforms, additional details may berequired to review the potentialnatural hazard impacts orvulnerabilities.

Many projects for which EIAs arerequired have relatively long lifespans, twenty to hundreds ofyears. This includes theconstruction of buildings,highways, port and harbourfacilities and physicalinfrastructure of all kinds. Thus, itis important to consider howchanging climate will influencethe project and how the projectwill affect nearby resources,

society and environment underfuture climatic conditions, notjust those of the present.

But what future climateconditions should be examinedand prepared for? These issuesneed to be addressed during theinitial project screening process.During initial screening of theproject, the project team shouldidentify and evaluate potential

At a minimum, the following information should be included in the initialproject definition and description:

Climate change adaptation component of this step in the EIA

15

impacts from climate change onthe project’s area of influence. Atthis stage a Qualitative Analysisshould be undertaken – that isone that is subjective and basedon best professional judgement.The following questions should beconsidered during screening, andanswered more fully duringproject evaluation/preparation:

1) What are the relevant climatechange impacts that may affectthe project?Effective integration of climatechange considerations requiresthat project-relevant short-medium- and long-term climatechange impacts be identifiedusing appropriate climateprediction models and climatechange “scenarios.” A scenariois a coherent, internallyconsistent, and plausibledescription of a possible futurestate of the world. Scenarioscommonly are required inclimate change impact,adaptation, and vulnerabilityassessments to providealternative views of futureconditions considered likely toinfluence a given system oractivity (for more detailedexplanation of climate changescenarios and modelling seeAnnex 3). A distinction is madebetween climate scenarios –which describe the forcingfactor of focal interest to theIntergovernmental Panel onClimate Change (IPCC) – andnon-climatic scenarios, whichprovide socio-economic andenvironmental “context”within which climate forcingoperates. Most assessments ofthe impacts of future climatechange are based on resultsfrom impact models that rely

on qualitative climate and non-climatic scenarios as inputs(IPCC 2001).

Estimating project-relevantfuture climate and sea level isusually a two-step process.First, Global Climate Models(GCM’s) which are based onwell known equations ofphysics describing the climatesystem that have been testedagainst current and pastclimate conditions, and areused to project 20, 50 or 80years into the future. Theprojections are based onassumptions about rates ofincrease in human-induced“greenhouse gases.” Secondly,results for the location inquestion of several of thesemodel projections for a suitablefuture time are statisticallyanalyzed, and a range of futureclimate and sea level scenariosdetermined. Global modelresults can be “down-scaled” toa particular location bystatistical means and in somecases through use of limited –area climate models “nested”within the GCMs.

There are two main causes ofuncertainty in such analyses.The first lies in theassumptions about futuregreenhouse gas emissions andatmospheric concentrations,which depend upon rates ofglobal population and economicgrowth, on future mixes ofenergy supplies, and on climatechange policies – all difficult topredict. The second lies in thedifferences between the severalmodels and the differing waysin which they simulate thecomplex natural processes of

the atmosphere-ocean-vegetation system. The rangeof values is usually notexcessive, however, since thereis considerable convergence onthese two main factorsamongst the informed scientificcommunity.

For the purpose of undertakingthe initial screening it isrecommended that climatechange projections by the IPCC(see Section 1.4.) be used inconjunction with projectionsfor the Caribbean and SouthPacific regions (see Section 1.5,Section 1.6 and Annex 1). Inundertaking an EIA, it isunlikely that project-relevantscenarios can be generated in allinstances in view of the statusof climate modelling at thenational and regional levels.Accordingly, a “risk-management” approach shouldbe utilised to developappropriate climate changescenarios that are relevant forthe life-span of the proposedproject. Risk ManagementGuidelines2 such as thosedeveloped for climate change inthe Caribbean provide asystematic procedure for takinginto account the uncertaintiesinvolved (see Annex 4).

In addition, the use of the rangeof outcomes, rather than a singleprojection, can give the EIAanalyst the opportunity ofjudging the probable ranges ofimpacts on the project – and ofthe project on future resources,society and environment in theaffected area. In order to reducecosts associated with developingmultiple “project relevant” climatechange scenarios it is suggested

2 These Guidelines were developed under the CIDA sponsored ACCC project and based in part on those of the Canadian Standards Association.

FIGURE 12 - Sensitivity, Adaptability and VulnerabilityThe potential impacts of climate changeon the environment and socio-economicsystems can be understood in terms ofsensitivity, adaptability and vulnerabilityof the system. Both the magnitude andthe rate of climate change are importantin determining the sensitivity,adaptability and vulnerability of asystem. Although much progress has

been made, there are largeuncertainties in predicting regionalclimate changes, future conditions in theabsence of climate change, or to whatdegree climate will become morevariable. All these factors are importantin predicting the potential impacts ofclimate change. There are largeuncertainties in our understanding of

some key ecological processes. Currentability is also limited in predictingregional-scale climate changes, futureconditions in the absence of climatechange, or to what degree climate willbecome more variable. All these factorsare important in predicting the potentialimpacts of climate change.

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that the initial evaluation identifyproject and ecosystem componentsthat constitute high risk/impactfrom climate change which wouldwarrant further quantificationthrough the development of projectrelevant climate change scenariosfor identified high risks. Low tomedium risks/impacts would notrequire further quantification.

It is suggested that the processfor “Estimating Frequency orProbability of an Event” and“Estimating Severity of theImpacts” as articulated in theCaribbean Risk ManagementTechniques for Climate Change(2003) be used to identifyproject and ecosystemcomponents at high

risk/impact from climatechange that would warrantfurther quantification throughthe development of projectrelevant climate changescenarios for identified highrisks (see Figures 13 and 14).

In undertaking the preliminaryevaluation for the project, the

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FIGURE 13 - Estimating Frequency or Probability of an EventExtract from Caribbean Risk Management Techniques for Climate Change (ACCC 2003).

TABLE 1: Frequency/Probability Rating

Hazard Very Unlikely toHappen

OccasionalOccurrence

ModeratelyFrequent

Occurs Often Virtually Certainto Occur

Hazards fromrisk scenario(deal with eachseparately)

Not likely tooccur during theplanning period

May occursometime but notoften during theplanning period

Likely to occur atleast once duringthe planningperiod

Likely to occurseveral timesduring theplanning period

Happens oftenand will happenagain during theplanning period

The purpose of this particular exerciseis to determine the relative frequencywith which the various risk scenarioscan be expected to occur over a givenperiod of time. [Typically this can bebased on historical data that can be hadfrom a number of sources. These caninclude regional and/or country specificscientific studies and research papers,records of extra-regional countries andareas, and insurance company records,

to name a few.] Such data shouldindicate how often particular riskscenarios have occurred in the past.This is used to form a judgement as tothe likelihood of their occurrence in thefuture, assuming a stable unchangingworld. Using climate scenariosdeveloped by the CCCCC, a similarprocess should be undertaken todetermine probable risk scenariosarising from future climate in a changing

world. If there is no easy or readyaccess to credible data there are otherstatistical techniques that can be usedas part of the iterative process.

The “Frequency or Probability Rating”shown below and the “Risk AssessmentMatrix” discussed in Step 4 can be usedto define the magnitude of potentialrisks.

project team needs to becognisant of the fact thatvulnerability variessubstantially by sector andregion within countries andalso by socio-economic groups.The use of the riskmanagement process will assistin the identification of highrisk/impact projects thatrequired detailed study and thedevelopment of project-relevant“downscaled” climate scenarios.For example, such a process will

determine the relevantvulnerability of major capitalexpenditure on physicalinfrastructure such as seadefence structure whichbecause of its long physical lifeand its ability to influencefuture land use pattern maypresent a higher vulnerability(risk/impact) than theconstruction of a secondaryschool in a flood plain or a 50-100 room hotel in a coastallocation.

To evaluate and review the impactsof climate change on any project aspart of the screening process, theindependent EIA expert or advisorypanel should be skilled in climatechange modelling and thedevelopment of project-relevantclimate models using a riskmanagement approach.

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FIGURE 14 - Estimating Severity of the ImpactsExtract from Caribbean Risk Management Techniques for Climate Change (ACCC 2003).

TABLE 1: Direct Impact Rating Matrix

Displace-ment

Very low

Low

Moderate

Major

Extreme

Impact

Severity

Social Factors Economic Factors Environmental Factors

Health Loss ofLivelihood

CulturalAspects

PropertyLoss

FinancialLoss

GDPImpact

Air Water Land Eco-systems

Estimating severity usually focuses ondetermining the potential health,property damage, environmental orfinancial impacts of risk scenarios. Inthe case of commercial enterprises,financial impacts are most importantwhen dealing with a profit-maximizing

concern. However, in the context ofclimate change adaptation, the workteam can choose to include non-financial criteria such as the loss of life,effect on GDP, environmental impacts orany other relevant measure that issuited to best expressing the potential

impacts in measurable terms. The riskmanagement team develops an impactseverity rating scale appropriate to therisk scenarios such as the table shownbelow.

2) What, if any, project elementsare likely to be affectedsignificantly by climatechange?This question should beaddressed initially as part of thescreening process using theprocess for “Estimating Frequencyor Probability of an Event” and“Estimating Severity of theImpacts” as articulated in theCaribbean Risk Management

Techniques for Climate Change(2003). This evaluation willidentify project and ecosystemcomponents that are at highrisk/impact from climatechange, whereby projects areassigned and appropriate “risk”category A, B, or C. Thisdetermination involves theidentification of key projectelements and projected impactsfrom climate change in and

around the project area ofinfluence. A summary ofanticipated impacts resultingfrom climate change andclimate variability in theCaribbean is provided in Annex 5. An example of theevaluation that should beundertaken during this stage inthe EIA process is provided inFigure 14.

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FIGURE 15 - Example of the evaluation that should be undertaken during this stage in the EIA process

2.4 Step 3: Initial Screening

Objective: Determine, based on information provided, whether: a) theproject is likely to have a significant effect on the environment and b) climatechange impacts are likely to have significant effects on the project, andtherefore require further study.

Information needs: Initial project description and output of preliminaryvulnerability assessment.

Process: Using information from preliminary vulnerability assessment,assign appropriate category based on frequency, probability and severity ofimpacts.

Responsibility: Reviewing agency.

Climate change adaptation components of this step in the EIA

Category C for minimal or no impacts.

At the earliest stage of the projectcycle, the EIA Administrator, withthe project proponent’sconcurrence, assigns the proposedproject to one of three categories(A, B, or C), reflecting thepotential environmental andclimate change risks associatedwith the project.Category A:: A proposed project isclassified as Category A if it ishighly likely to have (i) significantadverse environmental impactsthat are sensitive, diverse, orunprecedented; or (ii) theanticipated short-to mid-termimpacts from climate change arehighly likely to result in significantadverse social, economic,structural or environmentalimpacts. These impacts mayaffect an area broader than thesites or facilities subject tophysical works. An EIA for a

analysis. This may be achievedthrough environmental screeninginto one of three categoriesaccording to the nature andextent of potential climate changeimpacts:

Category A for significant impacts;Category B for limited impacts;

It is essential that potentiallysignificant impacts from climatechange that may affect projectsiting and/or design be identifiedat the beginning of an assessmentthrough the preliminaryevaluation process, and be takeninto account in determining theappropriate type and scope of

Is any water resource managementprogram – including infrastructure –to be significantly impacted bychanges in rainfall patterns,increased evaporation, andreductions in ecosystem resiliencebrought about by climate change?

Is any agricultural reform programlikely to be significantly impacted bychanges in rainfall patterns,reductions in ecosystem resiliencebrought about by climate change,or changes in incidents inagricultural pests and diseasesresulting from climate change?

Is any pollution prevention programor biodiversity conservation

program likely to be significantlyimpacted by reductions inecosystem resilience brought aboutby climate change?

Is any coastal infrastructure to besignificantly impacted by sea-levelrise, increased storm events, orflooding?

What are the social, human health,ecological and economic impactsassociated with damage to anycoastal infrastructure resulting fromsea-level rise, increased stormevents, or flooding?

IN ORDER TO EVALUATEPOTENTIAL FLOOD HAZARDRESULTING FROM CLIMATECHANGE, THE ENVIRONMENTALASSESSMENT TEAM NEEDS TODETERMINE:

What are the likely climate changescenarios for flooding?

How often the floodplain will becovered by water?

How long the floodplain will becovered by water?

At what time of year flooding canbe expected?

Where are the floodplain and flood-prone areas?

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Category A project: (i) examinesthe project’s potential negativeand positive environmentalimpacts, compares them withthose of feasible alternatives(including the “without project”situation), and recommends anymeasures needed to prevent,minimize, mitigate, orcompensate for adverse impactsand improve environmentalperformance; and (ii) identifiesshort-, medium- and long-termclimate change impacts fromappropriate models or climatechange scenarios, evaluates social,economic, structural orenvironmental impacts arisingfrom climate change, identifiesand evaluates appropriateadaptation planning andmanagement mechanisms, andrecommends any measures neededto adapt to (prevent, minimize,mitigate) or compensate foradverse climate change impacts.Category B: A proposed project isclassified as Category B if: (i) itspotential adverse environmentalimpacts on human populations orenvironmentally important areas-including wetlands, forests,grasslands, and other naturalhabitats – are less adverse thanthose of Category A projects, or(ii) the anticipated short- to mid-term impacts from climate changeare likely to result in social,economic, structural orenvironmental impacts that areless adverse than those ofCategory A projects. Theseimpacts are site-specific; few ifany of them are irreversible; andin most cases mitigatory andclimate change adaptationmeasures can be designed morereadily than for Category Aprojects. The scope of EIA for aCategory B project may vary fromproject to project, but it is

narrower than that of Category AEIA (e.g., a “focus report”). Like aCategory A EIA it: (i) examinesthe project’s potential negativeand positive environmentalimpacts and recommends anymeasures needed to prevent,minimize, mitigate, orcompensate for adverse impactsand improve environmentalperformance, and (ii) identifiesshort-, medium- and long-termclimate change impacts fromappropriate models or climatechange scenarios, evaluates social,economic, structural orenvironmental impacts arisingfrom climate change, identifiesand evaluates appropriateadaptation planning andmanagement mechanisms, andrecommends any measures neededto adapt to (prevent, minimize,mitigate) or compensate foradverse climate change impacts.Category C: A proposed project is

classified as Category C if it islikely to have minimal or noadverse environmental impacts, orminimal anticipated short-,medium- or long-term impactsfrom climate change. In suchcircumstances a detailed EIAreport is seldom required.

The EIA Administrator and/or theproject proponent records in theProject Document thatsummarises the projectdescription: a) the keyenvironmental issues (includingany resettlement, indigenouspeoples, and cultural propertyconcerns); b) anticipated project-relevant climate change scenariosin the short- medium-, and long- term; c) the project categoryand the type of EIA needed; d)and proposed consultation withproject-affected groups and localnon-governmental organizations(NGOs), including a preliminaryschedule of consultations.

2.5 Step 4: Scoping (Category A and Category B Study)

Objectives: Identify and agree upon the critical issues to be addressed inthe EIA and the information and analyses required for inclusion in theenvironmental assessment report to determine acceptability and feasibilityof the project.

Information needs:Baseline data on project site, existing detailed hazard maps andassessmentsSignificant hazards and potential impacts on project and zone ofinfluence/ project boundaries identified in screeningInformation on relevant legislation and institutionsClimate change assessments

Process: Identify information needs regarding significant hazards andvulnerabilities. Specify analyses that must be conducted to complete projectassessment. Agree on the terms of reference/scope of work for the impactassessment.

Responsibility: Reviewing agency.

Climate change adaptation components of this step in the EIA

21

In instances where climate changeimpacts are likely to result insignificant impacts, the EIA teamidentifies and prioritizessignificant impacts forassessment. This initial stage inthe EIA process (termed.“scoping”) should includeagreement on the followingaspects:

PPrroojjeecctt DDeessccrriippttiioonn aanndd DDeeffiinniittiioonnooff SSppaattiiaall BBoouunnddaarriieess - thedefinition of the project and itsarea of influence;

DDeeffiinniittiioonn ooff OOtthheerr PPrroojjeeccttBBoouunnddaarriieess - the identification oftemporal boundaries affecting

project activities (including timeframe for climate change impactsthat are to be evaluated), and theidentification of regulatory,administrative and customaryaspects affecting the project orproject activities

BBaasseelliinnee EEnnvviirroonnmmeennttaall SSeettttiinngg -data to be collected andmonitored for the identification ofecological, climatic, cultural andsocial features relevant to thespatial and temporal boundariesof project activities;

PPrroojjeecctt-RReelleevvaanntt CClliimmaattee MMooddeellss -the identification of appropriateclimate predictions relevant to the

FIGURE 16 - Linkages Between Climate Change and Other Environmental Issues

Source: IPCC International Panel on Climate Change

spatial and temporal boundariesof project activities;

PPrroojjeecctt-RReelleevvaanntt CClliimmaattee CChhaannggeeSScceennaarriiooss ((IImmppaaccttss)) - projectrelevant “downscaled” climatechange scenarios (for highrisk/impact valued ecosystemcomponents) relevant to theproposed project or development -as identified in Step 2. Asapplicable to the project, theidentification of climate changeimpacts should be assessed inregard to:a) Biodiversity and Wildlifeb) Ecosystems and their Goods

and Services (Agriculture,

regarded as “confidential” or“sensitive”. However, to assist in anypublic consultation process it isessential that project-relevant climatechange scenarios be agreed upon andmade available to the public togetherwith other EIA documentation.

2.6 Step 5 - Assessment andEvaluation (Category Aand Category B Study)

Upon the completion of scoping,an assessment and evaluation(EIA study) should then beundertaken of:

- the impacts of the project andproject activities on theexisting environment (i.e. inthe absence of climate changeconsiderations);

- the impacts of the project andproject activities on social andeconomic development;

Forestry, Fisheries,Aquaculture, Coastal Zonesand Marine Ecosystems)

c) Hydrology and WaterResources

d) Soils and Land Resources

e) Human Settlements (includingbuildings and structures),Energy and Industry

f) Insurance and Other FinancialServices

g) Human Health

h) Socio/economic Development.

A key factor affecting publicacceptability of and support forany proposed development is thelevel and nature of publicconsultation that has beenundertaken and the amount ofpublic input obtained in theproject design. Scoping normallyrequires public consultation todetermine the utility valueattached to affected ecosystemfeatures. The EIA process shouldensure transparency in alldecision-making, provide timely,adequate and accurateinformation to the public, andprovide access to the public to allrelevant documents that are notconfidential. There will beinstances (especially with privatesector development) whereinformation may not be fullydisclosed and is protected by lawto ensure confidentiality in orderto protect a legitimate economicinterest, protect location ofvaluable cultural property,intellectual property rights, issuesaffecting international relationsand national defense. Wherevulnerable groups are affected inthese instances, specially designedmechanisms will be required toregulate and control access tocertain information that may be

Objective: Fully assess and characterise significant natural hazards, theirpotential impact on the project and potential effects on those hazardsintroduced by the project.

Information needs: Baseline dataHazard studies and maps indicating past incidence (caution re:climate change historical data)Factors influencing hazard occurrenceClimate change scenarios

Process:1. Establish baseline

2. Predict impacts

3. Evaluate management, mitigation and adaptation options

4. Select preferred alternative

5. Determine feasibility

Responsibility: Client/Proponent to undertake assessment, includingdetailed vulnerability assessment (Quantitative Analysis), using specialists(natural hazards, engineering, social), as appropriate.

Climate change adaptation components of this step in the EIA22

- the impacts of the project andproject activities oncommunity values.

This evaluation constitutes theusual assessment processundertaken for an EIA, and servesto establish the assessment“baseline” against which climatechange considerations will beevaluated. Once the baselineassessment has been undertaken,an assessment and evaluationshould be undertaken of theimpacts of climate change on theproject and project activities,which should include anassessment and evaluation ofidentified climate change impacts(see Step 2) relevant to:a) Biodiversity and Wildlifeb) Ecosystems and their Goods

and Services (Agriculture,Forestry, Fisheries,

23

Aquaculture, Coastal Zonesand Marine Ecosystems)

c) Hydrology and WaterResources

d) Soils and Land Resourcese) Human Settlements (including

buildings and structures),Energy and Industry

f) Insurance and Other FinancialServices

g) Human Healthh) Socio/economic Development.

A summary of anticipatedimpacts on the above sectorsresulting from climate change andclimate variability in theCaribbean Region is provided inAnnex 5.

At this stage in the process adetailed Quantitative Analysis (seeFigure 17) should be undertaken

that uses environmental variablesrepresented by numbers or ranges,often accomplished by numericalmodelling or statistical analysis. A“model” of the Terms of Referencefor undertaking a detailedvulnerability assessment ofclimate change is provided in Annex 6. A sample Terms ofReference for undertaking aCategory A assessment isprovided in Annex 7 and anexample of climate changeimpacts that affect the abovesectors in St. Lucia is included inFigure 19.

The detailed vulnerabilityassessment may require thedevelopment of project relevantclimate change scenarios (i.e.,“downscaled” scenarios) andshould also address “cumulative

FIGURE 17 - Detailed Climate Change Impacts Evaluation

impacts” (see Section 3) and resultin:

the identification of impactsthat need to be addressed;

a quantification of theirsignificance; and

a determination as to whetherappropriate management,mitigation or adaptationmeasures be establishedthrough an environmentalmanagement plan (includingthe climate change adaptationprogram - see Step 6 below).The management, mitigationand adaptation options shouldemphasis re-design andrelocation as viable options.

The assessment should also beundertaken on a scenario wherethere is no project (i.e., status

quo), in other words, how wouldthe natural environment behavein the absence of human-madeintervention?

Costs associated with appropriatemanagement, mitigation andadaptation measures hasimplications for project viability.Accordingly, the assessment shouldinclude an evaluation of the economicimplications of such measures toprovide a meaningful indicator todecision-makers. This economicevaluation should include acosts/benefits analysis of alternativemanagement, mitigation andadaptation options (see Step 7).

2.7 Step 6: EnvironmentalManagement Plan(Climate ChangeAdaptation Plan)

Environmental management plansthat are developed as part of theEIA process are not designed tonormally address the impacts ofclimate change. Accordingly, aClimate Change Adaptation Program(see Figure 21) should be developedas part of the EIA process toaddress significant impacts fromclimate change that will affect theproject (including projectactivities and project area ofinfluence) and define adaptationmeasures that will be establishedto address climate change impactson the following (as relevant tothe project and project activities):a) Biodiversity and Wildlifeb) Ecosystems and their Goods

and Services (Agriculture,Forestry, Fisheries, Aquaculture,Coastal Zones and MarineEcosystems)

c) Hydrology and Water Resourcesd) Soils and Land Resourcese) Human Settlements (including

buildings and structures),Energy and Industry

f) Insurance and Other FinancialServices

g) Human Healthh) Socio/economic Development.Examples of climate changeadaptation measures forbiodiversity and wildlife, humansettlement, water resources,agriculture and food security areprovided in Figure 21 and 22.

Adaptation planning andmanagement regimes have beenbroken down into four principaltypes of strategy for adapting tothe effects of climate change,namely:

Strategy A - Prevention of Loss,Tolerating Loss (Enhancing theResilience of Natural Systems),and Spreading/Sharing Loss

Prevention of loss involvesanticipatory actions to reducethe susceptibility of anexposure unit to the impacts ofclimate.

Tolerating loss (includesenhancing the resilience ofnatural systems) involvessituations where adverseimpacts are accepted in theshort term because they can beabsorbed by the exposure unitwithout long-term damage.

Spreading or sharing lossinvolves action whichdistribute the burden of impactover a larger region orpopulation beyond thosedirectly affected by theclimatic event.

Strategy B - Changing Use orActivity

Changing use or activity involvesa switch of activity or resourceuse to adjust to the adverse as

well as the positiveconsequences of climatechange.

Strategy C - RelocationRelocation involves situationswhere the preservation of anactivity is considered moreimportant than its location,and migration occurs to areasthat are more suitable under thechanged climate.

Strategy D - RestorationRestoration aims to restore asystem to its original conditionfollowing damage ormodification due to climate.

The climate change adaptationprogram should cover: plannedadaptation; managementmechanisms (principally policies,laws, institutional structures);and autonomous adaptationstrategies. Any Climate ChangeAdaptation Program that isdeveloped as part of an EIAshould be consistent with theNational Adaptation Policyformulated pursuant to therequirements of the United NationsFramework Convention on ClimateChange (UNFCCC) (see Figure 21).The Climate Change AdaptationProgram should draw uponfindings from analysis of policy,legal, and institutional issues aswell as the analysis of climatechange impacts and thedetermination of appropriatealternatives for adaptationplanning and management. TheClimate Change Adaptation Programshould be developed in consultationand collaboration with NationalClimate Change Focal Point(established under the UnitedNations Framework Convention onClimate Change) and affectedcommunities.

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25

FIGURE 18 - Types of Adaption to Climate Change

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FIGURE 19 - Impacts on Sectors in St. Lucia Taken from St. Lucia National Adaptation Policy and Action Plan (2002) - developed under the World Bank/GEF Funded Caribbean Planning forAdaptation to Climate Change (CPACC) project.

a) Biodiversity and WildlifeChanges in the composition ofnatural biodiversity (marine andterrestrial) due to changingclimatic, hydrological and edaphicconditions;Increased vulnerability ofthreatened ecosystems due thesame conditions;Alterations in plant-plant, animal-animal and plant-animalassociations.

d) Hydrology and WaterResourcesChanges in temporal and spatialdistribution due to increased climatevariability and occurrence of severeevents such as cyclones anddroughts;Contamination of ground water dueto salt-water intrusion arising fromsea level rise;Sedimentation of dams andreservoirs due to increased soilerosion arising from the greaterfrequency of extreme rainfall events;Water shortages due to increaseddrought.

e) Soils and Land ResourcesChanges in the composition ofnatural vegetation due to changingclimatic, hydrological and edaphicconditions;Increased soil fragility and hence,erosion.;Alterations in plant-plant, animal-animal and plant-animal associations.

f) Human Settlements, Energy andIndustryDamage to coastal property andinfrastructure due to storm surges;Damage to houses, businesses andother properties due to increasedintensity and frequency of cyclonicevents.

g) Insurance and Other FinancialServicesThe effects of catastrophic eventssuch as severe hurricane damage onlending institutions, insurers, re-insurers and property owners;

i) Socio/economic DevelopmentDamage to and destruction ofhotels and other tourisminfrastructure located in coastalareas susceptible to storm surges,erosion and sea-level rise;

Loss of economic returns due tothe possible changes in or loss ofcoral reefs, beaches, naturalforests and other natural resourcesand attractions;

Reduced visitor arrivals as result ofa higher frequency of extremeweather events such as hurricanes,as well as reduced inducement fortravel as a result of highertemperatures in traditional tourismcentres;

Negative changes in water andfood arising from changes in prec-ipitation levels and distribution, lossof forest cover and related factors.

b) Ecosystems and their Goodsand Services - AgricultureIncreased water demand andreduced water supply due toincreased temperatures;Increased occurrence ofagricultural pests;Reduced production due tomodified agro-climatic regimes;Accelerated soil erosion andincreased salinisation.

c) Coastal Zones and MarineEcosystemsInundation of coral reefs,seagrass beds and mangroveswamps as a result of sea levelrise;Erosion of beaches and coastallands due to sea level rise andchanging coastal processes;Loss of fishery production due toincreased sea temperatures andsea level rise;Fish kills and coral die-off due toincreased sea watertemperatures.

The diversion of financialresources from productiveinvestment to restorative andactivities.

h) Human HealthThe increased incidence ofmosquito borne and other vectorborne diseases (such as denguefever) as higher temperaturesfavour the proliferation ofmosquitoes and other diseasecarriers;

A higher occurrence of heat andstress related illnesses andconditions;

An increase in water relateddiseases especially water bornediseases, particularly followingextreme rainfall events.

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FIGURE 20 - Adaptation Planning and Management

Article 4 of the United Nations FrameworkConvention on Climate Change outlinescommitments to be undertaken by partiessigning the Convention, which include thefollowing:

“a) Formulate, implement, publish andregularly update national, and whereappropriate, regional programmescontaining...measures to facilitateadequate adaptation to climatechange;”

“e) Cooperate in preparing foradaptation to the impacts of climatechange; develop and elaborateappropriate and integrated plans forcoastal zone management, waterresources and agriculture, and for theprotection and rehabilitation of areas...affected by droughts anddesertification, as well as floods;”

“f) Take climate change considerationsinto account, to the extent feasible, intheir relevant social, economic andenvironmental policies and actions, andemploy appropriate methods, forexample impact assessments,formulated and determinednationally, with a view to minimizingadverse effects on the economy, onpublic health and on the quality ofthe environment, of projects ormeasures undertaken by them tomitigate or adapt to climate change.”

According to the Intergovernmental Panelon Climate Change (IPCC) the concepttermed “adaptation” -

“Is concerned with responses to both theadverse and positive effects of climatechange. It refers to any adjustment –whether positive, reactive, oranticipatory – that can respond toanticipated or actual consequencesassociated with climate change. It thusimplicitly recognizes that future climatechange will occur and must beaccommodated in policy” (IPCC, 1996,p. 831).

There are various ways to classify anddistinguish between adaptation strategies.

First, depending on the timing, goal, andmotive of its implementation, adaptationcan be either reactive or anticipatory.Reactive adaptation occurs after the initialimpacts of climate change have becomemanifested, while anticipatory adaptationtakes place before impacts are apparent.Second, adaptation may be considered tobe autonomous or planned. Autonomousadaptation occurs without intervention ofan informed decision-maker, whileplanned adaptation requires informed andstrategic actions. Most natural and socio-economic systems will undergoautonomous adjustments in response tochanging climatic conditions. Theseadjustments are likely to occur both togradual changes in climate and to moredrastic events. Planned adaptation is theresult of a strategic policy decision basedon the awareness that conditions havechanged or are about to change, and thataction is needed to return to or maintain adesired state. This planned adaptation canbe both reactive and anticipatory, whileautonomous adaptation is always reactive.

Human and ecological systems adapt tonegative effects of climate change througha combination of technological andbehavioural adjustments. Adaptation refersto those adjustments in individual, groupand institutional behaviour in order toreduce society’s vulnerabilities to climate,and thus reduce its impacts, and mayinclude activities or actions undertaken inorder to accommodate, cope with or reducethe adverse effects of climate change. Insome cases, adaptation can also includethose activities undertaken in order tobenefit from the effects of climate change.Adaptation to climate change includesthose activities that take place over andabove normal environmental (i.e.,autonomous) adaptation. It should also berecognized that a series of positiveincremental changes can result incumulative reductions in the vulnerability ofa coastal area to the impacts of climatechange.

The suitability of a particular adaptationstrategy is highly sensitive to local

conditions, priorities and choices. Plannedadaptation involves preparing institutionalstructures (policies, laws, organizationalcapacity), developing expertise,implementing appropriate managementmechanisms, and building knowledge.These are relative slow processes whichrequire adequate institutional capacity, butto be effective there should be no delay intheir initiation. Such anticipatory approacheswill greatly reduce the potential cost offorced ad hoc adaptation responses at alater date when loss of resources and poorlyplanned development will limit the range ofadaptation options available. The long leadtime associated with climate changeresponse requires planned adaptivestrategies to explicitly confront the largeuncertainties relating to the nature, scopeand intensity of climate change impacts.

Adaptation measures should be viewed asactions that will result in benefitsindependent of climate change. Whatdoes adaptation look like in practice? Theview has been expressed (R. Pielke, 1998) that three guidingprinciples exist:

a) Adaptation proceeds in a procedurallyrational fashion – that is adaptation isnot a “response” but instead a portfolioof responses;

b) Adaptation is a shared responsibility;and

c) Adaptation links the documented needsof today with the expected problems oftomorrow. Effective adaptation planningand management requires that policymakers benefit from a more systematicunderstanding of the impact of climate(and climate change) on the human andnatural environment, are provided withtools to evaluate the costs and benefitsof adaptation, and establish effectivepolicy instruments and managementmechanisms to reduce vulnerabilities toclimate change.

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FIGURE 21 - Climate Change Adaptation Program to Address Impacts on Select Sectors in St. LuciaTaken from St. Lucia National Adaptation Policy and Action Plan (2002) - developed under the World Bank/GEF Funded Caribbean Planning forAdaptation to Climate Change (CPACC) project.

a) Biodiversity and WildlifeExpand and strengthen coastalmonitoring and data collectionactivities in order to improve decisionmaking on biodiversity protection andconservation;

Undertake a national assessment ofnational biodiversity and resources atrisk from climate change;

Adopt short medium and long-termmeasures to protect coastal landsand to increase the resilience ofcoastal ecosystems and resources;such measures may includeconstruction of coastal defencestructures, enforcement of setbacksand restoration of coastal wetlands;

Promote the restoration of damagedor destroyed coastal resources andcoastal ecosystems where possibleand technically feasible;

Develop a comprehensive nationalland use and management plan,which inter alia, incorporates climatechange concerns and which, basedupon such concerns, makesprescriptions regarding the location ofcoastal developments;

Identify and promote alternativefishery and resource use activities(e.g., mariculture) where impacts on

ecosystems and natural resourcespreclude the continuation oftraditional activities;

Foster increased awareness andknowledge on the part of the generalpublic regarding climate changeimpacts on the coastal and marineenvironment.

b) Human SettlementUndertake a comprehensiveassessment of human settlementsand related infrastructure at risk fromthe effects of climate change, theresults thereof will be incorporatedinto national land use and disastermanagement plans;

Develop a comprehensive nationalland use and management plan,which inter alia, incorporates climatechange concerns and which, basedupon such concerns, makesprescriptions regarding the location offuture settlements and urbandevelopment without compromisingwater supply and other suchrequisites for the sustainability ofsettlements;

Develop and implement a plan for therelocation or protection of settlementsand infrastructure at risk from theeffects of climate change;

Ensure the incorporation of climatechange considerations into existing orproposed national emergency plans;

Promote the development andenforcement of a building code whichaddresses climate changeconsiderations including hurricaneresistance; energy/heat efficiency andflood resistance;

Ensure that national infrastructurestandards (jetties, roads, bridges,etc.) are adequate to withstand theeffects of climate change;

Integrate climate changeconsiderations into the physicalplanning process including theimplementation of EnvironmentalImpact Assessment requirements;

Implement fiscal measures whereappropriate to encourage theadoption of building codes and otherrelevant measures;

Foster increased public awareness ofclimate change and its effects onhuman settlements;

Encourage the financial sector todevelop mechanisms aimed atassisting human settlements affectedby climate change.

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FIGURE 22 - Potential Adaptation Measures to Address Climate Change Impacts on WaterResources, Agriculture and Food Security

WATER RESOURCESA range of potential adaptation measures have been identified for reducing water demand, increasing availablesupply, reducing flood damages, improved monitoring and research. These are itemized in the following lists 5.1 to5.5 drawn from work under ACCC Component 6 on Adaptation in the Water Sector.

Adaptation OptionsAdaptation options that might be considered and costed fall into four main categories: demand management, supplymanagement, flood damage reduction, monitoring and studies

5.1 Demand Management

Re-assess water demand in light of population and climate changes.

Develop more effective resource availability plans based on permitting systems.

Where possible introduce water metering and charges by usage, taking into account in some way theabsolute needs of poorer members of the community.

Introduce water and sewage recycling measures.

Offer rewards for demonstrated water conservation measures and for not exceeding permits.

Undertake public information campaigns on water conservation.

Improve efficiency of irrigation systems.

5.2 Supply Management

Adopt watershed management plan for key water supply basins taking into account climate change –with vegetation, agriculture, permitting, etc., to be directed towards protecting water quantity and quality.

Protect water recharge areas for important aquifers to preserve quality and quantity.

Consider expansion and improved treatment of water supply systems for communities as required.

Increase, when practical, storage capacities of water supply structures for resilience to greater variationsand extremes.

Implement programs of rainfall capture (on roofs for example) for water supplies.

As a last resort consider desalination options – preferably solar powered.

5.3 Flood Damage Reduction

In critical areas, develop flood plain maps, including climate change projections, and zoning or fiscalmeasures to limit development in flood plains.

Encourage and develop detention and filtration ponds.

Limit, where possible, the extent of impervious (paved) areas.

Reconsider design criteria for drainage and flood control facilities to take into account climate change todate and projections, and begin implementation of necessary modifications.

Review warning and preparedness systems to ensure their effectiveness in a changing climate.

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5.4 Monitoring and Studies

Review monitoring systems for water levels, flows, water quality rainfall and temperatures to ensure thattrends can be detected, and that sudden episodes (pollution, flood) are documented.

Determine more accurately water use (evapotranspiration) of various crops for consideration in watershedplanning, considering climate change implications for those uses.

Undertake analyses of trends and extremes from historical and current data and make them widelyavailable. Review and document the changes in weather events (precipitation, floods, storms, hurricaneriver flow and other hydrological data) with a view to identifying the most vulnerable components of thewater sector and providing unbiased information that can be easily used by all decision makers in thewater sector.

Seek to improve short-term weather and seasonal climate forecasting and their use to improve short-termadaptive capacity

Finally, it must be emphasized that the adaptation options above must be considered as just a check-list from whichthe most promising can be analyzed in more detail. In addition, experienced water mangers in the Caribbean willundoubtedly have additional options they might wish to consider.

5.5 Some General Guidelines

In considering the above potential adaptation options and their likely value and costs, the following generalconsiderations should be kept in mind.

Options are likely to be more acceptable in those cases where they are wise measures at present,without significant climate change (“no regrets”) and where there are co-benefits.

Incentives rather than penalties are usually more acceptable in changing behaviour.

Low risk/low tech options are usually more effective than complex technologies.

Use of total cost-accounting approach when evaluating options is recommended but adopt timelines thatspan generations.

It is wise to pursue proactive planning to be ready when public and political interests are prepared to act(e.g., right after a flood, a pollution incident, etc.).

Adopt step-by-step plans that show progress along the way. This is more readily accepted than longrange goals alone.

A network of water professionals, and other stakeholders (government officials, researchers, educators,community members, civil society, private sector, etc.) could be established as a mechanism for dialogueand action to address the impacts related to water and climate.

Routine updating and incorporation of principles for modern water management, as well as improvementsin technology where feasible.

Identification of hot spots or critical areas based on levels of vulnerability.

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AGRICULTURE AND FOOD SECURITY

A range of potential adaptation measures have been identified for reducing climate change impacts on theagricultural sector, and on food security in the CARICOM region. Adaptation measures for consideration inagriculture and food security, as developed under ACCC Component 8, are as follows.

Adaptation Options

With generally drier conditions but increased frequency of intense rains, higher temperatures, rising sea level, andmore severe hurricanes, a number of adaptation measures should be taken in the Caribbean. It will be noted thatmany of the proposed adaptation options would be valuable in light of presently experienced variations in climate,and for other non-climate-related reasons. Anthropogenic climate change provides the rationale for, or an additionalimportant reason for, undertaking these measures.

At Farm Level (with National Support)

i) Adopt water conservation measures such as rainwater harvesting and management, drip irrigationtechniques, mulching.

ii) Undertake soil conservation measures for erosion prevention (high-intensity rains) – such asterracing and contour plowing on slopes, grassed waterways, etc.

iii) Plant shelterbelts of fast growing trees (e.g., lucena) for protection against strong winds, shade forfarm animals, and conserving soil moisture.

iv) Increase the adoption of nutrient management plans and organic farming to minimize chemicalpollution of fish and coastal waters in increasing runoff events.

v) Improve construction and design of poultry and other farm animal barns to reduce impacts ofhigher outdoor temperature and humidity.

Note: To achieve significant adoption of the above measures at the farm level will require extensionprograms and incentives by national governments.

For Fisheries

vi) Design and construct infrastructure, boats, gear, landing sites, wharves, etc., to be more resilient insevere storms. Artisanal fishers will be required to go further to sea as coastal and coral reefrelated fisheries are impacted by over-fishing and climate change.

vii) Resilience of fisheries communities should be increased by social organization, such as formingcooperatives.

viii) To partially supplant near-shore fisheries, greater use of mariculture should be introduced but inways that do not cause significant environmental or ecosystem damage.

ix) To ensure greater resilience of coral reefs and related fisheries to bleaching with high water –temperature episodes, reduce other stresses such as those from land-based pollution, anchoringon corals, etc.

x) Adopt sea weed harvesting for nutritional products as alternative to or to augment coastal fishing.

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National Levelxi) Consider feasibility of contributory insurance programs operated by governments for crop losses, and

losses of fisheries infrastructure due to natural hazards.

xii) Move towards greater agricultural diversification to reduce vulnerability to overseas market changes,and to increase export earnings, through niche crops such as spices, and through organic farming.

xiii) Explore opportunities to use more endogenous animal feed, e.g., fish wastes, nutrient-rich pastures.

xiv) Uncover traditional knowledge on planting and harvesting in light of climate conditions, anddisseminate this knowledge more broadly.

xv) In light of social importance and importance of fish for good nutrition, give higher profile ingovernment to support of fisheries activities in light of climate and other stresses.

xvi) Improve food storage facilities and processing to minimize spoilage under warmer climate.

xvii) Exploit agricultural wastes for non-food products which can reduce greenhouse gas emissions, e.g.,ethanol, co-generation.

xviii) In national land-use planning, protect prime agricultural land from encroachment to help ensure foodsecurity, and designate hazard lands (floodplains, unstable slopes) for protected or no development.Use current soils knowledge and climate information to encourage most-suitable crops and croppingpractices in various parts of each country.

Note: Some projects which also reduce greenhouse gas emissions may be eligible for capital funding fromoverseas through the clean development mechanism CDM.

Regionalxix) Disseminate knowledge on techniques to make optimum use in agriculture and fisheries of seasonal

forecasts of climate and sea surface temperature and of early warming systems. Improve quality anddissemination to local level of seasonal predictions in appropriate format.

xx) Reduce barriers to agricultural trade within the region to reduce dependency on imported foods fromoverseas. This could be especially effective for corn and rice.

xxi) Seek greater diversity of sources of imported foods to avoid over-dependence on one source whichmay be affected by climate change. Consider the possibility of regional purchasing policies for majorimported foods and products.

xxii) Encourage greater exchange of appropriate agriculture and food technologies in a warming climatebetween countries of various language groups in the Caribbean.

xxiii) Develop seed banks for important species and strains of plants which could be destroyed inhurricanes or increased pest infestations.

Research and Developmentxxiv) Greater understanding through monitoring and research needed of relationship of fish stocks to ocean

water temperatures and currents for better prediction of climate change effects.

xxv) Further development and exploration of varieties adapted for salt, heat and drought tolerance.

xxvi) Better understanding of susceptibility of agriculture soils to erosion, with increased high-intensity rains,and dissemination of erosion reduction techniques.

xxvii) Determine temperature and moisture sensitivity of crop pests and diseases and devise integrated pestmanagement strategies that will be effective in a changing climate.

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2.8 Step 7: Cost-BenefitAnalysis

A cost benefit-analysis should beundertaken to determine theeconomic viability of proposedadaptation measures (see Figure 21). A cost-benefit analysisis a conceptual framework for theevaluation of investment projects.It differs from a straightforwardfinancial appraisal in that itconsiders all gains (benefits) andlosses (costs) regardless of towhom they accrue (althoughusually confined to the residentsof any country). A benefit is thenany gain in “utility”; a cost is anyloss of utility as measured by the“opportunity cost” of theproposed project. In practice,many benefits or damages are notreadily estimable in monetaryterms (e.g., destruction ofcommunity ties). Costs will bemeasured in terms of the actualmoney costs of the project.1

2.9 Step 8: MonitoringProgram

The EIA team should develop the“Climate Change MonitoringProgram” that is established aspart of the climate changeadaptation program. Such aprogram should be designed tomonitor: a) climate patterns affecting the

project area; b) climate change impacts on key

social, economic andenvironmental indicators.

The results from the monitoringprogram will assist in thedevelopment of a database toguide, evaluate and refineadaptation measures and will berequired for project evaluationactivities.

2.10 Step 9: Prepare Final Report

Objective: Finalize a project design, which incorporates management,mitigation and adaptation measures necessary to address natural hazardvulnerabilities and risks identification. Appropriate monitoring programmesoutlined.

Process:

Detailed study report finalized with the results of the hazard andvulnerability assessments.

Identified management, mitigation and adaptation measuresincorporated into project design and description.

Monitoring programmes developed and incorporated.

Responsibility:Proponent prepares final report, which includes necessary management,mitigation and adaptation measures.

Climate change adaptation components of this step in the EIA

The purpose of the final EIAreport is to convey the results ofthe various analyses conductedduring the assessment and todescribe the preferred projectalternative, which has beenupdated to include themanagement, mitigation andadaptation measures necessary toaddress the identified naturalhazard risks.

In addition, the final report mustoutline a monitoring program totrack actual impacts. Within thecontext of natural hazards, thismonitoring program is critical toensure that the actual hazardimpacts experienced by theproject do not differ significantlyfrom the impacts that wereestimated in the EIA analyses.The program should be designedto monitor, within the projectvicinity:

natural hazards affecting thearea;

natural hazard impacts on keysocial, economic andenvironmental indicators; and

impacts of the project onnatural hazards.

The results from the monitoringprogram will assist in identifyingand addressing unanticipatedimpacts, in the development of adatabase to guide, evaluate andrefine management, mitigationand adaptation measures and inevaluating project activities. Themonitoring program should beincorporated into an enforceablemonitoring agreement.

1Source - Environmental Evaluation of Environmental Impacts: A Workbook, Asian Development Bank, 1996

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FIGURE 23 - Costs and Benefits of Building Resilient Infrastructure: the Case of Port Zante inSt. Kitts & Nevis

Infrastructure in hazard-prone countriesneeds to be designed and built so that itcan withstand the environmental forcesthat are expected to affect it over itslifetime. Higher design standards andbetter construction will reduce thepotential for damage from extremeevents. How high these design and

construction standards should be setwill be determined by willingness to pay,and must be weighed against theacceptable level of expected damage,or risk. This can be accomplished with acost-benefit analysis of different designsduring project appraisal, where the costof the hazard mitigation options is

compared against the benefits in termsof net present value of avoided damageover the project’s lifetime. In simplerterms, such an analysis would settle theclassic argument: is it worth investingmore up-front to build a stronger facility,or can we afford to take a chance onthe rare occurrence of a disaster?

Port Zante on the island of St. Kitts was nearingcompletion when it was struckby hurricane Georges inSeptember 1999, and sufferedsignificant damage. Repairsand reconstruction were wellunderway when the Port wasstruck a second time, byhurricane Lenny in Novemberof 2000, again with significantdamage as a result. In bothcases, damage was causedprimarily by the action of stormwaves, enhanced by arelatively small storm surge.

How big are the losses suffered from both hurricanes?

Information provided by the PortAuthority of St. Kitts & Nevis puts theoriginal cost of construction of PortZante at US$22.5M. Hurricane Georgesstruck when the project was nearlycomplete, causing estimated damagesof US$10.1M. Payment on insuranceclaims for material damage andbusiness interruption amounted toUS$8.1M. Reconstruction was startedshortly afterwards, but was interruptedand by Hurricane Lenny. Damage fromthat event amounted to US$14.1M, withthe insurance paying out US$11.7M.

The cost of reconstruction followingLenny, which is scheduled to becompleted by October 2002, isestimated at US$26.2M.

No concrete information was providedon the amount spent on reconstructionfor the period between HurricanesGeorges and Lenny, but an estimate ofUS$4.0M was considered acceptable.Consequently, the government of St.Kitts & Nevis will have spent a total ofUS$32.9M on construction andreconstruction, net of insurancereceipts. This amounts to US$10.4M

more than the original constructioncost, not counting the insurancepremium payments. In addition, there isthe loss of revenue and contributions tothe national economy that Port Zantecould have made had it not been underreconstruction during four years. It isestimated that the Port could haveattracted an additional 50 vessels peryear, representing around US$0.3M indocking and landing fees, and at leastUS$2.0M in expenditures in the localeconomy by passengers and crew.

Photo provided by Jan Vermeiren(OAS)

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A project appraisal of the naturalhazard components of an EIAmust confirm that:

all potentially significanthazards, as identified in theEIA scoping, have beenanalyzed using appropriatemethodologies;

Objective: Determine viability and acceptability of project againstestablished criteria.

Process: Technical review by responsible authority against establishedcriteria.Approval or rejection of project.Responsibility: CDB or responsible authority (national-level).

Climate change adaptation components of this step in the EIA

2.11 Step 10: Project Appraisal

appropriate and sufficientmanagement, mitigationand/or adaptation measureshave been identified andincorporated into projectdesign for all potentiallysignificant impacts identifiedin the detailed hazard andvulnerability assessments; and

What could have been done to avoid the losses?

Good practice in building port facilities inthe Caribbean is to design thestructures to withstand the 1-in-50-yearstorm. The pier in Plymouth, Montserrathad a similar exposure to hurricanesGeorges and Lenny as the piers in PortZante. It was built in 1993 with a designcapable of withstanding the 50-yearwave and has not suffered any damageto date. No information could beobtained on the design standard used

for the original construction of PortZante or the reconstruction afterHurricane Georges. The latestreconstruction after Hurricane Luis is ledby Novaport, and reportedly wasdesigned for a significant wave height ofapproximately 5.3m.

High waves are the principal cause ofdamage to Caribbean port facilities andsea defences. The peak significantwave height at the location of Port

Zante was estimated at 7.0m forhurricane Georges and 6.6m forhurricane Lenny1. These estimates arewithin the range corresponding to a 50-year wave for the same location2. Ifthe facility had been designed and builtfrom the outset to withstand a 50-yearwave, it is highly unlikely that it wouldhave suffered significant damage fromeither Hurricanes Georges or Lenny.

What would it have cost to design for a higher standard?

To answer this question accurately, onewould have to carry out a thoroughreview of the actual designspecifications and original constructiondocuments. This would require somefunding, which was not available at the

time of this simple exercise.Nevertheless, experience from similarprojects throughout the region, andconsultations with marine designengineers, put this cost increase in the10 to 15% range, or around US$3.0M.

This amount is less than one third of thenet additional cost for rebuilding theport, and only slightly more than theyearly income a fully operational PortZante would have generated. Doing itright the first time definitely pays.

Jan C. VermeirenUnit for Sustainable Development and Environment, Organization of American States Washington, May 20021 Results of a numerical model simulation of hurricanes Georges and Lenny carried out by Watson Technical Consulting for the OAS, 2001. 2 The 50-year significant wave height for the location of Port Zante is 6.0m MLE, or 8.9m at the 90% projection limit. See: http://cdcm.eng.uwi.tt This site operated by the

University of the West Indies faculty of Engineering allows the user to obtain location-specific estimates for wind, wave and surge hazards for selected return periods.

it is technically, financially andadministratively feasible toimplement the necessarynatural hazard riskmanagement measures in theproposed project.

A sample project appraisal/reviewchecklist that includes naturalhazard considerations is includedin Annex 8.

2.12 Step 11: Implementationand Monitoring

The project proponent isresponsible for ensuring that theproject is developed in accordancewith the provisions of the“Environmental ManagementPlan,” “Climate ChangeAdaptation Program” and“Climate Change Monitoring

Program” that comprise part ofthe EIA. The EIA Administratorshall ensure that regular reportsare submitted by the projectproponent outlining the results ofany monitoring that has beenundertaken. The EIA

Administrator should also consultwith the National ClimateChange Focal Point (establishedunder the United NationsFramework Convention onClimate Change) to:

a) monitor any changes inclimate that may impact uponproject implementation; and

b) provide guidance to the projectproponent on any changesthat may be required to themonitoring program.

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SECTION 3Cumulative

Effects*

3.0 IntroductionA conventional project and site-specific approach toenvironmental impact assessmenthas its limitations when assessingpotential cumulative climatechange impacts or effects. This isbecause the impact of any singleclimate change event may beconsidered insignificant whenassessed in isolation, but may besignificant when evaluated in thecontext of the combined effect ofall reasonably foreseeable futureclimate change events that mayimpact on the project/activity inquestion. For this reason, theexplicit assessment of cumulativeeffects is considered essential tothe integration of climate changeadaptation into theenvironmental impact assessmentprocess. Although cumulativeimpacts can result from eithermultiple development and/orclimate change impacts over spaceand time, the primary focus ofthis section will be on cumulativeclimate change impacts and theirinteractions.

3.1 Cumulative EffectsDefined

Cumulative effects are changes tothe environment that are causedby an action/event incombination with other past,present and future human actionsand events. A cumulative effectsassessment is an assessment ofthose effects. In practice, theassessment of cumulative climatechange effects requiresconsideration of some conceptsthat are not always found in

*Adapted from “Cumulative Effects Assessment in Environmental Assessment.” EnvironmentalAssessment Guidelines. Asian Development Bank (ADB). 2003, and Cumulative Effects AssessmentPractitioners Guide, Canadian Environmental Assessment Agency. 1999.

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conventional approaches followedin environmental impactassessments. Specifically,cumulative effects assessments aretypically expected to:

assess effects over a larger (i.e.,“regional”) area that may crossjurisdictional boundaries[includes effects due to naturalperturbations affectingenvironmental componentsand human actions]; assess effects during a longerperiod of time into the future; consider effects on ValuedEcosystem Components(VECs) due to interactionswith other actions, and notjust the effects of the singleproject under review; include other past, existing andfuture (e.g., reasonablyforeseeable) actions and events;and evaluate significance of otherthan just local, direct effects(e.g., climate change effects ontrade and tourism).

Many environmental impactassessments have focused on alocal scale in which only the“footprint” or area covered byeach action’s component isconsidered. Some environmentalimpact assessments also considerthe combined effects of variouscomponents together (e.g., coastaldevelopment, shore-frontprotection, and impacts on coastalecosystems). A cumulative effectsassessment further enlarges thescale of the assessment. For thepractitioner, the challenge isdetermining how large an areaaround the action should be

assessed, how long in time, andhow to practically assess the oftencomplex interactions among theactions or events. In all otherways, cumulative effectsassessment is fundamentally thesame as environmental impactassessments and, therefore, oftenrelies on established EIA practice.

3.2 Cumulative ClimateChange EffectsAssessment and theEnvironmental ImpactAssessment Process

Cumulative effects generally referto impacts that are additive orinteractive (synergistic) in natureand result from multiple activitiesover time, including impacts fromthe project/activity that is thesubject of the environmentalimpact assessment. Anassessment of such effects is acritical element when addressingclimate change considerations inview of the diversity of impacts(e.g., changes in precipitation,temperature, frequency ofextreme events, etc.) and theprotracted time horizon thatmust be considered.

In the context of climate change,it must be recognised thatcumulative effects:

i) are caused by the aggregate ofpast, present and future eventsacting upon the natural andhuman environment as alteredby ongoing natural andanthropogenic activities;

ii) are the total effect, includingboth direct (e.g., sea-level rise)and indirect effects (coastalflooding arising from sea-levelrise) on a given resource,ecosystem and humancommunity;

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iii) need to be analysed in termsof the specific resource,ecosystem, and humancommunity being affected;

iv) cannot be practically analysedbeyond a reasonable boundary– the list of climate changeeffects must focus on thosethat are meaningful and thatoccur within a practical timeframe;

v) may result from theaccumulation of similar

impacts (e.g., several years ofdrought) or the synergisticinteraction of differentimpacts (e.g., sea-level rise,flooding from increasedprecipitation, and increasedstorm surge accompanyinghurricane activity);

vi) will last for many yearsbeyond the life of the project;

vii) should be assessed in terms ofthe capacity of the affectedresource, ecosystem, and

FIGURE 24 - Examples of Cumulative Climate Change Effects

Atmosphere: combined SO2 and NOx emissions with increasedtemperature and heavy rains resulting in an increase in human healthimpacts (acid deposition, ozone-smog episodes).

Hydrology and Water Resources: combined reductions in flow volumesfrom changes in precipitation and increased evaporation from highertemperatures, that are aggravated within a particular river basin due toirrigation, municipal industrial water withdrawals and land use changes.

Ecosystems and their Goods and Services: coral reef mortality within agiven marine management unit from increased water temperatures, anddeteriorating resilience of the coastal ecosystem to ongoing anthropogenicactivities.

Soils and Land Resources: loss of productive arable land due to severalseasons of drought, and/or higher intensity erosion causing rainfalls,compounded by anthropogenic activities (uncontrolled encroachment ofurban development).

Human Settlements: loss of housing in low-lying coastal areas due tosea-level rise and storm surge from increased frequency of extremeevents.

Insurance and Other Financial Services: increased losses due tosuccessive seasons of floods, droughts and extreme events.

Human Health: changes in precipitation and temperature patternsaffecting the incidence and location of outbreaks of vector-borne andrespiratory diseases.

Socio/economic Development: impacts of loss of revenue to fisherfolk,agriculture sector employees and tourism sector resulting from sea levelrise, changes in climate patterns (precipitation, temperature, extremeevents), and resulting damage or reduced resilience of natural ecosystems.

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human community and theiradaptive capacity to suchclimate change impacts.

Assessment of cumulative effectsis increasingly seen as representingbest practice in conductingenvironmental impactassessments.

Cumulative effects occur asinteractions between actions andevents, between actions/eventsand the environment, andbetween components of theenvironment. These “pathways”between a cause (or source) andan effect are the focus of anassessment of cumulative effects.The magnitude of the combinedeffects along a pathway can beequal to the sum of the individualeffects (additive effect) or can bean increased effect (synergisticeffect).

Examples of cumulative climatechange effects are provided inFigure 24.

3.3 Cumulative ClimateChange EffectsAssessment

Ideally, cumulative climate changeeffects should be assessed relativeto a goal in which the effects aremanaged. Terms such as ecologicalcarrying capacity, ecosystemintegrity or resilience, long-termpopulation viability andsustainable development are oftencited as goals to be accomplishedby cumulative effectsassessments. What these termsrepresent are important and theirsuccessful implementation wouldsubstantially improve the value ofan assessment and significantlycontribute towards the

implementation of a successfulclimate change adaptation plan.

However, expectations of whatshould be accomplished in acumulative effects assessment(CEA) often exceed what isreasonably possible given ourknowledge of climate changeimpacts, the resilience of naturalecosystems, available information,level of effort required to obtainmore information, and the limitsof analytical techniques inpredicting the effects of climatechange events on theenvironment. These terms shouldnot be used in a CEA unless theyare carefully defined; otherwise,the uncertainty associated withtheir meaning will later bring intoquestion the usefulness of thecumulative effects assessment.

Ideally, all aspects of a cumulativeeffects assessment are doneconcurrently with theenvironmental impact assessment,resulting in an assessmentapproach that makes no explicitdistinction between the two“parts.” In practice, however, thesubstantive work in a cumulativeeffects assessment is often doneafter the initial identification ofeffects have been completed in anenvironmental impact assessment.In this way, the earlyidentification of direct projecteffects “paves the way” forcumulative effects to be assessed.

The process of analysingcumulative climate change effectsis an enhancement of thetraditional environmental impactassessment (see Section 2)components: i) PreliminaryVulnerability Assessment (Step 2) ii) Scoping (Step 4), and

iii) Assessment and Evaluation –describing the affectedenvironment and determining theconsequences (Step 5). Generally,it is also critical to incorporatecumulative impacts analysis intothe development of adaptationalternatives (Step 6), since it isonly by identifying and modifyingalternatives in the light of theprojected cumulative impacts thatadverse consequences can beeffectively addressed.

The following text is not intendedto be an authoritative guide tocumulative effects assessmentssince such guidance documentsare readily available1. What ispresented below is step-by-stepguidance on key issues andquestions that need to beconsidered when undertakingcumulative climate change effectsassessments.

3.3.1 PreliminaryVulnerabilityAssessment(See Section 2.3)

The cumulative effectsassessment is initiated throughthe identification, as part of thePreliminary VulnerabilityAssessment, of future climatechange events and conditions (orcombinations of such events andconditions) that may impact theproposed project/activity. Duringinitial screening of the project, theproject team should identify andevaluate potential cumulativeimpacts from climate change onthe project’s area of influence.The following questions should beconsidered during screening, andanswered more fully duringproject preparation/evaluation.

1See Cumulative Effects Assessment Practitioners Guide Canadian Environmental Assessment Agency. 1999, and Framework for Cumulative Risk Assessment. NationalCentre for Environmental Assessment, United States Environment Protection Agency. 2003.

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1) What are the foreseeable andlikely cumulative climatechange impacts that may affectthe project?The range of climate changeimpacts should have beenidentified utilizing the processoutlined in Section 2. Thecumulative effects assessmentrequires that the combinedeffect of all reasonablyforeseeable future climatechange events that may impacton the project/activity inquestion be identified andassessed. There are two maincauses of uncertainty in suchanalyses. Firstly, theidentification of foreseeableeffects from climate changeevents on the project/activitywithin a reasonable time frame,and secondly the identificationof likely combinations ofclimate change events andimpacts within the given periodof time.

“How far ahead in the future”to consider in a cumulativeclimate change effectsassessment depends on whatthe assessment is trying toaccomplish. Comparison ofincremental changes over timerequires the use of historicalrecords for establishing anenvironmental baseline. Thepossibility of new eventsrequires the need to look aheadinto the future. The use ofclimate change scenarios (seeSection 2) provides a usefulapproach to determiningtemporal boundaries. Scenariosrepresent a point in time withspecific disturbances andenvironmental conditions.Incremental changes betweenscenarios can then be comparedto assess the relative

contribution of various actionsto overall cumulative effectswithin the study area.

In practice, temporalboundaries often reflect theoperational life or phases of theproject under review (e.g.,exploration, construction,operations, abandonment). Thetemporal boundarytraditionally used in cumulativeeffects assessments are oftenassociated with a single year orrange of years according to theoperational phases of theproject under review. (e.g.,2003-2050). For the purpose ofundertaking the cumulativeclimate change effectsassessment it is recommendedthat temporal boundaries andtime-dependent changes indiscrete units of time (e.g., assequential time scenarios) beconsistent with internationallyrecognised periods for assessingclimate change impacts (i.e.,tri-decades centred on the2020’s (2010-2039), 2050’s(2040-2069), and 2080’s (2070-2099)). It is considered thatclimate scenarios based on the2020, 2050, and 2080timeframes will provide themost useful basis forundertaking the cumulativeclimate change effectsassessments. Selection of futureclimate change events (orcombinations of such events)must consider the certainty ofwhether the event (orcombination of such events)will actually occur. Theevaluation should categorizefuture climate change eventsinto three types, which, foruniformity, should be based onthe three levels used by theIntergovernmental Panel on

Climate Change (2001) tocategorize climate projections:

Very Likely (>90% chance) –The event (or combinationof events) will occur or thereis a high probability theevent (or combination ofevents) will occur.Likely (66-90% chance) – Theevent (or combination ofevents) may occur, but thereis some uncertainty aboutthis conclusion.Moderately Likely (33-66%chance) – There isconsiderable uncertaintywhether the event (orcombination of events)action will ever occur.

The selection of future climatechange events to considershould at least reflect the mostcertain scenario and, at best themost likely future scenario.Although requiringinterpretation on a case-by-casebasis, the selection of futureclimate change events (orcombination of such events)will be a compromise betweenunder-representing the fullextent of future change andidentifying and assessing anunreasonably large number ofevents (or combinations ofsuch events). It is suggestedthat the process for “EstimatingFrequency or Probability of anEvent” and “EstimatingSeverity of the Impacts” asarticulated in the CaribbeanRisk Management Techniques forClimate Change (2003) be usedto identify project andenvironmental componentsthat are at high risks/impactsfrom cumulative climatechange impacts that wouldwarrant further quantificationthrough the development of

project relevant climate changescenarios for identified highrisk.

2) How are likely combinations ofclimate change events andimpacts determined?Global-scale events such asclimate change must beassessed on the basis of likelysignificant impacts that mayaffect the project underconsideration. However, inrecognition of the complexitiesand often practical difficulty ofscoping these events and effects(and combinations of climatechange events over a givenperiod of time), the cumulativeeffects assessment should atleast identify the contributingcauses, attempt to quantify themagnitude of the event’scontribution, and suggestappropriate adaptationresponses. In this way,decision-makers can accountfor the climate change event’scontribution within broadnational programs andinitiatives.However, there remain therealities of the cause-effectrelationships (known andperceived) caused by theclimate change event (orcombinations of such events).The practitioner mustdetermine at what point anevent is trivial or insignificant.The concept that such a pointis reached at a certain thresholdis attractive but often difficultto define (especiallyquantitatively) except for casesin which regulated orrecommended levels provide apoint of comparison (e.g.,water quality standards). Thecomplexity of any relationship

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beyond those purely at thephysical-chemical level oftenresults in considerable relianceon best professional judgementand the consideration of risk.An adaptive approach should befollowed when settingboundaries, in which the firstboundary, often arrived at byan educated “guess,” may laterchange if new informationsuggests that a differentboundary is required.Some climate change eventsmay have to be assessedgenerically because there aretoo many to practicallycharacterize individually. Thismay be the case if there aremany small events suspected ofcausing minimal effects due toshort-duration, low-magnitude,irregular and unpredictableoccurrences, or temporaryduration. If there are numerousevents, it helps if they areorganized by some categories inrecognition of the similar typesof effects they may cause. Forexample, they can be organizedby:

nature of event over periodof time (e.g., floods,droughts, hurricane activity,increased precipitationintensities during 2000-2020year period); combination of climatechange events on singlesector (e.g., flood, droughtand erosion impacts uponagricultural sector during2000-2020 year period, sea-level rise and impactsfrom extreme events uponcoastal resources during2000-2020 year period);combination of events in asingle year on multiple sectors.

In such cases, the preliminaryvulnerability assessment mustrely on publicly availableinformation as much aspossible. Any limitations thisplaces on the assessment mustbe clearly stated. If no or littleinformation is available, it isdifficult to predict cumulativeeffects unless the practitionerassumes certain projectattributes. These assumptionsshould be clearly stated, andthe uncertainty this causes inthe assessment should beexplained. A reasonableattempt to collect informationmust at least be demonstrated.Lack of usable informationabout other actions can haveimportant implications to thecertainty associated withpredictions made in a CEA.

3.3.2 Scoping(See Section 2.5)

This scoping step is important, asit assists the practitioner inbeginning to understand one ofthe most fundamental cumulativeeffects assessment questions:what is affecting what? Goodscoping in the initial stages of thestudy will mean that theassessment effort will focus onthe most likely effect’s pathwaysof concern.

One approach to accomplishingthis, a common step in manyEIAs, is to first identifycomponents (e.g., air, water,biodiversity, human health) thatmay be affected by variousaspects of climate changeimpacting upon the project beingassessed. Then, environmentaland climate change componentsthat may be affected by otheractions in the region of interest(e.g., other anthropogenic

activities within the spatialboundary) can be identified. Thescoping could then proceed tofocus on the relationshipsbetween specific impacts fromvarious climate change events andspecific ecosystem components.

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Are the potential impacts of the climate change event (or combinationsof events), as well as other existing stressors, occurring so closely overtime that the recovery rate of the system is being exceeded or resilienceof the ecosystem irreparably affected? Are the potential impacts of any single climate change event, alongwith other stressors from other climate change events, occurring soclose together within a geographical area that their effects overlap?Could the impacts from combinations of climate change events interactamong themselves, or interact with other existing or known futurestressors, either additively or synergistically?Do the potential impacts of the climate change event (or combinationsof events) affect key components of the environment? Have thosecomponents already been affected by other stressors from the same orother actions, either directly, indirectly or through some complexpathway?Is the climate change event one of many of the same type (e.g.,drought), producing impacts which are individually insignificant butwhich affect the environment in such a similar way that they canbecome collectively important over the longer term?

If the answer to any of these questions is yes, there is a potential forcumulative climate change effects. The following are then also asked:

What are the potential impacts of the climate change event that couldgive rise to cumulative effects?What is the appropriate scale to consider those impacts?

3.3.3 Assessment andEvaluation(See Section 2.6)

A matrix, describing variousattributes affecting each valuedecosystem component is thencompleted. The attributes are:existing stressors affecting thevalued ecosystem component;pathways of change (cause-effectlinkages); consequences (i.e.,resulting trends of valuedecosystem components); andcontribution of the action tooverall changes. Adaptationmeasures are also identified.

The effects are evaluated, usingbest professional judgment, byasking if the identified changesaffect the integrity of theenvironment. These changes arethen compared with existing goals(e.g., ecological carrying capacity,ecosystem integrity or resilience). In the evaluation, the following questions should be considered:

What are the key components (e.g., water, soil, air, biodiversity, humanhealth) that may be affected?

What parameters are best used to measure the effects on theenvironmental components?

What determines the present condition of key environmentalcomponents?

How will the proposed project in combination with anticipatedcumulative climate change events affect their condition?

What are the probabilities of occurrence, probable magnitudes andprobable durations of such cumulative climate change events?

How much further effect could key environmental components sustainbefore changes in condition can not be reversed?

What degree of certainty can be attached to the estimates ofoccurrence and magnitudes of these predicted cumulative climatechange events?

All information is documented,uncertainties identified, andfeedback and monitoringrequirements identified forinclusion in the final report.

3.4 Adaptation Plan(See Section 2.7)

Managing cumulative effects in acumulative climate change effectsassessment requires, as a start, thesame type of adaptation andmonitoring measures that wouldbe recommended in an EIA.Adapting to a local effect as muchas possible is the best way toreduce cumulative effects;

FIGURE 25 - Scoping: A Series of Questions to be Asked

FIGURE 26 - Assessment and Evaluation

however, to be most effective,adaptation and monitoringprograms must be long term andregionally based. [Anotherresponse to addressing effects iscompensation (usually financial)for losses in some form to aperson or personal property.Compensation, however, is notadaptation.] This can be costly,require a few years to complete,and require broader data collectionand decision-making involvementthan has historically been the casewith EIAs (monitoring programsfor individual actions are usuallydesigned with the involvement ofnational administrative bodies).

The adaptation measures appliedin cumulative effects assessmentsmay be considerably differentfrom those applied in traditionalEIAs. These adaptation measurescan be applied to developmentsother than the proposeddevelopment (e.g., through theestablishment of integrated waterresource management plans).Several administrativejurisdictions and stakeholders willusually fall within anassessment’s study area. In manycases, the co-operation of theseother interests may be required toensure that recommendedadaptation measures aresuccessfully implemented.Effective CEA adaptationplanning and management,

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therefore, often imply the need fornational stakeholder involvementto solve national concerns.Considerable reliance is placed onnational efforts to implementadaptation programs forcumulative climate change effects,such as initiatives to create co-ordinating bodies that direct orrecommend further land use,monitoring and other effects-related research. Participants areusually selected from governmentdepartments, stakeholder groupsand commercial interests. Theobjectives of these initiatives aregenerally to protect ecosystemsthat are under stress, and dispersepermanent and transient humanactivities to reduce the magnitudeof cumulative effects.

Recommendations for nationalinitiatives of this type may be theonly means of addressing andadapting to complex cumulativeeffects issues. It is generallyunreasonable to expect a singleproponent to bear the burden ofadaptation measures to addresseffects attributable to otheractions and events in the region.Often it is more practical andappropriate for regulatoryagencies to initiate and helpimplement these nationalinitiatives, with projectproponents providing datarelevant to their project’s effects.

3.5 Where is the CumulativeEffects Assessment(CEA) Placed in theEnvironmental ImpactAssessmentSubmission?

There are at least four options forplacing the cumulative effectsassessment:

within a separate “CEAchapter” after the EIA portion(this is the most commonapproach);

as a stand-alone document,separately bound from the EIAreport;

integrated within the EIA as aunique sub-section, appearingat the end of each majorsection assessing effects onmajor environmentalcomponents (e.g., water, air,vegetation); or

fully integrated with the EIAas cross-sectoral issues areraised and examined.

The approach taken will dependon the practitioner’s philosophyof cumulative effects (i.e., asinseparable from the EIA or as aunique and different view) and onwhich approach is most readilyaccomplished given the division oflabour used in assembling theassessment report.

SECTION 4Integration of

Climate ChangeConsiderationsinto EIAs at the

National Level –Caribbean

FIGURE 27 – Status of EIA Procedures Incorporating Climate

COUNTRY Are there formal EIA mechanisms for assessing the Impacts of Climate Change

Antigua & Barbuda

Bahamas

Barbados

Belize

British Virgin Islands

Cayman Islands

Dominica

Grenada

Guyana

Jamaica

St. Kitts

St. Lucia

St. Vincent

Trinidad and Tobago

No

No

Yes

No

No

No

No

Yes

No

No

No

No

No

Yes

1Review of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Procedures in CARICOM States Participating in theAdapting to Climate Change in the Caribbean (ACCC) Project, D. F. Oderson. (2003).

4.0 BackgroundA review of existing EIA systemsin the CARICOM states1 showsthat very few of the countrieshave established formalmechanisms for assessing theimpacts of climate change on theenvironment. The existing EIApractice in the CARICOM statesinvolves following the traditionalapproach to undertaking EIAs,which focuses on the assessmentof the impacts of proposedprojects or activity on theenvironment.

In order for CARICOM states tosatisfy the mandate provided byArticle 4 (1) (f) of the UnitedNations Framework Convention onClimate Change (UNFCCC) thereis the need to develop andstrengthen EIA systems in these

countries. The table below (Figure 27) provides a summary ofthe status of the incorporation ofclimate change impacts into EIAsystems in the CARICOM states.

As a general rule, most of theCARICOM states considerclimate change impacts onproposed projects and activitieson an ad hoc basis. Climatechange impacts are usuallyconsidered, for example, in respectof impacts associated with sealevel rise. Only two of the twelveCARICOM countries, Grenadaand Trinidad and Tobago, havedeveloped formal mechanisms forassessing the impacts of climatechange. In practice, all the otherCARICOM countries consider thelikely impacts of climate changeon the natural resources and

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sensitive ecosystems on a case-bycase-basis.

In Trinidad and Tobago theconsiderations and Terms ofReference (ToRs) for a particularEIA are influenced by severalfactors which include scale, natureof proposal, location, etc. Climatechange impacts are considered inthis context. The particular EIAdepends on the agreed ToRs andwhile there are no prescribedcriteria governing the content,style etc., of EIA reports,consideration is given tointernational standards such asthose contained in the WorldBank EIA Guidelines.

In Grenada the EIA reviewcommittee uses the relevantinformation relating to climatechange impact for specific projectswhen establishing ToRs andmaking a determination on EIAproposals.

4.1 Possible Mechanisms forIncorporating ClimateChange Considerationsinto the EIA Process atthe National Level

The incorporation of climatechange considerations into theEIA process in the CARICOMstates may be achieved throughthe adoption of the followingmeasures:

1. The establishment of formalEIA procedures.

2. The provision of clear criteriafor screening and scopingenvironmental impacts.

3. The provision of clear EIAguidelines for the preparationof EIA reports.

4. The provision of clear criteriagoverning EIA experts.

4.1.1 Establishment ofFormal EIA Procedures

An informal and ad hoc approachto undertaking EIA does notfacilitate or encourage thesystematic assessment of climatechange impacts on proposedprojects and activities. Seven ofthe twelve CARICOM states haveestablished legal provisionsgoverning EIA procedures. Themajority of these enactments dealwith physical planning while theremainder focus on environmentalprotection, conservation andmanagement.

The enactment of EIA legislationgives certainty and clarity to theEIA process. It provides aframework for regulating,administering and managing EIAs.The legislation allows for the clearidentification of the obligationsand duties of the proponent andgovernment agency responsiblefor administering the EIA process.As a result it removes theuncertainty and arbitrarinessassociated with ad hoc andinformal EIA procedures.

4.1.2 Provision of Criteria forScreening & ScopingEnvironmental Impacts

The screening of projects andactivities is a critical aspect of theEIA process. The provision ofclear criteria for the screening ofproposed development (see Section 2) may ensure that allprojects and activities which arelikely to be significantly affectedby climate change impacts arecarefully assessed with a view topreventing or reducing theimpacts.

The scoping exercise (see Section 2)is used to prepare the terms ofreference and scope of works for

the conduct of the EIA study. Asa result the provision of clearcriteria such as checklists willensure that the scoping processidentifies the significant climatechange impacts on the proposedproject or activity. Thedevelopment of a checklist canassist with the review andevaluation of the EIA report.

4.1.3 Provision of EIAGuidelines for thePreparation of EIAReports

Although all the CARICOMstates give some guidance toproponents for the preparation ofEIA report only seven of thesecountries have developed formalEIA guidelines and procedures.The EIA guidelines and proceduresare contained in EIA regulationsor as EIA manuals. The EIAguidelines and procedures ensurethat the contents of EIA reportsaddress all the necessary issues inorder to prevent or reduce theimpacts associated with theproposed project or activity.

The development of clear EIAguidelines and procedures cantherefore be used to ensure thatthe EIA process and report addressclimate change impacts. InGuyana and Jamaica, EIAguidelines have been developed forspecific sectors. Model EIAguidelines can be developed toaddress the issue of climatechange. The model guidelines forclimate change should be flexibleenough to allow each CARICOMstate to adapt the guidelines tosuit its own nationalcircumstance and priorities.

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4.1.4 Provision of CriteriaGoverning EIA Experts

None of the CARICOM stateshave established a roster of EIAexperts even though several of thecountries have developedlegislation governing thequalification, skills, knowledgeand experience which must bepossessed by persons conductingEIA. This approach may be usedto ensure that persons conductingEIAs and assessing climate changeimpacts possess the requisitequalification, skills, knowledgeand experience on climate changeand adaptation policies andmeasures. The same standard willhave to be applied to governmentexperts who review and assessEIAs.

4.2 Integration of ClimateChange Adaptation intothe EIA Process withinCARICOM Countries –Practical Considerations

The following section provides anoverview of the environmentalimpact assessment (EIA) processand procedures in CARICOMcountries2, and identifies, on acountry-by-country basis,mechanisms whereby climatechange adaptation considerationscan be integrated into suchprocesses and procedures.

4.2.1 Antigua and BarbudaThere is no express statutory basisfor requiring EIAs in Antigua andBarbuda. In practice,consideration of environmentalimpacts on development occursthrough planning legislation. Anew Physical Planning Act has beenprepared and will establish a

formal EIA process. This proposedAct defines EIA as:“The process of collection, analysis,evaluation and review of informationon the likely effects of a proposeddevelopment on the environment andthe means to overcome adverse effectswhich enables the Authority todetermine whether developmentpermission should be granted andwith what conditions, the procedurefor which is prescribed in regulationsmade under this Act.”

Section 23 of the proposedPhysical Planning Act, 2002stipulates that an EIA must becarried out in respect of anapplication for a developmentpermit for development activitieslisted in the Third Schedule of theAct.

Notwithstanding the mandatoryclass of proposals which requiresan EIA, the Development ControlAuthority (the “Authority”) hasthe discretion under s. 23(2) torequest an EIA in respect ofapplications for development notlisted in the Third Schedule. Inmaking this decision theAuthority should give regard to:

the nature of the proposeddevelopment

the geographical scale andlocation

the extent of the changes tothe environment likely to becaused by the proposeddevelopment

the degree of scientificuncertainty

any development plan for thearea.

The proponent may enquire ofthe Authority in writing whether

an EIA is required. Where theAuthority determines that an EIAis needed it must notify theproponent of this in writingwithin 60 days of the receipt of anapplication for a developmentpermit. The Authority has theresponsibility for setting out theToRs for the EIA and the timeframe within which it must besubmitted.

The applicant is required by s. 23(5) to submit an EIAstatement in such form andcontaining such information asmay be prescribed in EIAregulations. Once an applicanthas been notified by theAuthority about the need forconducting an EIA, there is astatutory duty on the Authorityand other public agencies, ifrequested, to facilitateconsultation with the developerto ensure access to informationunder the agency’s control.

In addition, the Authority has aduty to notify any other agencyor Government departmenthaving responsibility for the issueof any licence, permit, approval,consent or other document ofauthorization in connection withany matter affecting the proposeddevelopment. Once the agency orgovernment department has beennotified accordingly it isprohibited from granting thelicence, permit, approval, consentor other document.

The Authority is prohibited unders.23 (7) from granting adevelopment permit unless theEIA is taken into consideration.The Minister is empowered unders. 23(10) to cause a register to becomplied of persons with the

2Based on Review Of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Procedures in CARICOM States Participating in the Adapting to Climate Change in the Caribbean (ACCC)Project, D. F. Oderson, (ACCC) 2003.

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requisite qualification, skills,knowledge and experience tocarry out EIAs. Any person whois on the register is deemed by theAct to be approved by theMinister to prepare EIAs forAntigua and Barbuda.

Section 85 (2) (g) of the draftPhysical Planning Act authorizesthe Minister to make regulationsto provide for the procedures forEIA and the form of EIAstatements. There are draft EIARegulations for Antigua andBarbuda which are not yet inforce. The EIA Regulationsprescribe procedures forconducting and reviewing EIAs.They prescribe the form andminimum content of EIAs whichinclude:

a description of the proposeddevelopment

a description of the potentiallyaffected environment

a description of practicalalternatives

an assessment of the likely orpotential environmentalimpacts

an identification anddescription of mitigationmeasures and alternatives

an indication of gaps inknowledge and uncertaintieswhich may be encounteredduring EIA

an indication of whether theenvironment of any otherState or areas beyond thenational jurisdiction is likely tobe affected by the proposeddevelopment or alternatives

a brief non-technical summaryof the information providedunder the above headings.

Integrating Climate Change Adaptation Considerations into the EIA ProcessIt is recommended that the following measures be implemented to supportthe integration of climate change adaptation considerations into the EIAprocess in Antigua and Barbuda.

a) Revision of Definition of EIAIt is recommended that the definition of EIA under the Physical PlanningAct be revised to also address the impacts of the environment (i.e., climatechange) on the project.b) Establishment of Formal EIA ProceduresIt is recommended that legislation (Physical Planning Act and EIARegulations) be enacted to provide certainty and clarity to the EIA process,and to provide a framework for regulating, administering and managing EIAs.Such legislation should allow for the clear identification of the obligations andduties of the proponent and the Development Control Authority as thegovernment agency responsible for administering the EIA process.

c) Provision of Clear Criteria for Screening & Scoping Environmental Impacts

It is recommended that an EIA Manual be developed to provide clearcriteria and checklists for screening and scoping to ensure identification ofthe significant climate change impacts on the proposed project or activity.The development of such checklists can assist with the review andevaluation of the EIA report.

d) Provision of Clear EIA Guidelines for the Preparation of EIAReports

It is recommended that an EIA Guide be prepared to assist developers andEIA practitioners in undertaking the EIA process. Such a Guide shouldensure that the EIA process addresses climate change impacts. Theprovision of Model Terms of Reference for addressing climate changeadaptation considerations would also assist applicants undertaking an EIA,and ensure consistency in approach. e) Provision of Clear Criteria Governing EIA ExpertsIt is recommended that criteria be established governing the qualification,skills, knowledge and experience which must be possessed by personsconducting EIA. This approach may be used to ensure that personsconducting EIAs and assessing climate change impacts possess therequisite qualification, skills, knowledge and experience on climate changeand adaptation policies and measures. The same standard will have to beapplied to government experts who review and assess EIAs.

The EIA Regulations provide forthe conducting of an initialenvironmental evaluation beforeToRs are finalized. The Authorityis required to publish a notice ofcommencement of the EIA in the

Gazette and post it in the area ofthe proposed development.

During the course of the EIA theAuthority has the discretion torequire the applicant to undertake

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consultation with interestedmembers of the public with aview to providing projectinformation and to record theconcerns of the community. TheAuthority has the power underthe EIA Regulations to prescribethe procedures for the publicconsultation.

When the EIA statement has beensubmitted the Authority has theresponsibility to examine it toensure it conforms with the ToRs.Where the EIA statement isinadequate the Authority mayrequire the applicant to conductfurther work and amend the EIA.The Authority and the applicantmust agree on the new deadline.The Authority must facilitatepublic access to the EIA once ithas received it.

Under the draft legislation theMinister responsible for PhysicalPlanning has oversight of the EIAprocess. The Minister isempowered to make regulationsto govern the process ofconducting and reviewing EIAs.In addition the Minister also hasthe discretion to approve a registerof EIA practitioners. TheDevelopment Control Authorityis responsible for administeringand implementing the EIAprocedures.

4.2.2 The BahamasAlthough there is no legislationproviding for environmentalimpact assessments in Bahamas,the government is presentlyconsidering the development ofEIA legislation. However, theDepartment responsible forphysical planning may request anEIA depending upon the nature ofthe proposed project. EIAs areundertaken by administrative

directive, and are undertaken formajor development proposals thatmay alter the physical landscapeof a particular environment. TheTown Planning Committee isresponsible for land usedevelopment applications andassociated EIAs. The Director ofPlanning, as technical advisor tothe Town Planning Committee,

reviews EIAs and makesrecommendations.

The Bahamas EnvironmentScience and Technology (BEST)Commission, which wasestablished in 1994, is responsiblefor EIAs. The BEST Commissioncurrently is a part of the portfolioof the Ministry of Health andEnvironment, and has been given

Integrating Climate Change Adaptation Considerations into the EIA ProcessIt is recommended that the following measures be implemented to supportthe integration of climate change adaptation considerations into the EIAprocess in The Bahamas.a) Establishment of Formal EIA ProceduresIt is recommended that legislation be enacted to provide certainty andclarity to the EIA process, and to provide a framework for regulating,administering and managing EIAs. Such legislation should allow for theclear identification of the obligations and duties of the proponent and theBEST Commission as the government agency responsible foradministering the EIA process.

b) Provision of Clear EIA Guidelines for the Preparation of EIA Reports

It is recommended that the sector Guidelines currently being developed bythe BEST Commission ensure that the EIA process address climatechange impacts. The provision of Model Terms of Reference foraddressing climate change adaptation considerations would also assistapplicants undertaking an EIA, and ensure consistency in approach.

c) Provision of Clear Criteria for Screening & Scoping Environmental Impacts

It is recommended that the sector guidelines currently being developed bythe BEST Commission provide clear criteria for screening and scoping toensure identification of the significant climate change impacts on theproposed project or activity. The development of such checklists canassist with the review and evaluation of the EIA report.d) Provision of Clear Criteria Governing EIA ExpertsIt is noted that the BEST Commission has established criteria governingthe qualification, skills, knowledge and experience which must bepossessed by persons conducting EIA. This approach may be used toensure that persons conducting EIAs and assessing climate changeimpacts possess the requisite qualification, skills, knowledge andexperience on climate change and adaptation policies and measures. Thesame standard will have to be applied to government experts who reviewand assess EIAs.

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the mandate to adviseGovernment in a timely fashionon the environmental impact ofvarious development proposalssubmitted for the Commission’sreview, and to conduct site visitsfor projects under EIA review. TheBEST Commission, whichcomprises representatives ofvarious government agencies,serves as an EIA coordinatingagency. In this capacity, the BESTCommission coordinates thereview, assessment andmonitoring of EIAs.

There are no prescribed categoriesof projects which trigger the EIAprocess. The BEST Commissionuses Resort Development Guidelinesand proponents are often advisedto follow the format of theseguidelines for the development ofEIAs. The BEST Commission iscurrently developing EIAGuidelines in the followingsectors:

Housing Developments

Marina & Ports

Agricultural Developments &Operations

Industrial Operations

Energy Industries

Manufacturing

Extractive Processing

Development in SensitiveAreas

Aquaculture and MaricultureDevelopments.

All non-Bahamian and/or foreigncompanies seeking to provide EIAservices in The Commonwealthof the Bahamas are required tohave the following prior tocommencing any related activitiesleading to the development of anEIA document for review:

1. Pre-Approval by the BESTCommission to produce an EIADocument

2. Local Business License

3. Work Permits for all personsinvolved in the production ofthe EIA document.

All local companies seeking toprovide EIA services require pre-approval by the BESTCommission in addition to thefollowing:

1. Current Business License

2. Valid work permits for allforeign persons involved in theproduction of the EIAdocument.

Public participation in the EIAprocess is generally encouragedthrough public meetings andconsultations with agenciesoutside the review process. EIAreports are generally not madeavailable to the public exceptwhere public meetings are held aspart of the EIA process.

4.2.3 BarbadosThere is no expressed legalprovision for undertaking EIAs inBarbados. In practice, s. 17 (1) ofthe Town and Country Planning Act,Cap 240 is used by the ChiefTown Planner to requestapplicants for developmentpermission to submit EIAs.Section 17 (1) provides that:“…the Chief Town Planner may bynotice in writing sent to the applicantrequire such information as he thinksfit.”

In 1998 the Government ofBarbados undertook acomprehensive review of itsenvironmental management andphysical planning framework in astudy entitled EnvironmentalManagement and Land Use Planning

for Sustainable Development(EMLUP). One of therecommendations of this study isrelated to the establishment of anEIA process in Barbados.Although the EMLUP studyproposed a new EnvironmentalManagement Act (EMA) therecommendation was made tolocate the EIA process within theTown and Country Planning Act(TCPA). Three specific EMLUPrecommendations relate to:

1. Amendment to the Town andCountry Planning Act (TCPA)

2. Preparation of EIA Guidelinesand

3. Establishment of an EIAReview Panel.

The EMLUP study hasrecommended that amendmentsbe made to the TCPA to authorizethe Chief Town Planner and theproposed Chief EnvironmentalOfficer to require EIAs forproposed developments. It isrecommended that the PhysicalDevelopment Plan should containa list of classes of development forwhich an EIA is required. It isrecommended that the ChiefTown Planner should provideguidelines for conducting andreviewing EIAs. The guidelinesshould provide for:

Terms of Reference forpreparation of EIAs

Consultation with govern-ment agencies and the public

Designation of an EIA ReviewPanel.

Draft EIA Guidelines have beenprepared which are used inpractice for conducting andreviewing EIAs in Barbados. TheChief Town Planner is currentlypreparing final EIA Guidelineswhich will take into consideration

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the existing draft. The existingdraft EIA Guidelines seek toclarify the following concernswith the EIA process:

1. Environmental Evaluation – itis recommended thatgovernment should use aflexible process to streamlineand limit the scope of EIAs andthe time frame

2. Triggering Mechanism – threetriggers have beenrecommended: (i)a mandatorylist of projects whichautomatically require an EIA;(ii) the Chief Town Plannerand the Chief EnvironmentalOfficer should have thediscretion to trigger an EIA ona case by case basis; (iii) thedeveloper should be able toinitiate an EIA.

3. The role of the proponent andgovernment reviewers.

4. Terms of Reference – it isrecommended that theproponent should prepare theToRs and submit them to theReview Panel for considerationand approval. In practice theToRs are prepared by the ChiefTown Planner afterconsultation with relevantgovernment agencies.

5. Pre-submission – proponentsare encouraged to meet withrelevant government agencieswhich have an interest in theproposal as early as possible toidentify the specific concernsof the individual respectiveagencies.

6. Public Consultation – it isrecommended that regulationsto the TCPA be developed toallow for public consultationon applications involving EIAs.

7. Conditions of approval – it isrecommended that conditionsof approval for developmentshould require the proponentto carry out: all mitigationmeasures proposed by the EIA;monitoring to verify impactsare being controlled; regularreporting to particulartechnical agencies; immediatereporting where monitoringshows that the development isin significant non-conformitywith standards;implementation ofcontingency measures wheremitigation measures are notworking.

8. Submission and Approval ofEIA – it is recommended thatupon completion of the EIA,the proponent submit the EIAreport to the Review Panelwhich may make one of threedecisions: (i) approve the EIAas satisfactory therebyenabling a planning decision tobe made by the Chief TownPlanner or Minister; (ii) requireproponent to provide furtherinformation; (iii) reject the EIAand recommend that a refusalof planning permission bemade by Chief Town Planner.

9. Economic Impact Assessment– it is recommended thateconomic and financialconsiderations should beincorporated into the EIA.

The draft EIA Guidelinesrecommend that the EIA ReviewPanel should comprisegovernment personnel whoseprimary role should include:

The expeditious review ofdocuments and provision ofcomments

Participation in Review PanelMeetings

Review and comment onvarious aspects of the EIA;reviewers should limitcomments to areas withintheir expertise or directconcern of their agency

Advise Chief Town Planner onthe quality of the EIA.

EIAs are currently administered bythe Town and Country PlanningDevelopment Planning Officethrough an inter-agencymechanism that involves otherrelevant government agencies.This is not supported byexpressed legal authority butoccurs because s.17 (1) is currentlyused as the basis for requestingEIAs. The EMLUP studyrecommends a consolidation ofthis process by makingamendments to the TCPA. TheMinister responsible for TownPlanning has oversight of the EIAprocess.

Climate change considerations areonly applied to those applicationsthat are determined under theTown and Country Planning Act torequire an EIA, and is a formalrequirement imposed by theCoastal Zone Management Unitin their capacity as members ofthe Government EIA ReviewCommittee. Applicants/developers are asked to address theissues of climate change (mainlysea level rise and storm surgeinundation) and outline theadaptation measures they proposeto use. The specific issues relatingto climate change from a coastalperspective are generally metthrough the imposition of setbackrequirements and theestablishment of propertyprotection measures. Additionally,in recent times, the risk of waterresources being affected by

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climate change has been addressedwith most assessed applicantsproposing to: (a) installdesalination plants to augmenton-site water use; and (b)implement wastewater recoveryand water re-use measures toreduce the risk to coastal aquifersfrom saltwater infusion.

Integrating Climate Change Adaptation Considerations into the EIA ProcessIt is recommended that the following measures be implemented to supportthe integration of climate change adaptation considerations into the EIAprocess in Barbados.

a) Establishment of Formal EIA ProceduresIt is recommended that legislation be enacted to provide certainty andclarity to the EIA process, and to provide a framework for regulating,administering and managing EIAs. Such legislation should allow for theclear identification of the obligations and duties of the proponent and theChief Town Planner as the government authority responsible foradministering the EIA process.

b) Provision of Clear EIA Guidelines for the Preparation of EIA Reports

It is recommended that the draft EIA Guidelines currently being developedby the Town and Country Planning Development Planning Office beadopted and revised as necessary to ensure that the EIA process addressclimate change impacts. The provision of Model Terms of Reference foraddressing climate change adaptation considerations would also assistapplicants undertaking an EIA, and ensure consistency in approach.

c) Provision of Clear Criteria for Screening & Scoping Environmental Impacts

It is recommended that the draft EIA Guidelines currently being developedby the Town and Country Planning Development Planning Office provideclear criteria for screening and scoping to ensure identification of thesignificant climate change impacts on the proposed project or activity. Thedevelopment of such checklists can assist with the review and evaluation ofthe EIA report.

d) Provision of Clear Criteria Governing EIA ExpertsIt is recommended that criteria be established governing the qualification,skills, knowledge and experience which must be possessed by personsconducting EIA. This approach may be used to ensure that personsconducting EIAs and assessing climate change impacts possess therequisite qualification, skills, knowledge and experience on climate changeand adaptation policies and measures. The same standard will have to beapplied to government experts who review and assess EIAs.

4.2.4 BelizeIn Belize the EnvironmentalImpact Assessment (EIA) processis established by the EnvironmentalProtection Act, Chapter 328 and theEIA Regulations (1995). TheEnvironmental Protection Act (EPA)enacted in 1992 was revised in

2000. However, the EnvironmentalProtection Act does not define EIA.The Act under s.20 stipulates thatany person intending toundertake any project,programme or activity which maysignificantly affect theenvironment shall cause an EIA becarried out by a suitably qualifiedperson and submit it to theDepartment of Environment forevaluation and recommendations.

The EPA requires that the EIAmust identify and evaluate theeffects of developments onspecified components of theenvironment including:

Human beings

Flora and fauna

Soil

Water

Air and climatic factors

Material assets, including thecultural heritage and thelandscape

Natural resources

Ecological balance.

It is a requirement of thelegislation that EIAs must includemitigation measures which theproponent intends to take toreduce adverse effects on theenvironment and a statement ofreasonable alternative sites. Theprimary objective of EIAs is toprotect and improve humanhealth and living conditions andthe need to preserve thereproductive capacity ofecosystems.

Proponents are required by theEPA to consult with public andother interested bodies ororganizations when undertakingan EIA. The Department ofEnvironment (DoE) has thediscretion under the Act to

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prepare its own EIA and tosynthesise the views of the publican interested bodies. The DoE isempowered to approve the EIAand must in doing so attachconditions that are reasonablyrequired on environmentalgrounds.

The EPA empowers the Ministerto make regulations prescribingthe types of projects, programmesor activities for which an EIA isrequired. The regulation may alsoprescribe the procedures, contents,guidelines and other mattersrelevant to conducting andreviewing EIAs. It is an offenceunder the EPA for any person tofail to carry out an EIA as requiredby the Act or related regulations.

The Environmental ImpactAssessment Regulations (1995) havebeen made pursuant to s.21 of theEPA and seek to regulate theconducting and review of EIAs inBelize and establish criteria andprocedures which should be usedto determine whether an activityis likely to have significant effectson the environment.

The EIA Regulations create ageneral obligation on all persons,agencies and institutions (publicor private) unless exempted bythe Regulations that beforeembarking on a proposed projector activity, to apply to the DoEfor a determination as to whetheran EIA is required. The EIARegulations prescribe minimumrequirements for EIAs thatinclude:

A description of the proposedactivities

A description of the potentiallyaffected environment

A description of practicalalternatives

A description of mitigationmeasures

An indication of gaps inknowledge and uncertaintywhich may be encountered incollecting and analyzing thedata.

The procedural steps of the EIAprocess in Belize have beenprescribed by Regulation 6 andincludes the following threecomponents: (i) a screening of theproject by the DoE; (ii) a reviewof the EIA by the NationalEnvironmental AppraisalCommittee; and (iii) the designand implementation of a followup programme. The EIARegulations provide three possibletriggering mechanisms for EIA inBelize:

1. All undertakings, projects andactivities listed under Schedule Imust have an EIA and the scopeand extent of the EIA must bedetermined by the DoE

2. The DoE has the discretion torequest an EIA in respect ofundertakings, projects andactivities listed under Schedule II

3. Regulation 9 identifies a classof projects and activities thatare exempted from the EIAprocess, such as educationalprojects, computer processingprojects, projects within aCommercial Free Zone, andprojects undertaken duringnational emergencies for whichtemporary measures have beentaken by the Government.

Under Regulation 12 a Proponentmay request the DoE to provideEIA guidelines for the preparationof the EIA and the DoE mayprovide the guidelines for a fee.The Regulations prescribe a time

limit within which the DoE mustscreen applications to determinewhether an EIA is required.

The Proponent is required toprepare draft ToRs and submitthen to the DoE for the purposesof an EIA. The DoE shallprescribe the contents of the draftToRs and shall after examiningthe draft ToRs advise theproponent about their adequacy.The ToRs must be agreed andapproved in writing by the DoEbefore the EIA can commence.

The EIA Regulations mandate thedeveloper to undertakeconsultation with interestedmembers of the public who fallwithin or immediately adjacent tothe proposed site during thepreparation of the EIA. TheRegulations stipulate that thepurpose of the public consultationis to provide informationconcerning the proposal and torecord the concerns of the localcommunity. In addition the DoEhas the discretion at any timeduring the EIA study to requestwritten submissions frominterested person and mayforward the comments to thedeveloper.

The EIA Regulations clearly setout the format and contents ofthe EIA and establishes theprocedures for the review of theEIA. The DoE has 60 days withinwhich to communicate itsdecision on the EIA to thedeveloper. Where an EIA isinadequate the DoE has thediscretion, with therecommendation of the NationalEnvironmental AppraisalCommittee (NEAC), to requestthe developer to conduct furtherstudies and provide further

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information, to amend the EIAaccordingly and to resubmit theEIA by a mutually agreed date.

The DoE, on the recommendationof the NEAC, may require a publichearing in respect of anyundertaking, project or activityfor which an EIA has beenrequested. In determiningwhether to request a publichearing the DoE shall give regardto:

The magnitude and type ofenvironmental impacts, theamount of investment, thenature of the geographical area,and the commitment ofnatural resources

The degree of public interest inthe proposal

The complexity of theproblem.

There are several actors involvedwith the EIA process in Belize.The Minister responsible for theEnvironment has been givenspecific statutory duties under theEPA and the EIA Regulations.The Minister has beenempowered under the EPA tomake EIA Regulations and underthe EIA Regulations the Ministerhas the power to appoint atribunal to hear appeals. TheTribunal reports its finding to theMinister who has the powerunder the EIA Regulations toallow the appeal, permit theproject or dismiss the appeal.

The DoE has the overallresponsibility for administeringand implementing the EIAprocedures and regulations.Regulation 25 of the EIARegulations establishes theNational Environmental AppraisalCommittee whose main functionsinclude:

1. reviewing all EIAs

2. advising the DoE ofcircumstances where a publichearing is desirable ornecessary.

The NEAC shall comprise thefollowing members:

the Chief EnvironmentalOfficer

the Commissioner of Lands

the Housing and PlanningOfficer

the Chief Forest Officer

the Fisheries Administrator

Integrating Climate Change Adaptation Considerations into the EIA ProcessIt is recommended that the following measures be implemented to supportthe integration of climate change adaptation considerations into the EIAprocess in Belize.:

a) Provision of Clear Criteria for Screening & Scoping Environmental Impacts

It is recommended that the Environmental Impact Assessment Regulations(1995) be revised or amended to provide clear criteria in the checklists forscreening and scoping to ensure identification of the significant climatechange impacts on the proposed project or activity. The development ofsuch checklists can assist with the review and evaluation of the EIA report.

b) Provision of Clear EIA Guidelines for the Preparation of EIA Reports

It is recommended that the Environmental Impact Assessment Regulations(1995) be revised or amended to ensure that the EIA process addressesclimate change impacts. The provision of Model Terms of Reference foraddressing climate change adaptation considerations would also assistapplicants undertaking an EIA, and ensure consistency in approach.

c) Provision of Clear Criteria Governing EIA ExpertsIt is recommended that criteria be established governing the qualification,skills, knowledge and experience which must be possessed by personsconducting EIA. This approach may be used to ensure that personsconducting EIAs and assessing climate change impacts possess therequisite qualification, skills, knowledge and experience on climate changeand adaptation policies and measures. The same standard will have to beapplied to government experts who review and assess EIAs.

the Chief Hydrologist

the ArchaeologicalCommissioner

the Director of Geology andPetroleum

the Chief Agricultural Officer

two non-governmentalrepresentatives.

Regulation 27 (2) of the EIARegulations empowers theMinister to appoint a Tribunal tohear and determine appeals andreport their findings to theMinister.

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4.2.5 The British VirginIslands

The present legislation does notspecifically refer to EIA’s but theMinister for Physical Planning willhave the responsibility of makingregulations for EIA procedures andconducting EIA statements underthe Draft Planning Act, 2004. TheMinister, will also be empoweredto issue a register of thoserespective individuals that satisfythe prescribed qualifications,skills, knowledge and experienceset out in the regulations allowingthese individuals to conductenvironmental impact statements(EIS) in respect of the territory.Any person who is on the registeris deemed by the Act to beapproved by the Minister toprepare EIA statements. The draftdevelopment guidelines outlinesspecifically which type of projectwould require EIAs to bedeveloped and implemented, andclearly states what are therequirements that are to beincluded in the EnvironmentalImpact Statement.

The Development ControlAuthority, appointed by theGovernor in council under theLand Development (Control)Ordinance, (Cap 241) is responsiblefor reviewing all private andpublic projects of the territoryand is given the power to regulateits own procedure.

Applications that are submittedfor shoreline alterations andmodifications of submerged landshave been required under s.16 ofthe Land Development ControlGuidelines, 1972 to submit an EIA.Within the EIA the applicantwould be required to submit:

1. A written report of aninvestigation of the site and

adjacent properties about theenvironmental conditions,ecology, hydrogeology andwater mass transports

2. A complete written descriptionof the proposed site includingcontours, profiles, photographs

3. A complete description of theproposed works which wouldinclude supervisory and controlprocedures

4. A final report that will describethe actual work accomplishedand a description of the final

Integrating Climate Change Adaptation Considerations into the EIA ProcessIt is recommended that the following measures be implemented to supportthe integration of climate change adaptation considerations into the EIAprocess in the British Virgin Islands.

a) Revision of Definition of EIAIt is recommended that the definition of EIA under the Physical PlanningAct be revised to address the impacts of the environment (i.e., climatechange) on the project. The following is suggested: “The process ofcollection, analysis, evaluation and review of information on:

i) the likely effects of a proposed development on the environment;

ii) the likely effects of the environment, including climate change effects, onthe proposed development; and the means to overcome adverseeffects.”

b) Provision of Clear Criteria for Screening & Scoping Environmental Impacts

It is recommended that Regulations be promulgated under the PhysicalPlanning Act to provide clear criteria in the checklists for screening andscoping to ensure identification of the significant climate change impactson the proposed project or activity. The development of such checklistscan assist with the review and evaluation of the EIA report.

c) Provision of Clear EIA Guidelines for the Preparation of EIA Reports

It is recommended that Regulations be promulgated under the PhysicalPlanning Act to provide guidance on the EIA process and ensure that theEIA process addresses climate change impacts. The provision of ModelTerms of Reference for addressing climate change adaptationconsiderations would also assist applicants undertaking an EIA, andensure consistency in approach.

d) Provision of Clear Criteria Governing EIA ExpertsIt is recommended that criteria be established governing the qualification,skills, knowledge and experience which must be possessed by personsconducting EIA. This approach may be used to ensure that personsconducting EIAs and assessing climate change impacts possess therequisite qualification, skills, knowledge and experience on climate changeand adaptation policies and measures. The same standard will have to beapplied to government experts who review and assess EIAs.

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site geometry and movementof materials.

The Draft Planning Act under s.26(3) empowers the authority torequest EIAs for environmentallysensitive areas and can requestthat EIS be developed andimplemented on projects that theauthority deems would causeadverse environmental impact.Although

The Draft Planning Act under s.26(3) clearly states that theAuthority shall determinewhether environmental impactassessment of the proposal isrequired depending on:

a) the nature of the developmentactivity

b) the geographical extent, scaleand location of the proposeddevelopment

c) the extent and significance ofthe changes to theenvironment likely to becaused by the proposeddevelopment

d) the extent of generalknowledge about the nature ofthe proposed development andits likely impact on theenvironment

e) any development plan for thearea

f) any other matter as may beprescribed.

The Authority under the DraftPlanning Act 2004 will beprohibited under Section s.27 (4)from granting a developmentpermit unless the EIA is takeninto consideration.

Environmental ImpactAssessments will be requested forareas deemed sensitive todevelopment such as outlined in

the draft development guidelines,namely:

1. Large scale residentialdevelopments

2. Medium to large commercialprojects

3. Mining operations and othermanufacturing developments

4. Private energy reserves

5. Developments near any bodiesof watera) Developments in close

proximity to coastlines; and

b) Developments that mayimpact watersheds.

The draft development guidelinesalso outline the requirements toconduct EIAs, which wouldinclude:

A detailed description of theproposed development

Site history; including thecurrent and historical landuse

A description of thepotentially affectedenvironment; includingcharacteristics of the marineenvironment where applicable

The identification ofpotential environmentalimpacts

An indication of anyadjacent property that islikely to be affected by theproposed development oralternatives.

A description of mitigationalternatives

Long term monitoringmeasures

A Non-technical summaryand recommendations.

4.2.6 Cayman IslandsCurrently there is no formalisedprocess for incorporating EIAs inthe Cayman Islands’ developmentapproval process. There is nomandatory requirement under theDevelopment & Planning Law orin the environmental legislation.However, EIAs maybe required bythe Central Planning Authority(CPA) [also known as thePlanning Board] pursuant toAppendix 3 of the DevelopmentPlan 1997.

Appendix 3 states that:“The submission of an environmentalimpact statement (EIS) fordevelopment projects which, because ofthe characteristics of the site or theparticulars of the proposal, may berequired in order for the Authority tocarefully examine the potentialimpacts of the development prior to thedetermination of the application.An environmental impact statementshall include the appropriate plans,information and data in sufficientdetail to enable the Authority todetermine, examine and assess thepotential environmental impacts of theproposal.”

This provision has not been usedoften, and when it is theDepartment of Environment(DOE) and the PlanningDepartment review the EIA andmake recommendations to theCPA.

DOE is in the process ofpresenting the NationalConservation Bill, 2003 which hasyet to be tabled/discussed inParliament. Broadly speaking theBill seeks to: “…promote andsecure biological diversity and thesustainable use of naturalresources in the Cayman Islands.”The Bill is divided into seven

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parts, forty-three sections andtwo schedules. Section 36 of theBill specifies that the “…Director(DOE) may, in his discretion, requirean environmental impact assessmentstudy to be carried out of the proposeddecision, undertaking, approval oraction.” This section also stateswhat the EIA should assess, whocan prepare the EIA, what the feesshould be and who pays, whatmonitoring is required, when acertificate of completion shouldbe issued and an appeal process.

4.3.7 DominicaThe EIA process in Dominica isgoverned by a new piece oflegislation, the Physical PlanningAct. The main purpose of the Actis to make provision for theorderly and progressivedevelopment of land in bothurban and rural areas and topreserve and improve theamenities thereof; for the grantingof permission to developmentland and for other powers ofcontrol over the use of land; forthe regulation of the constructionof buildings and related matters;to confer additional powers inrespect of the acquisition anddevelopment of land for planningpurposes and for other mattersconnected therewith.

The Act defines EIA as:“The process of collection, analysis,evaluation and review of informationon the likely effects of a proposeddevelopment on the environment andthe means to overcome adverse effects.”

Section 23 of the Physical PlanningAct (PPA) stipulates that unlessthe Physical Planning andDevelopment Authority (theAuthority) otherwise determines,an EIA must be prepared for anyapplication seeking permission for

Integrating Climate Change Adaptation Considerations into the EIAProcessIn the absence of a mandatory requirement for EIAs at any level, it isimpossible to suggest a process to integrate natural hazard and climatechange considerations. The following commentary is a proposal for theestablishment of a national EIA process for the Cayman Islands.

a) Revision of EIA ProcessIt is recommended that the Development And Planning Law (2003Revision) be amended to make EIAs mandatory because of the nature of aproposal or its location. EIAs should fall within the domain of the CentralPlanning Authority and not the Department of Environment or anycouncil/authority/commission set up under the proposed legislation. Thedecentralisation of the development review process will only causeconfusion and frustration among the various stakeholders.

It is recommended that the following measures be implemented to supportthe integration of climate change adaptation considerations into the futureEIA process in the Cayman Islands.

b) Establishment of Formal EIA ProceduresIt is recommended that legislation be enacted to provide certainty andclarity to the EIA process, and to provide a framework for regulating,administering and managing ElAs. Such legislation should allow for theclear identification of the obligations and duties of the proponent and theDirector of Planning as the government authority responsible foradministering the EIA process.

c) Provision of Clear EIA Guidelines for the Preparation of EIA ReportsIt is recommended that the Planning Department and DOE develop EIAGuidelines include provisions for the addressing climate change impacts.The provision of Model Terms of Reference for addressing climate changeadaptation considerations would also assist applicants undertaking an EIA,and ensure consistency in approach.

d) Provision of Clear Criteria for Screening & Scoping EnvironmentalImpacts

It is recommended that EIA Guidelines be established to provide clearcriteria for screening and scoping to ensure identification of the significantclimate change impacts on the proposed project or activity. Thedevelopment of such checklists can assist with the review and evaluation ofthe EIA report.

e) Provision of Clear Criteria Governing EIA ExpertsIt is recommended that criteria be established governing the qualification,skills, knowledge and experience that must be possessed by personsconducting EIAs. This approach may be used to ensure that personsconducting EIAs and assessing climate change impacts possess therequisite qualification, skills, knowledge and experience on climate changeand adaptation policies and measures. The same standard will have to beapplied to government experts who review and assess EIAs.

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any of the development prescribedin the Second Schedule of the Act.The Second Schedule lists 18matters for which an EIA must beprepared.

The Authority has the discretionto request the submission of anEIA where it is of the opinion thatsignificant environmental harmcould result. The PPA requires theAuthority to screen applicationsto determine whether an EIA isrequired. In screeningapplications for developmentpermission the Authority isrequired to consider a number ofprescribed factors which include:

The nature of the proposeddevelopment

The geographical extent, scaleand location of the proposal

The extent and significance ofchanges to the environment

The extent of generalknowledge about the nature ofthe proposed development andits likely impacts on theenvironment

Any development plan for thearea.

The Act prescribes a time framefor the EIA process. Once it isdetermined that an EIA is requiredthe Authority has a specified timelimit (30 days) within which tonotify the applicant at the sametime setting out the ToRs. ThePPA requires that the proponentmust submit an EIA statement ina form and containing suchinformation as may be prescribedby the Authority.

In the case where the Authorityissues a notice for an EIA the PPAis mandated to inform any agencyor department of Governmenthaving responsibility for the issueof any license, permit, approval

consent and any matter affectingthe development.

The Act confers power on theMinister to make Regulationsprescribing the qualification,

skills, knowledge and experienceto be possessed by personspreparing EIA statements. TheMinister may also cause thecreation of a register of personsqualified in preparing EIA

Integrating Climate Change Adaptation Considerations into the EIAProcessIt is recommended that the following measures be implemented to supportthe integration of climate change adaptation considerations into the EIAprocess in Dominica.

a) Revision of Definition of EIAIt is recommended that the definition of EIA under the Physical PlanningAct be revised to address the impacts of the environment (i.e., climatechange) on the project. The following is suggested: “The process ofcollection, analysis, evaluation and review of information on:i) the likely effects of a proposed development on the environment;ii) the likely effects of the environment, including climate change

effects, on the proposed development; and the means toovercome adverse effects.”

b) Provision of Clear Criteria for Screening & Scoping EnvironmentalImpacts

It is recommended that Regulations be promulgated under the PhysicalPlanning Act to provide clear criteria in the checklists for screening andscoping to ensure identification of the significant climate change impactson the proposed project or activity. The development of such checklistscan assist with the review and evaluation of the EIA report.

c) Provision of Clear EIA Guidelines for the Preparation of EIAReports

It is recommended that Regulations be promulgated under the PhysicalPlanning Act to provide guidance on the EIA process and ensure that theEIA process addresses climate change impacts. The provision of ModelTerms of Reference for addressing climate change adaptationconsiderations would also assist applicants undertaking an EIA, andensure consistency in approach.

d) Provision of Clear Criteria Governing EIA ExpertsIt is recommended that criteria be established governing the qualification,skills, knowledge and experience which must be possessed by personsconducting EIA. This approach may be used to ensure that personsconducting EIAs and assessing climate change impacts possess therequisite qualification, skills, knowledge and experience on climate changeand adaptation policies and measures. The same standard will have to beapplied to government experts who review and assess EIAs.

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statements. Any person who islisted on the register is deemed bythe PPA to be approved to prepareEIA statements in Dominica.Under section 88 of the PPA theMinister is empowered to makeRegulations that may provide theprocedures for EIA and the formof EIA statements.

The Chief Physical Planner has thediscretion to consult in writingwith any public officer or with anyperson who appears to him to beable to provide information relevantto an application for developmentpermission. The Act mandates anyPublic Authority that is consultedby the Chief Physical Planner forcomments to submit thosecomments within a specified periodof time (28 days). The PhysicalPlanning and DevelopmentAuthority has the discretion toinvite any Authority or personconsulted for comments to speak atany meeting convened to considerthe relevant application.

The Act establishes the PhysicalPlanning and DevelopmentAuthority (Authority) in s.4 and itis charged with the responsibilityof administering andimplementing the EIA. The Actconverts an existing institution,the Development and PlanningCorporation, into the PhysicalPlanning and DevelopmentAuthority. The mainresponsibility of the Authorityunder section 4 (4) is to advancethe purposes of the Act. It is theMinister responsible for PhysicalPlanning who has been assignedstatutory duties under the PPA inrespect of the EIA process.

4.2.8 GrenadaIn Grenada the EnvironmentalImpact Assessment process isgoverned by the Physical Planning

and Development Control Act, 2002.The purpose of the Act is to makea fresh provision for the control ofphysical development, to continuethe Land Development Authority,to require the preparation of thephysical plans for Grenada, toprotect the natural and culturalheritage, and for related matters.

The specific objectives of the Actas contained in s. 3 are to:

1. ensure that appropriate andsustainable use is made of allpublicly-owned and privately-owned land in Grenada in thepublic interest

2. maintain and improve thequality of the physicalenvironment in Grenada,including its amenity

3. provide for the orderlysubdivision of land and the

Integrating Climate Change Adaptation Considerations intothe EIA ProcessIt is recommended that the following measures be implemented tosupport the integration of climate change adaptation considerations intothe EIA process in Grenada.

b) Provision of Clear Criteria for Screening & ScopingEnvironmental Impacts

It is recommended that Regulations be promulgated under the PhysicalPlanning and Development Control Act (2002) to provide clear criteria inthe checklists for screening and scoping to ensure identification of thesignificant climate change impacts on the proposed project or activity.The development of such checklists can assist with the review andevaluation of the EIA report.

c) Provision of Clear EIA Guidelines for the Preparation of EIA Reports

It is recommended that Regulations be promulgated under the PhysicalPlanning and Development Control Act (2002) to provide guidance on theEIA process and ensure that the EIA process addresses climate changeimpacts. The provision of Model Terms of Reference for addressingclimate change adaptation considerations would also assist applicantsundertaking an EIA, and ensure consistency in approach.

d) Provision of Clear Criteria Governing EIA ExpertsIt is recommended that Regulations be promulgated under the PhysicalPlanning and Development Control Act (2002) to establish criteriagoverning the qualification, skills, knowledge and experience which mustbe possessed by persons conducting EIA. This approach may be usedto ensure that persons conducting EIAs and assessing climate changeimpacts possess the requisite qualification, skills, knowledge andexperience on climate change and adaptation policies and measures.The same standard will have to be applied to government experts whoreview and assess EIAs.

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provision of infrastructure andservices in relation thereto

4. maintain and improve thestandard of buildingconstruction so as to securehuman health and safety

5. protect and conserve thenatural and cultural heritage.

Section 25 of the Act makesprovision for EIAs in Grenada.Under this section the Planningand Development Authority hasthe power to, in addition torequesting further information,require an EIA to be carried out inrespect of any application forpermission to develop land. Thisincludes an application forapproval in principle.

The Second Schedule of the Actcontains a list of activities whichrequires an EIA unless the LandDevelopment Authority, for goodcause, determines otherwise.Before the Land DevelopmentAuthority can grant permission,the Act mandates that the EIAreport must be taken intoaccount.

The Minister responsible forplanning and development isempowered by s. 25 (4) to makeregulations providing for: a) criteria and procedures for

determining whether adevelopment is likely tosignificantly affect theenvironment

b) the procedures for setting thescope of the EIA

c) the minimum contents of anEIA report

d) the qualifications, skills,knowledge or experiencewhich must be possessed bypersons conducting EIAs

e) the procedures for publicparticipation in the EIA

process and public scrutiny ofany EIA report

f) the consideration by the LandDevelopment Authority of anapplication in respect of whichan EIA is required, includingthe criteria and procedures forreview of the report.

Under the Act, if the Authoritynotifies an applicant that an EIAis required, the Physical PlanningUnit and any other public agencymust, if requested by theapplicant, enter into consultationwith the applicant to determinewhether that agency has in itspossession any information whichthe applicant considers to berelevant. The Act prohibits anyagency or department ofgovernment from issuing anylicence, permit, approval, consentor other document ofauthorization in connection withan application that requires anEIA unless the Land DevelopmentAuthority gives notice.

The institution with leadresponsibility for EIA proceduresin Grenada under the PhysicalPlanning and Development ControlAct (2002) is the Planning andDevelopment Authority. ThePlanning and DevelopmentAuthority is a creature of statuteand according to s.6 of the Actcomprises the following members:

a. A chairperson

b. Three persons from the privatesector representing the areas ofbusiness, finance, law, naturalscience, land surveying,architecture and engineering

c. The Chief Technical Officersresponsible for: (i) physicalplanning (ii) public works (iii)health services (iv) agriculture(v) housing (vi) water and

sewage.

The Planning and DevelopmentAuthority is the agencyempowered under the law torequest applicants to submit EIAs.This is done through the issuingof EIA notices to the applicant.At the same time that an EIAnotice is issued to the applicantthe Planning and DevelopmentAuthority must inform agenciesand departments of governmentwhich have responsibility forissuing licences, permits,approvals, and consents formatters connected to theproposed project. The Planningand Development Authority isprohibited from grantingpermission for the development ofland for which an EIA has beenrequested unless it has first takeninto account the EIA report.

The Minister with responsibilityfor planning and development hasthe discretion under the Act tomake EIA regulations. ThePhysical Planning Unit, and anyother public agency with relevantinformation, have a statutoryduty under the Act to enter intoconsultation with the applicantand to make relevant informationavailable to the applicant.

4.2.9 GuyanaThe Environmental ImpactAssessment (EIA) process inGuyana is based on a formal legalframework. The legislation thatgoverns the EIA process inGuyana is the EnvironmentalProtection Act (EP Act). TheEnvironmental Impact AssessmentGuidelines 2000 (Vol 1) Rules andProcedures supplement thislegislation and were jointlyprepared by the EnvironmentalProtection Agency (EPA) and theEnvironmental Assessment Board(EAB).

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The Environmental Protection Act (EPAct) was enacted in 1996 and hassince been amended in 2000.Further amendments are to bemade to the EP Act, which areawaiting the Attorney General’sapproval before submission toParliament. The main purpose ofthe EPA Act is to provide for the

management, conservation,protection and improvement ofthe environment, the preventionor control of pollution, theassessment of the impact ofeconomic development, thesustainable use of naturalresources and for matters

Integrating Climate Change Adaptation Considerations into the EIA ProcessIt is recommended that the following measures be implemented to supportthe integration of climate change adaptation considerations into the EIAprocess in Guyana.

a) Revision of Definition of EIAIt is recommended that the definition of EIA under the EnvironmentalProtection Act (EPA) No.11 of 1996 and Environmental ImpactAssessment Guidelines 2000 be revised to also address the impacts ofthe environment (i.e., climate change) on the project.

b) Provision of Clear Criteria for Screening & Scoping Environmental Impacts

It is recommended that procedures established under the EnvironmentalProtection Act (EPA) No.11 of 1996 and Environmental ImpactAssessment Guidelines 2000 provide clear criteria for screening andscoping to ensure identification of significant climate change impacts onthe proposed project or activity. The development of such checklists canassist with the review and evaluation of the EIA report.

c) Provision of Clear EIA Guidelines for the Preparation of EIA Reports

It is recommended that procedures established under the EnvironmentalProtection Act (EPA) No.11 of 1996 and Environmental ImpactAssessment Guidelines 2000 ensure that the EIA process addressesclimate change impacts. The provision of Model Terms of Reference foraddressing climate change adaptation considerations would also assistapplicants undertaking an EIA, and ensure consistency in approach.

d) Provision of Clear Criteria Governing EIA ExpertsIt is recommended that the criteria established under EnvironmentalProtection Act (EPA) No.11 of 1996 governing the qualification, skills,knowledge and experience which must be possessed by personsconducting EIAs be reviewed to ensure to ensure that persons conductingEIAs and assessing climate change impacts possess the requisitequalification, skills, knowledge and experience on climate change andadaptation policies and measures. The same standard will have to beapplied to government experts who review and assess EIAs.

incidental thereto or connectedtherewith.

This Act is divided into 10 parts:

1. Preliminary Section

2. Establishment and Functionsof Agency

3. Administration

4. Environmental ImpactAssessments

5. Prevention and Control ofPollution

6. Financial Assurance

7. Investigations, Prosecutions,Civil Proceedings

8. Establishment and Jurisdictionof Environmental AppealsTribunal

9. Environmental Trust Fund andFinances

10. Miscellaneous.

The EPA Act establishes therequirement for EnvironmentalImpact Assessments in Guyana.Part IV contains provisionsregulating EIAs. Under this Part,s. 11 any developer whose projectfalls within the classes of projectslisted in the Fourth Schedule orany other project that maysignificantly affect theenvironment is required to applyto the Environmental ProtectionAgency (referred to as “Agency”)for an Environmental Permit.Section 10 of the EPA Act definesEIA as an assessment as providedfor under Part IV of the Act.

There is a prescribed form that anapplicant seeking an environmentalauthorisation must submit to theAgency for any new developmentalworks. This form requires theapplicant to submit informationon:

the site, design and size of theproject

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possible effects on theenvironment

the duration of the project

a non-technical explanation ofthe project.

Once an application is submittedto the Agency for anenvironmental authorisation, theEPA determines whether an EIA isrequired for the project or not. Inall cases the developer submits aproject summary or an outline ofthe proposed project for EPAscreening. The general practice isto ask for a detailed projectsummary only in cases where anEIA is to be undertaken.

In the case where it is not clearwhether a project willsignificantly affect theenvironment the developer mustsubmit a summary of the projectto the Agency containing thesame information as in the case ofan application for anEnvironmental Permit. For thisclass of project the Agency decideswhether to exempt the projectfrom having to undertake an EIAor it may require an EIA, and itmust place a public notice in alocal daily newspaper.

Where the Agency exempts aproject than under s.11 (3) anyperson who may be affected bythat project has the right ofappeal against the decision of theAgency. The legislation prescribesthe procedures for the appealwhich must be made toEnvironmental Assessment Board.

The EP Act stipulates that only anindependent and suitablyqualified person approved by theAgency can carry out an EIA3.The legislation establishes the

procedures for undertaking EIAsand the contents of the EIA report(statement). Section 11 (4)specifies what persons conductingEIAs must consider and s.11 (5)details what EIAs must contain.

Persons undertaking EIAs arerequired to identify, describe andevaluate the direct and indirecteffects of the proposed project onthe environment. The legislationlists those environmentalreceptors that must be assessedsuch as human beings; flora andfauna and species habitat; watersoil; air and climatic factors;material assets, the culturalheritage and the landscape;natural resources; and theecological balance betweenecosystems.

Under s 11(5) every EIA mustcontain:

a description of the project(location, production processes,emissions, etc.)

an outline of the mainalternatives

a description of likelysignificant effects

an indication of difficulties(technical, expertise,knowledge, etc.) encounteredduring the study

description of best availabletechnology

description of any hazards ordangers which may arise fromthe project and an assessmentof the risk to the environment

description of mitigationmeasures

a statement of the degree ofirreversible damage

an emergency response plan

a rehabilitation and restorationprogramme

a non-technical summary ofthe information.

In all cases the Agency publishesin a daily news paper the decisionof the Agency as to whether anEIA is required for the project ornot. In the case of a projectrequiring an EIA, then the noticeis published at the developer'scost. If an EIA is not required, thepublic has a 60-day publicnotification period to makeobjections to the EPA against itsdecisions. Should an EIA berequired, then the public has a 28-day public notification periodto make written submissions forconsiderations in the EIA. Thereis no qualification in thelegislation indicating whichmembers of the public have aright to make submissions. Eventhough it is not in the legislation,EPA takes submissions from allstakeholders who have a vestedinterest in the project.

The Agency, in consultation withthe EIA consultant and afterholding scoping meetings, sets theTerms of Reference (TORs) andscope of the EIA. In all cases, theAgency considers submissionsthat have been made by thepublic when determining theTORs. This process is furtherelaborated in the EnvironmentalImpact Assessment Guidelines 2000(Vol. 1) Rules and Procedures.

The EP Act under s. 12 authorizesthe Agency to approve or refusethe project after considering anumber of factors including publicsubmissions, the recommend-ations of the Environmental

3 This can be contrasted with the Dominica Physical Planning Act which authorizes the Minister to make Regulations in respect of the qualifications ofpersons preparing EIA Reports as opposed to conducting EIAs.

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Assessment Board and the EIAand Environmental ImpactStatement (EIS). The Act requiresthe Agency to publish its decisionand the grounds for making thatdecision.

Under s. 13 the Agency stipulatesthat a decision by the Agency togrant an environmental permitshall be subject to a number ofstatutory conditions. The Agencyhas a statutory duty not to issuean environmental permit unless itis satisfied that the developer cancomply with the terms andconditions of the permit and thatthe developer can paycompensation for any loss ordamage which may arise from theproject or a breach of any of theterms and conditions of thepermit.

The environmental permit takesprecedence over otherdevelopment consents. The EPAct (s. 14) prohibits other publicagencies responsible for issuingdevelopment consents in relationto matters where anenvironmental authorization isneeded, from so doing unless suchan environmental permit has beenissued. The Act provides that anydevelopment consent given issubject to the terms of theenvironmental authorisation.

It is an offence under the EP Actwhere any person fails to carryout an EIA or starts a projectwithout obtaining anenvironmental permit as requiredby the law. Under s 16 of the EPAct the Minister is empowered tomake Regulations establishingcriteria and thresholds todetermine which projects mayhave significant effects on theenvironment. The Agency hasnot yet established any criteria to

determine which projects wouldhave significant effects on theenvironment.

The EPA also regulates otheractivities which on their own maynot have a significant effect onthe environment. In this case,those activities that, because oftheir location in a particular place,will have cumulative effects thatsignificantly affect theenvironment the Agency, mustrequest the submission of an EIA.

The Environmental ImpactAssessment Guidelines 2000 (Vol 1):Rules and Procedures for Conductingand Reviewing EIAs is a manualjointly prepared by theEnvironmental Protection Agencyand the EnvironmentalAssessment Board. The purposeof these guidelines is to providethe Environmental ProtectionAgency (EAB), sector agencies,private sector, NGOs, members ofthe public and consultants with aset of approved guidelines for theconduct and review of EIAs inGuyana.

The EIA guidelines operate inharmony with Part IV of the EP Act and represent the firstvolume in a series of volumesdealing with specific matters,such as:

Generic EIA guidelines (Vol. 2)

Sector Specific EIA Guidelines,for example Mining (Vol. 3);Electricity (Vol. 4); and Forestry(Vol. 5).

The EIA guidelines for conductingand reviewing EIAs sets out theprocesses involved in undertakingand reviewing EIAs. It clearlydescribes the role of the variousactors in the process. The EIAguidelines define the variouscomponents of the EIA. The EIA

process in Guyana consists ofthree components:

1. The Environmental BaselineStudy

2. Environmental Assessment

3. Environmental ImpactStatement.

The EIA may be submitted to theAgency in its constituentcomponents or as a singledocument. The baseline studyprovides information on the stateof the environment within thesphere of influence of the projectbefore the project is implemented.This information forms the inputto the environmental assessmentwhere it is analysed to predict andquantify likely impacts.

The Environmental Assessment isa process that involves theidentification and assessment ofimpacts of the proposed projectand its alternatives. Considerationis also given to mitigationmeasures to prevent or reducenegative impacts.

The Environmental ImpactStatement is a summary of thefindings of the other twocomponents: the baseline studyand the environmentalassessment. It includes anEnvironmental Management Plan.

The EIA guidelines set out therules and procedures of the EAB.The guidelines contain an EIAReview Checklist. The checklistis in a matrix format which liststhe elements to be evaluated withprovision for comments/recommendations and rating.

The Environmental ProtectionAgency is the main bodyresponsible for the administrationand implementation of theEnvironmental Protection Act. Part II

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of the Act provides for theestablishment of the Agency andidentifies its functions whichinclude, inter alia:“To ensure that any developmentactivity which may cause an adverseeffect on the natural environment beassessed before such activity iscommenced, and that such adverseeffect be taken into account in decidingwhether or not such activity should beauthorized”.

The EP Act establishes anEnvironmental Assessment Board(EAB) with responsibility forconducting public hearings intoEIA appeals; and as may benecessary in any EIA and EIS, torecommend to the Agency:

whether the EIA or EIS shouldbe accepted, amended orrejected

whether an environmentalpermit should be issued by theAgency

what terms and conditionsshould be included in theenvironmental permit.

One of the main functions of theEAB is to ensure a participatoryand consultative approach to EIAdevelopment by facilitating theparticipation of the public andregulatory agencies in the EIAprocess, especially as it relates tothe preparation and review of thescope of work and ToRs. Thelegislation is silent on whichMinister has responsibility for theEIA process. Currently there is noMinister with responsibilities forenvironment, however, thePresident acts as the Minister.

4.2.10 JamaicaThe Environmental ImpactAssessment process in Jamaica isgoverned by the Natural Resources

Conservation Authority Act, 1991(NRCA), the Natural ResourcesConservation (Permits and Licences)Regulations, 1996 and the NaturalResources Conservation AuthorityGuidelines for ConductingEnvironmental Impact Assessments,1998.

Under s.10 of the NRCA theNatural Resources ConservationAuthority (referred to as the“Authority”) is empowered torequest an applicant for a permit– or the person responsible forundertaking a specified class of

Integrating Climate Change Adaptation Considerations into the EIA ProcessIt is recommended that the following measures be implemented to supportthe integration of climate change adaptation considerations into the EIAprocess in Jamaica.

a) Revision of Definition of EIAIt is recommended that the definition of EIA under the Natural ResourcesConservation Authority Guidelines for Conducting Environmental ImpactAssessments, 1998 be revised to also address the impacts of theenvironment (i.e., climate change) on the project.

b) Provision of Clear Criteria for Screening & Scoping Environmental Impacts

It is recommended that procedures established under the NaturalResources Conservation Authority Guidelines for ConductingEnvironmental Impact Assessments, 1998 provide clear criteria forscreening and scoping to ensure identification of significant climate changeimpacts on the proposed project or activity. The development of suchchecklists can assist with the review and evaluation of the EIA report.

c) Provision of Clear EIA Guidelines for the Preparation of EIA Reports

It is recommended that procedures established under the NaturalResources Conservation Authority Guidelines for ConductingEnvironmental Impact Assessments, 1998 ensure that the EIA processaddresses climate change impacts. The provision of Model Terms ofReference for addressing climate change adaptation considerations wouldalso assist applicants undertaking an EIA, and ensure consistency inapproach.

d) Provision of Clear Criteria Governing EIA ExpertsIt is recommended that criteria be established under the NaturalResources Conservation Authority Guidelines for ConductingEnvironmental Impact Assessments, 1998 governing the qualification,skills, knowledge and experience which must be possessed by personsconducting EIAs be reviewed to ensure to ensure that persons conductingEIAs and assessing climate change impacts possess the requisitequalification, skills, knowledge and experience on climate change andadaptation policies and measures. The same standard will have to beapplied to government experts who review and assess EIAs.

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development, construction or anyenterprise in a prescribed area – tosubmit to the Authority an EIAcontaining prescribedinformation. The Authority mayalso require an applicant tofurnish it with such documents orinformation which the Authoritythinks fit.

There is no expressed definition ofEIA in the NRCA, however theEIA Guidelines define EIA as:“A study of the effects of a proposedaction on the environment.”

The Authority can request an EIAwhere it is of the opinion that theactivities of the enterprise,construction or development arehaving, or are likely to have anadverse effect on theenvironment. The Act compelsthe applicant to comply with therequirement. The request for anEIA must be by notice in writingto the applicant. The legislationprovides that the notice muststate the time within which theassessment shall be submitted tothe Authority.

Once the Authority issues anotice requesting an EIA theNRCA mandates the Authority toinform any agency or departmentof Government havingresponsibility for the issue of anylicence, permit, approval orconsent in connection with anymatter affecting the environmentthat a notice has been issued. TheAct prohibits such agency ordepartment having been notifiedfrom granting the licence, permit,approval or consent. It is anoffence under the Act where anyperson who is not an applicant fora permit refuses or fails to submitan EIA as required by theAuthority.

Section 38 (1) (b) of the NRCAgives the Minister the discretionto make regulations that maycontain provisions in relation tothe description or category ofenterprise, construction ordevelopment in respect of whichan environmental impactassessment is required by theAuthority. The Act binds theCrown.

Under regulation 18, of theNatural Resources of Conservation(Permits and Licences) Regulations,the Authority may, upon theevaluation of an application for apermit or licence, require theapplicant to furnish anydocument, information orenvironmental impact assessmentpursuant to section 10 of theNRCA.

There are no EIA regulations inJamaica but under the Permit andLicence system of 1997, permitsand licences are required in aprescribed area and for prescribedcategories of activities.

The Natural Resources ConservationAuthority Guidelines for ConductingEnvironmental Impact Assessments,1998 describe the steps andprocedures for conducting andreviewing EIAs in Jamaica. TheEIA process in Jamaica involves:

Preliminary activities includingscooping or setting terms ofreference for the EIA, selectingthe consultant to do the EIA,and review of existinglegislation

Submission of draft ToR to theAuthority for approval

Conducting the EIA study

Collecting background dataand information

Public involvement

Identification of impacts interms of magnitude andsignificance

Socio-economic analysis ofproject effects/impact

Recommending mitigationaction for each impactidentified

Analysis of alternatives of theproject (economic andenvironmental)

Training requirements of theproject

Development of a monitoringprogramme/plan

Documenting the study in theEIA report.

Annex 2 of the EIA Guidelinesprovides a description or categoryof enterprise, construction ordevelopment which require anEIA in accordance with s. 38 (1)(b) of the NRCA. Annex 3provides a basic checklist whichcan be used to compile thedescription of the environmentalsetting. These include:

1. Basic land conditions includingthe geological conditions, soilconditions and archaeologicalvalue of site

2. Biotic community conditionswhich includes plant andanimal

3. Watershed conditions

4. Atmospheric conditions.

Section 3 Part I of the NRCA,which establishes the NaturalResources ConservationAuthority, (referred to as the“Authority”), provides that theAuthority is responsible for theadministration andimplementation of the EIAprocess.

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4.2.11 St. Kitts and NevisThe environmental impactassessment process in St. Kittsand Nevis is regulated under theDevelopment Control and PlanningAct (2000). Part IV, section 26 andSchedule 3 of the Act identifiescategories of proposals thatrequire an EIA. Categories ofprojects that require a mandatoryEIA include:

Hotels of more than 12 rooms,and residential sub-divisions of

more than 6 plots/units

Industrial plants, hyrdo-electricand diesel power plants

Quarrying and miningactivities, land reclamation,dredging, dams/reservoirs;filling ponds

Airports, marinas, ports andharbours

Gas pipelines and projectsresulting in significantemissions into theenvironment

Solid waste operations andsanitary landfills

Activities involving thedischarge of radio-activematerials

Development inenvironmentally sensitive area(wetlands, marine parks, etc.).

The Physical Planning Division(PPD) is responsible for receivingapplications and undertakingpreliminary screening exercises.The PPD is the Secretariat of theDevelopment Control andPlanning Board (DCPB), which isthe lead agency for EIAs and isresponsible for final review andapproval of the EIA, taking intoconsideration recommendations ofthe PPD.

Although there are no formalguidelines to assist in the EIAprocess, the Physical PlanningDivision (PPD) provides guidanceon a case-by-case basis. A draftoutline of EIA report requirementsis provided to applicants.However, the final Terms ofReference for the EIA report isbased on the results of projectscreening and scoping. Reviewcriteria and methods for assessingthe EIA report have not beenestablished.

Public participation in the EIAprocess is encouraged through aprocess of public notices in localnewspapers. No mechanism hasbeen established that guaranteespublic access to the EIA report.

4.2.12 St. LuciaIn St. Lucia the EIA system isgoverned by the proposed PhysicalPlanning and Development ControlAct (No. 29 of 2001). Under s. 22of the Act the Head of thePhysical Planning and

Integrating Climate Change Adaptation Considerations into the EIA ProcessIt is recommended that the following measures be implemented to supportthe integration of climate change adaptation considerations into the EIAprocess in St. Kitts and Nevis.

a) Provision of Clear Criteria for Screening & Scoping EnvironmentalImpacts

It is recommended that Regulations be promulgated under theDevelopment Control and Planning Act (2000) to provide clear criteria inthe checklists for screening and scoping to ensure identification ofsignificant climate change impacts on the proposed project or activity. Thedevelopment of such checklists can assist with the review and evaluationof the EIA report.

b) Provision of Clear EIA Guidelines for the Preparation of EIA Reports

It is recommended that Regulations be promulgated under theDevelopment Control and Planning Act (2000) to provide guidance on theEIA process and ensure that the EIA process addresses climate changeimpacts. The provision of Model Terms of Reference for addressing climatechange adaptation considerations would also assist applicants undertakingan EIA, and ensure consistency in approach.

c) Provision of Clear Criteria Governing EIA ExpertsIt is recommended that Regulations be promulgated under theDevelopment Control and Planning Act (2000) to establish criteriagoverning the qualification, skills, knowledge and experience which mustbe possessed by persons conducting EIAs. This approach may be used toensure that persons conducting EIAs and assessing climate changeimpacts possess the requisite qualification, skills, knowledge andexperience on climate change and adaptation policies and measures. Thesame standard will have to be applied to government experts who reviewand assess EIAs.

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Development Division has thepower to request an applicant forplanning permission to prepare anEIA. This includes an applicationfor approval in principle. TheFourth Schedule of the Actidentifies those activities whichwill normally require an EIAunless the Head of the PhysicalPlanning and DevelopmentDivision determines otherwise.

The Minister responsible forplanning and development isgiven the discretion under the Actto make EIA regulations, inconsultation with the Head of thePhysical Planning andDevelopment Division. The Actprescribes that the regulationsmust provide for the following:

a. The criteria and procedures fordetermining whether anactivity is likely to significantlyaffect the environment

b. The procedures for setting thescope of works of the EIA to becarried out by the applicant

c. The minimum contents of theEnvironmental ImpactStatement

d. The qualifications, skills,knowledge or experience whichmust be possessed by personsconducting EIAs

e. The procedures for publicparticipation in the EIA processand public scrutiny of theEnvironmental ImpactStatement

f.. The consideration by the Headof the Physical Planning andDevelopment Division of anapplication in respect of whichan EIA has been required,including the criteria andprocedures for review of theEnvironmental ImpactStatement.

Under the Act, if the Head of thePhysical Planning andDevelopment Division notifies theapplicant that an EIA must beprovided, the Minister and anyother public agency in possessionof relevant information is requiredto enter into consultation withthe applicant and to provide suchinformation to the applicant. Inaddition, once an EIA notice isgiven to an applicant the Head ofthe Physical Planning andDevelopment Division mustinform any agency or department

of Government havingresponsibility for the issue of anylicence, permit, approval, consentor other document ofauthorization in connection withthe proposed project, and theagency or department ofgovernment is prohibited fromgranting such licence, permit,approval, consent or otherdocument of authorization unlessit has been duly notified by theHead of the Physical Planning andDevelopment Control Division.

Integrating Climate Change Adaptation Considerations into the EIA ProcessIt is recommended that the following measures be implemented to supportthe integration of climate change adaptation considerations into the EIAprocess in St. Lucia.

a) Provision of Clear Criteria for Screening & Scoping Environmental Impacts

It is recommended that Regulations be promulgated under the PhysicalPlanning and Development Control Act to provide clear criteria in thechecklists for screening and scoping to ensure identification of significantclimate change impacts on the proposed project or activity. Thedevelopment of such checklists can assist with the review and evaluationof the EIA report.

b) Provision of Clear EIA Guidelines for the Preparation of EIA Reports

It is recommended that Regulations be promulgated under the PhysicalPlanning and Development Control Act to provide guidance on the EIAprocess and ensure that the EIA process addresses climate changeimpacts. The provision of Model Terms of Reference for addressing climatechange adaptation considerations would also assist applicants undertakingan EIA, and ensure consistency in approach.

c) Provision of Clear Criteria Governing EIA ExpertsIt is recommended that Regulations be promulgated under the PhysicalPlanning and Development Control Act to establish criteria governing thequalification, skills, knowledge and experience which must be possessedby persons conducting EIAs. This approach may be used to ensure thatpersons conducting EIAs and assessing climate change impacts possessthe requisite qualification, skills, knowledge and experience on climatechange and adaptation policies and measures. The same standard willhave to be applied to government experts who review and assess EIAs.

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The Head of the Physical Planningand Development ControlDivision will have the leadresponsibility for the EIA processin St. Lucia in accordance withthe proposed Physical Planning andDevelopment Act. The Head of thePhysical Planning andDevelopment Division has beenassigned specific functions inrespect of the EIA system thatinclude the following:

The screening of applicationsin accordance with s. 22 (2) todetermine whether theproposal falls within the list ofactivities listed in the FourthSchedule

Requesting an applicant tosubmit an EIA

Informing relevantGovernment agencies anddepartments of the EIA notice.

The Minister responsible forplanning and development hasbeen empowered by the Act, inconsultation with the Head of thePhysical Planning andDevelopment Division, to makeEIA regulations. Under s. 22 (5) ofthe Act the Minister is mandatedto consult with and share relevantinformation in his possessionwith the applicant for thepreparation of an EIA.

4.2.13 St. Vincent and theGrenadines

Generally, there is no legal basisfor EIAs in St. Vincent and theGrenadines, and such evaluationsare undertaken on a case-by-casebasis. However, under the WasteManagement Act (No. 31 of 2000),section 11 requires anenvironmental impact assessmentto be undertaken for all wastemanagement facilities. Part IV ofthe Act establishes the EIA

process for any wastemanagement facility. The initialstep in the process is anapplication for a “pre-evaluation”that must be submitted to thePhysical Planning andDevelopment Board (termed the“planning authority”) established

under the Town and CountryPlanning Act (1992). Within 10working days of receiving anyapplication, the planningauthority undertakes a screeningto determine whether an EIA isrequired. The planning authoritywill advise the applicant that:

Integrating Climate Change Adaptation Considerations into the EIA ProcessIt is recommended that the following measures be implemented to supportthe integration of climate change adaptation considerations into the EIAprocess in St. Vincent and the Grenadines.

a) Establishment of Formal EIA ProceduresIn order to address activities outside the scope of the EIA process outlinedin the Waste Management Act, it is recommended that legislation beenacted to provide certainty and clarity to the EIA process, and to provide aframework for regulating, administering and managing EIAs. Suchlegislation should allow for the clear identification of the obligations andduties of the proponent and the Physical Planning and Development Boardas the government agency responsible for administering the EIA process.

b) Provision of Clear Criteria for Screening & Scoping Environmental Impacts

It is recommended that an EIA Manual be developed to provide clearcriteria and checklists for screening and scoping to ensure identification ofsignificant climate change impacts on the proposed project or activity. Thedevelopment of such checklists can assist with the review and evaluation ofthe EIA report.

c) Provision of Clear EIA Guidelines for the Preparation of EIA Reports

It is recommended that an EIA Guide be prepared to assist developers andEIA practitioners in undertaking the EIA process. Such a Guide shouldensure that the EIA process addresses climate change impacts. Theprovision of Model Terms of Reference for addressing climate changeadaptation considerations would also assist applicants undertaking an EIA,and ensure consistency in approach.

d) Provision of Clear Criteria Governing EIA ExpertsIt is recommended that criteria be established governing the qualification,skills, knowledge and experience which must be possessed by personsconducting EIAs. This approach may be used to ensure that personsconducting EIAs and assessing climate change impacts possess therequisite qualification, skills, knowledge and experience on climate changeand adaptation policies and measures. The same standard will have to beapplied to government experts who review and assess EIAs.

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a) a comprehensiveenvironmental impactassessment is required;

b) a “focus report” is required; or

c) no further in formation isrequired and the project will berecommended to cabinet forapproval.

Where either an EIA or a focusreport is required, the planningauthority shall provide theapplicant with Terms of Referencefor the evaluation that is to beundertaken. Thereafter, theapplicant shall undertake, athis/her own expense, a study andreport that complies with therequirements of the Terms ofReference. Section 13 of the WasteManagement Act outlines the scopeof any environmental impactassessment report that shall besubmitted for consideration,including:

a) Description of the proposedactivity, and any technicallyfeasible alternatives

b) Description of theenvironmental setting

c) Description of the social andenvironmental impacts thatmay result duringconstruction, operation,decommissioning orabandonment

d) Description of the residualadverse environmental andsocial impacts

e) An environmental protectionplan

f) A waste management planoutlining waste reductionprograms, monitoring andsurveillance programs,mitigation measures.

The planning authority mayrequire the applicant to provide

any additional information thatmay be required. Section 15 of theWaste Management Act requires theplanning authority to render adecision on the EIA report.

It shall be the responsibility of theapplicant under the provisions ofsection 16 of the WasteManagement Act to implement anymonitoring program,environmental protection plan, ormitigation measure thatconstitutes a condition of anyapproval granted by the planningauthority. The planning authorityis permitted to undertakeinspections at any stage and issuean order to stop work in the eventof non-compliance with anycondition. A fine of one hundredand twenty thousand dollars maybe imposed on any person who:(i) contravenes any condition ofan approval; (ii) carries out anyconstruction activities before anapproval is granted; or (iii)contravenes any order to stopwork. Section 17 of the WasteManagement Act empowers theplanning authority to issueguidelines to regulate variousaspects of the EIA process.

In instances other than thoseregulated under the WasteManagement Act, EIAs areconducted on a case-by-case basis,with little by way of guidance tothe applicants or organisationsinvolved in the process. Persons ororganisations undertaking an EIAuse their own discretion as towhether the public shallparticipate in the process. An EIAthat has been submitted to theplanning authority is generallymade available to the public.

4.2.14 Trinidad and TobagoThe environmental impactassessment process in Trinidadand Tobago forms part of the“Certificate of EnvironmentalClearance (CEC)” system that hasbeen established under section 35of the Environmental ManagementAct 2000.

Enacted in 1994, the EnvironmentalManagement Act provides for themanagement of the environmentwithin Trinidad and Tobagothrough the establishment andoperation of the EnvironmentalManagement Authority (EMA).This Act was subsequentlyrepealed and replaced in 2000.There were no significantdifferences in the new Act. TheAct, set out in nine parts,establishes the EnvironmentalManagement Authority (EMA) inPart II, invests the Authority withfunctions and powers in Part III,and deals with environmentalmanagement matters in parts IV,V and VI.

Section 26 of the EnvironmentalManagement Act empowers theEnvironmental ManagementAuthority to make rules for thepurpose of giving effect to therequirements of the Act. Actingunder this provision, and to giveeffect to some of the goals andobjectives of the NationalEnvironmental Policy, theEnvironmental ManagementAuthority has developed andpromulgated the Certificate ofEnvironmental Clearance Rules 2001.These Rules outline the processand procedures to be applied inany application for a Certificate ofEnvironmental Clearance undersection 36 of the Act.

The objective of the Certificate ofEnvironmental Clearance is the

attainment of integratedenvironmental management on anational level. To achieve thisobjective, proposed activities needto be assessed to consider likelyimpacts, environmental risks, aswell as mitigation and monitoringfor potential adverse effects. TheCertificate of EnvironmentalClearance is a certificate that mayor may not be granted for aparticular activity. If theCertificate of EnvironmentalClearance is granted, this certifiesthe environmental acceptability ofthe proposed activity, provided

that all conditions contained inthe CEC are fulfilled.

EIA is part of the CEC processand is undertaken to identify andevaluate specific environmentalconcerns of a proposed activity.Not all applications for a CECwill require an EIA. There is acharge for processing a CECapplication that requires an EIA.This charge may vary fromTT$5,000 up to TT$600,000depending upon the activity andcomplexity of the EIA evaluation.CEC applications that require anEIA are given special mention in

the Certificate of EnvironmentalClearance Rules 2001 with respectto public consultation.

The Environmental Management Acthas, by means of an attachedSchedule to the CEC Order,outlined a designated list ofactivities that require Certificateof Environmental Clearance.These activities are considered tohave the potential for significantadverse effects or risks to theenvironment, whether in thephase of establishment,expansion, operation,decommissioning orabandonment. Designatedactivities are listed in thefollowing broad categories:

Agriculture

Heavy and LightManufacturing Industry

Civil Works

Natural Resource/MineralExtraction and Processing

Waste Disposal

Transport Operations andConstruction of AssociatedInfrastructure

Other Service-OrientedIndustries.

The key steps in the process are asfollows:

Step 1 - Submission of Application(including projectdescription)

Step 2 - Screening andAcknowledgement(within 10 working daysof receipt of Application)

Step 3 - Determination whether:- CEC is not required,- CEC is required but no EIA,- CEC and EIA required

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Integrating Climate Change Adaptation Considerations into theCEC/EIA ProcessIt is recommended that the following measures be implemented to supportthe integration of climate change adaptation considerations into theCEC/EIA process in Trinidad and Tobago.

a) Provision of Clear Criteria for Screening & Scoping Environmental Impacts

It is recommended that the CEC Review Manual be amended to provideclear criteria in the checklists for screening and scoping to ensureidentification of significant climate change impacts on the proposed projector activity. The development of such checklists can assist with the reviewand evaluation of the EIA report.

b) Provision of Clear EIA Guidelines for the Preparation of EIA Reports

It is recommended that the Guide for the Application for a Certificate ofEnvironmental Clearance be modified to ensure that the EIA processaddresses climate change impacts. The provision of Model Terms ofReference for addressing climate change adaptation considerations wouldalso assist applicants undertaking an EIA as part of the CEC process, andensure consistency in approach.

c) Provision of Clear Criteria Governing EIA ExpertsIt is recommended that criteria be established governing the qualification,skills, knowledge and experience which must be possessed by personsconducting EIA. This approach may be used to ensure that personsconducting EIAs and assessing climate change impacts possess therequisite qualification, skills, knowledge and experience on climate changeand adaptation policies and measures. The same standard will have to beapplied to government experts who review and assess EIAs.

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IF CEC and EIA required:

Step 4 - Applicant Notified ofProposed Terms ofReference for the EIA(within 21 working daysof notification that CECand EIA required)

Step 5 - Either Terms of Referenceare Agreed, or theApplicant may Request aModification to the Termsof Reference

Step 6 - Final Terms of ReferenceIssued (within 10 workingdays of request formodification)

Step 7 - Submission of EIA Reportby Applicant

Step 8 - Notification of Decision(within 10 working daysof receipt of EIA report).

The Environmental ManagementAuthority (EMA) has prepared a

Guide (CEC Review Manual) forthe review of environmentalimpact assessment (EIA) reports.The Guide has been developed toensure consistency in the EIAreview process. The Guideprovides checklists for Screeningand Scoping, the evaluation of“alternatives,” and to assist in thereview process.

SECTION 5Integration of

Climate ChangeConsiderationsinto EIA’s at theNational Level –

South Pacific

5.0 BackgroundEnvironmental ImpactAssessment (EIA) is one of themany tools available to ensurethat development results inminimal environmental andresource damages, reducingthreats to the carrying capacity ofisland systems (ecological, socialand economic). EIA is consideredan important element to achievesustainable development in thePacific and several countries haveinstituted EIA legislation or policyprocesses to reflect this (see Figure 28). Given that the insularPacific is small, and its human andnatural environments are highlyvulnerable to anthropogenicstresses and climate-relatedhazards, Pacific Island Countries(PICs) have been proactive atmany international negotiationforums in calling for theintegration of environmentalconsiderations in the developmentassessment process, including theneed for integrated planning. Therecent Pacific submission to theJohannesburg Plan ofImplementation (JPoI) for theWorld Summit on SustainableDevelopment (WSSD) contains anumber of actions that haveparticular relevance to thefurthering of EIA and integratedenvironmental planning in PICs.

Although climate-related disastersare one of the major issuesthreatening the very existence ofPacific people, the EIA process ofmost PICs do not specificallyconsider climate or climate change

as a separate issue for any detailedassessment, but amalgamates itinto the broader biophysical issuesin the scoping stages of EIA. Forsome PICs, climate may beconsidered under the variousheadings of coastal hazard zones,coastal flood zones, coastalerosion or in areas of possiblelandslides. Certain countries domention climatic factors in theEnvironmental SignificanceDeclaration (ESD) form, which isused as a guideline (Terms ofReference) for preparing EIAs butnot specifically climate change.

A South Pacific RegionalEnvironment Programme (SPREP)review of the EIA status in thePacific conducted in 19981 andupdated in 20022, reported that allPICs give EIA a high priority interms of environmentalprotection as well as providing theinitial tool for integratedassessment. The focus of the priorreviews was to report on theoperational status of EIA andbarriers to its effective use in-country, especially for integratingdevelopment assessmentprocesses. Perceptions of what EIAis have varied over time. In bothdeveloped and developingcountries, prior definitions werealong the lines of EIA being “apublic process of prediction andevaluation of the likely effectsthat an activity will have on theenvironment, before that activitystarts.”3 This definition limits thefocus of EIA into primarilydetermining how projects

1 Komeri Ontario 1998. Environmental Impact Assessment Review. South Pacific RegionalEnvironment Programme, unpublished.

2 Matt McIntyre 2002. EIA Review Update. South Pacific Regional Environment Programme.unpublished.

3 Komeri Ontario. 1998. Environmental Impact Assessment Review. South Pacific RegionalEnvironment Programme, unpublished.

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interfere with the environmentrather than vice versa. However,this view is already changing withindications from several Pacificisland countries that the inverse isnow being taken intoconsideration to a certain degree.In the case of Fiji for instance, forany development that takes placenear shorelines; wave actions,storm surges, etc. are taken intoconsideration. The multifariouslinkages between developmentand environmental systems isrecognised in Fiji's EIA guidelines:

“the relationship between adevelopment project, people and theenvironment is interrelated. Therefore,it is dynamic and changeable. Peopleaffect the environment in which theylive and are affected, in turn, bychanges in the environment”.

In other Pacific Island countries,climate-related hazards are takeninto consideration on a project-by-project basis.

5.1 EIA Status in the PacificMost PICs have addressed theneed to establish formal EIAprocedures at the national level byincluding EIA under a policy oract of government. The CookIslands formally established theirEIA procedures under the nationalCook Islands Environment Act 2003,whereas in the past EIAenforcement was limited only toone island, Rarotonga, under theRarotonga Environment Act 1994-1995. The current Cook Island’sEnvironment Act 2003 is anumbrella framework lawapplicable nationwide to all 15islands, although local islandgovernments are responsible forsetting individual regulations andbylaws on EIA under the Act.

In January 2004, Samoa passedthe Planning and UrbanManagement Act 2004 that includeEIA as a sub-section of theSustainable DevelopmentPlanning Section of the Act.Since 1987, Vanuatu has had anad hoc arrangement for EIA,however, the status changed inMarch 2003 when EIA waslegalised under the EnvironmentalManagement and Conservation ActNo. 12. Although Fiji has not hadany institutional frameworkgoverning the EIA system, the EIAprocedures were established in1980 by an inter-departmentalEnvironmental ManagementCommittee (EMC), created duringthe implementation of theDevelopment Plan 7 provision.EIA has already been in operationfor the past 13 years, and shouldbe legally recognised once theSustainable Development Bill (SDB)submitted to Cabinet is approved.

In the SPREP review, it is alsorecognised that many PICs believethat more work needs to beundertaken to enable:

Equitable administration ofEIAs

Acquisition of skills andexperience through on-the-joband organized training

Integration of EIA processeswith physical developmentprocesses

Explicit criteria and guidelinesfor development andenvironmental protection

(For the more advanced PICs)the use of Strategic EIA forland use, policy assessment andmeans to satisfy MultilateralEnvironmental Agreements(MEAs)

Improvements in the methodsand benefits that may accruefrom early public participationin development-environmentprotection debates

Better information andstandardized data to assist inEIAs and other associateddecision-making.

5.2 Possible Modalities forIncorporating ClimateChange Impacts into theEIA Process

For most PICs, the EIA processhas been established in one formor another (legislative frameworksor policy process). Despite thesebeing in operation for a number ofyears, however, it is recognisedthat there are opportunities forimprovement. Natural hazards,climate change, variability andextreme events are causing havocglobally, destroying lives andlivelihoods – and associated costsare astronomical. There is a needto take these issues seriously as,according to the IPCC ThirdAssessment Report, frequency andintensity of such events mayincrease in future because ofwarming of the atmosphere. Inthis regard, it is recommendedthat for the Pacific, theincorporation of climate changeconsiderations into the EIAprocess should be by the followingEIA supportive instruments:

i) Terms of Reference

ii) EIA Review Sheet/checklist

iii) Compliance and MonitoringSystems

iv) Establishment of Formal EIAProcedures

v) EIA Experts Roster.

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Some countries like Samoa andFiji, are more advanced in theirEIA and associated planningprocesses and have called for moreadvanced Strategic EnvironmentalAssessment (SEA) approaches toassess policies, programmes andplans, and incorporating the useof Environment ManagementPlans based on ISO14000 to steertowards post-developmentcompliance and monitoring.

5.2.1 Terms of Reference(ToR)

The Pro-forma ToR to bedeveloped for projects withinhighly vulnerable environmentssuch as coastal zones, flood plains,wetlands and sloping lands shouldspecifically include detailedanalysis to cover climate change,variability and sea level rise issues.

5.2.2 EIA Review-Sheet/Checklist

The EIA checklist should bereviewed to specificallyincorporate natural hazard andclimate change issues. Currentchecklists of most PICs focuslargely on the assessments ofnatural resources, social andcultural issues, policy and plan, aswell as relationships to otheractivities. Neither natural hazardsnor climate change are specificallymentioned in most EIA checklists.Since natural hazards and climatechange are becoming major issuesof concern for the Pacific andSmall Island Developing States,it’s best that these emergingissues – that are in part due toanthropogenic interferences – areclearly identified at the earliestpossible stage during an EIAprocess to be seriously addressedby further developmentalconsiderations. It is important

also to identify these issues in theEIA review sheet so that theproponent as well as the reviewerwill be working from a commonplatform, thus maintainingconsistency. Such identificationalso guards against inconsistenciesand lowering of standards as staffturnovers occur over time.

5.2.3 Compliance,Monitoring andEvaluation Systems

Often very little attention is paidto compliance, monitoring andevaluation systems of the EIAprocess, which defeats the wholepurpose of conducting an EIAstudy. Compliance, monitoringand evaluation are ignored due tolimited human and financialresources in the environmentagencies. To overcome thisconstraint, it is proposed that aMemorandum of Understanding(MoU) could be developed withMunicipalities, Rural LocalAuthorities, Civil Societies,Communities or any other partyas need arises to assist inmonitoring. It must also be notedthat monitoring will not onlyensure that an EnvironmentalManagement Plan (EMP) is fullyrealized but also provide keyindicators to develop adaptivemeasures associated with climatechange.

The Environmental ManagementPlan (EMP) is an importantoutcome of the environmentalassessment process. If thesituation demands, the EMPshould outline the environmentalprotection measures to prevent orminimize adverse effects ofclimate change associated withspecific developments. Often themonitoring plan is a componentof the EMP that outlines the

objectives of monitoring, thespecific information to becollected and the programmemanagement. Programmemanagement, on the other hand,includes: assigning institutionalresponsibility, reportingrequirements, enforcementcapability and ensuring adequateresources are available.

5.2.4 Establishment ofFormal EIAProcedures

Some countries in the PacificRegion have formal EIAprocedures in place. There areseveral countries in the regionhowever, that still need toestablish formal/legal procedures.To facilitate the integration ofenvironmental impactassessments into economic andphysical development processes,the ideal scenario would be for theaccommodation of EIA provisions,procedures, and jurisdiction,within planning frameworks. Byformalising the EIA process, theinstitutional framework isestablished to incorporate climatechange and natural hazards intothe EIA process. This will then besupported by actions to stimulatethe awareness of, andunderstanding by EIAAdministrators of the severity ofclimate change and naturalhazards on development activities.However, the circumstances ofmany PICs means that thisscenario remains further down thetrack.

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5.2.5 EIA Experts RosterIt is recommended that a roster ofexperts be developed in PICs to

COUNTRY FORMAL EIA LegProvisions/ Regs

Enacted/Practiced

Integrated toPhysicalDevelopment &Activities?

AdequateGuidelines/explicit criteria

Able for StrategicEA and Policy

Able to satisfyMEAs eg CC,CBD?

Participation ofCommunity

American Samoa

Yes, 1995 then 2003

Yes ? ? ?

?

Through Scoping

YesFed States ofMicronesia

Fiji

French Polynesia

Guam

Kiribati

Rep of MarshallIslands

Nauru

New Caledonia

Niue

Northern MarianaIslands

Palau

Papua New Guinea

Samoa

Solomon Islands

Tokelau

Tonga

Tuvalu

Vanuatu

Wallis and Futuna

Cook Islands

No

Yes, 1980 then2003 SDB?

YesUSA EPA

Yes

YesUSA EPA?

Env Bill, 2003 Draft Env Plng Bill

Yes

Yes, 1993, now2004 PUMA

Yes

No

Yes

Yes, 2003

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Awaiting Regs/EIA provisions

Sign dev.

Sign Dev?

?

Sign Dev

?

Awaiting Env Plng Bill

Fully integrated

Linkages improved

Yes?

Yes problems with applicability

More required

Yes

Yes

No

Yes

Yes?

Yes?

Some

Yes

Y (CBD)

Yes

Yes

Yes

Limited

Yes

Yes

Limited

YesUSA EPA

FIGURE 28 – Status of EIA Institution and Practice in Pacific Island Countries and Territories

undertake the climate change andnatural hazard component of theEIA. Such a roster would triggerinternal quality control and

Source: SPREP, 2003

reliability in formulating EIAreports.

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5.3 Integration of ClimateChange Adaptation intothe EIA Process withinPacific Island Countries -Practical Considerations

5.3.1 Cook IslandsIn the Cook Islands the EIAprocess is mandated under theEnvironment Act 2003. This Actprovides for the protection,conservation and management ofthe environment in a sustainablemanner. The EIA provision fallsunder Section 36 and states insubsection (1): “No person shallundertake any activity which causesor is likely to cause significantenvironmental impacts except inaccordance with a project permitissued under this section.” Under theAct: “every person commits an offencewho, without reasonable excuse orlawful justification, fails or refuses tocomply with subsection (1), and shallupon conviction be liable -

a) in the case of a body corporate, toa fine not exceeding $100,000;

b) in any other case, to a fine notexceeding $50,000.”

The EIA provision was firstlegislated under the RarotongaEnvironment Act 1994-95. This Actonly applied to the capital andmain island and was later repealedand replaced by the EnvironmentAct 2003, which entered into forceon November 19, 2003. Prior tothese Acts was the Cook IslandsConservation Act 1987 had no EIAprovisions in place. The EIAprovision was first implementedin 1996, after several workshopsand trainings with both local,regional and overseas experts. Inaddition to the Act there is a draftEIA Management Guidelinecompleted in July 1999, which hasbeen forwarded to SPREP for

further review. However with thenew Act in place, there is a needfor the Guideline to be updatedand to incorporate all islands,since Rarotonga was the onlyisland covered originally.

The Environment Act 2003 has clearlegal provisions that prescribe theinstitutional duties and rights ofthe Environment Service, the leadagency in the EIA process. Withinthe Service the Compliance,Enforcement and MonitoringDivision oversees theimplementation of the EIAprocess as prescribed under theAct. In addition to theEnvironment Service otherstakeholders include the Ministryof Works: involved with preparingand reviewing EIA Reports;Ministry of Health: involved withliquid waste disposal options;Traditional Leaders (ArongaMana): involved withconservation and protected areas;and Engineers/Environmental Consultants:involved with preparing EIAReports and Reviewing (Peer-Review). There is an IslandEnvironment Authorityestablished by the Act for eachisland, which is the PermittingAuthority that approves EIAProjects and issues project permitsfor development for thatparticular island. The Authorityconsists of representatives fromNGOs, Health, TraditionalLeaders, and all Mayors andMembers of Parliament for thatparticular island.

The EIA process begins with theproject owner (applicant) filling inthe Environmental SignificanceDeclaration Form (a checklistbooklet) and a field visit by theEnvironment Service to the

project site/area. Climate changeissues are covered generally in theESD Form, with sections onflooding, storm surges, erosionand drought. The ESD Formallows the Environment Service todetermine whether an activity islikely to have a significant adverseaffect on the environment andtherefore whether an EIA isrequired or not. If the activityfalls under this category then theapplicant is required to apply for aproject permit and an EIA Reportis submitted with the application.Under the Act there are specificareas of concern: Foreshore andCook Islands Waters, SlopingLand, Wetlands and InlandWaters. The majority of projects,which fall within these areas,require EIAs due to theirvulnerable nature and sensitivityto change. EIA applicationsstarted off slowly from 1996-1999,however since 2000 there has beena marked increase in EIAapplications lodged with theEnvironment Service, mainly dueto the increase in tourism relateddevelopments, e.g., Hotel/MotelAccommodations.

Common examples ofdevelopments that require EIAsinclude:

Tourism Accommodation(large scale, e.g., more than 3 units)

Foreshore Protection (e.g., RockRevetments, Coastal ProtectionUnits (CPUs))

Filling in of Wetlands

Excavation on Sloping Land

Dredging Lagoon/Harbours

Industries (large scale)

Harbour Development

Airport Development.

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Processi. Letter of Advice (ToR): Advising

the Applicant that anEnvironmental Impact Assessmentis required

The Environment Officer advisesthe applicant in writing of theneed for an EIA. The letter willclearly identify the areas ofconcern that need to be addressed.

ii. Applicant employs qualifiedengineer/environmentalconsultant

The applicant will employ aqualified engineer orenvironmental consultant toprepare and complete the EIA.The Environment Service has alist of recommended localEngineers/EnvironmentalConsultants, and this is madeavailable to the applicant.

In addition, the applicant willprovide the following informationto the employed engineer/environmental consultant and theinformation will be included inthe EIA:

A site map/plan indicating thelocation of the development

An engineering report ifexcavation is involved

Information on the wastetreatment system for proposedresidential /tourismaccommodation/industrialdevelopment/waste facilities

A letter of support from themain community groups andthe neighbouring areas

Water/power supplyacknowledgement letter.

iii. Independent reviewIn situations where theEnvironment Service is notqualified to make their ownanalysis of the report, the

Environment Service contractswith an Engineer orEnvironmental Consultant toreview the EIA report and ensurethat all outstanding concernsidentified in the Letter of Adviceto the applicant have beenaddressed. In these situations, theEnvironment Service isresponsible for payment ofcontracting services. If theoutstanding concerns have notbeen addressed, then the matter isreferred back to the applicant’sengineer.

iv. Public ConsultationIf all outstanding issues aresatisfactorily addressed:

The Applicant pays a fee ofNZ$500 to the EnvironmentService. This fee covers thecost of report printing,newspaper and televisionadvertisements. Theadvertisements are to advisethe public about the projectpermit application and thelocation of the EIA report forpublic viewing and comments.

The EIA Report is placed in anumber of public areas,including shops, markets, cafesand supermarkets (especiallynear the project site), libraries,banks, and the EnvironmentService Office for 30 days.Details of how to make awritten response to theEnvironment Service areincluded. Written commentsfrom the public are invited.

v. Memorandum for the IslandEnvironment Authority

The EIA Report and any publiccomments are collected. TheEnvironment Officer develops aMemorandum, withrecommendations and conditions.

vi. Island Environment AuthorityMeeting

The Memorandum, the EIAReport and Public comments aresubmitted to the IslandEnvironment Authority forproject permit approval, deferralor refusal/non-approval.

vii. ApprovalIf approved, the IslandEnvironment AuthorityChairperson signs the projectpermit, with conditions. Acovering letter is signed by theDirector of the EnvironmentService and attached with theproject permit. The Applicant isadvised to collect the approvedand signed Project Permit.

viii. DeferralIf deferred, the applicant isrequested to submit modificationsregarding the proposed project orsubmit outstanding information.After the above has beencompleted the project isresubmitted to the IslandEnvironment Authority.

ix. Refusal/Non-approvalIf refused, the applicant is advisedregarding the refusing of a permitfor the proposed project andstating the reasons for suchrefusal. The applicant may, byletter to the Minister (within 14days of receiving notice of arefusal), request that the Ministerreconsider the Authority’sdecision.

Once the Permitting Authorityissues the project permit, theEnvironment Service monitors theproject during the constructionand operation phase. At the endof the construction phase it is arequirement that the Engineertogether with the Project Owner

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submit to the EnvironmentService – within 10 days after thedate the proposed work iscompleted – a report verifyingcompletion of the proposed workand verifying compliance with allactivities approved by thePermitting Authority.

Integrating Climate Change Adaptation Considerations into the CookIslands EIA Process:It is recommended that the following measures be implemented to supportthe integration of climate change adaptation considerations into the EIAprocess in the Cook Islands.

a) Terms of Reference (ToR)It is recommended that climate variability and change issues bespecifically considered in ToRs of projects that are proposed in highlyvulnerable environments such as coastal zones, flood plains, wetlands andsloping lands for some detail assessment.

b) EIA Review-Sheet/ChecklistIt is recommended that the current EIA checklist be reviewed to specificallyincorporate natural hazard and climate change issues.

c) Compliance, Monitoring and Evaluation SystemsIt is recommended that Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) bedeveloped with Island Environment Authorities, Non GovernmentOrganisations, Communities and other parties to assist in the monitoring ofEIA mitigation measures recommended.

d) Establishment of Formal EIA ProceduresIt is recommended that support be provided to the new Island EnvironmentAuthorities to enable regulations be enacted that can provide certainty andclarity to the EIA process for the outer islands, so that a proper nationalframework for regulating, administering and managing EIAs is evident.Such legislation should allow for the clear identification of the obligationsand duties of the proponent and the authorities responsible foradministering the EIA process.

e) EIA Experts RosterThe Cook Islands has one engineering firm that employs most of therelevant EIA experts in the Cook Islands making "independentassessment" awkward and expensive at times. It is recommended thattraining in the integration of climate change considerations be provided toEIA practitioners so that a roster of experts can eventually be developed toundertake the climate change and natural hazard component of the EIA.Such a roster would trigger internal quality control and reliability in thedevelopment of the EIA report.

5.3.2 Fiji IslandsPolicies and LegislationsThere is no mandatory legalrequirement for EIA in specifiedcircumstances, although theSustainable Development Bill (SDB),under consideration since 1997,proposes this. In the early days,government established an

inter-ministerial EnvironmentalManagement Committee (EMC)to advise Director of theDepartment of Town andCountry Planning (DTCP) on theimplications of the developmentproposals. In 1981, a consultantwas commissioned by thegovernment to prepare suitableprocedures for incorporating EIAtechniques in the Fiji’s planningframework. In the late 1980s thegovernment established anEnvironmental Management Unit(EMU) that dealt with variousEIAs. Later in 1993, EMU wasupgraded to a Department, givingit responsibility but no legalmandate for EIAs.

Currently, the Town and CountryPlanning Act 1946 Cap 139 hasgiven the Fijian state thediscretion to require suchenvironmental assessments. Thediscretionary power of theDirector of the Department ofTown and Country Planning(DTCP) has been the trigger formany of the EIAs prepared in Fijisince early 1980s. The Director(TCP) uses EIA along with otherconsiderations, when makingdecision on any proposeddevelopment. The Director’sdiscretion in this instance appliesonly to private developments andnot to government proposals.Since mid 1990s governmentprojects funded by donor agenciesare subjected to an EIA process.The Director of Town andCountry Planning’s discretiondoes not extend to the municipalcouncils, which have approvedplanning schemes, or the miningsector, which is controlled by theDirector of Mineral Resources. Itis envisaged that this situationwill soon change once the SDB isenacted. In the SDB, the three

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categories of development areclearly defined. Category Aactivities will be dealt by theDepartment of Environment(DOE). Category B will bemanaged by the existingApproving Authorities. CategoryC is exempted from an EIA.

EIA ExemptionProposals that do not require anEnvironmental ImpactAssessment are as follows:

a proposal for the constructionof a single-family residentialbuilding in an approvedresidential development area,provided the construction doesnot encroach into the coastalzone and is at least 30 metersfrom any river or stream

a proposal for an addition toan existing residential dwellingif the addition is to be usedonly for residential purposes,does not encroach into thecoastal zone and is at least 30meters from any river orstream

a proposal for the constructionof a traditional or customarystructure made fromtraditional materials, or fromnatural rock, sand, coral,rubble, or gravel, if theconstruction does not encroachinto the coastal zone and thestructure is at least 30 metersfrom any river or stream

a proposal for emergencyaction

any other class of developmentproposal exempted from theEIA process by the Minister byregulation.

Processi. Screening and ScopingUnder the current practice, theDirector of TCP forwards the

development applications to theDirector of Environment tomanage EIAs. DOE, through ascoping exercise, develops termsof reference for the study. Scopingis jointly undertaken by key lineministries and within 30 daysafter receiving the developmentapplication a Terms of Reference(ToR) is issued to the proponent.To accelerate the process, aconsultant paid by the proponentcould also draw up the ToR. A

scoping meeting is then organizedby the consultant to present theToR to the key stakeholders at themeeting. These could contributeto the discussion and proposeadditions or deletions to the ToR.If a ToR is prepared by aconsultant then that ToR must beapproved by the lead agency toensure that all the issues ofimportance to the decision-makersare addressed. Without a writtenapproval on the ToR the

Integrating Climate Change Adaptation Considerations into the FijiIslands EIA Process:It is recommended that the following measures be implemented to supportthe integration of climate change adaptation considerations into the EIAprocess in the Fiji Islands.

a) Terms of Reference (ToR)The ToR to be developed for projects that are proposed for highlyvulnerable environments such as coastal zones, flood plains, wetlands andsloping lands; it is recommended that climate change, variability and sealevel rise need to be specifically included as issues that need some detailanalysis.

b) Compliance, Monitoring and Evaluation SystemsOften very little attention is paid to compliance, monitoring and evaluationsystems of the EIA process, which defeats the whole purpose ofconducting an EIA study. Compliance, monitoring and evaluation areignored due to limited human and financial resources in the EnvironmentAgencies. To overcome this constraint, it is proposed that a Memorandumof Understanding (MoU) could be developed with Municipalities, RuralLocal Authorities, Civil Societies, Communities or any other party to assistin monitoring. It must also be noted that monitoring will not only providekey indicators to develop adaptive measures associated with climatechange but also ensure that the Environmental Management Plan (EMP)is fully realized.

c) Establishment of Formal EIA ProceduresBy formalising the EIA process, the institutional framework is establishedto incorporate emerging issues such as climate change and naturalhazards into the EIA process.

d) Accredited ConsultantsIt is recommended that a roster of experts be developed in PICs toundertake the climate change and natural hazard component of the EIA.Such a roster would trigger internal quality control and reliability in thedevelopment of the EIA report.

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consultant can not proceed withthe study.

ii. Public ConsultationDuring the EIA process, publicconsultation is crucial. At threestages the public could beconsulted on the developmentactivities: first, during the scopingstage; secondly throughout theEIA study and finally during thereview process. The publicconsultation process is clearlydescribed in the SDB.

iii. EIA StudyConsiderable amounts offieldwork are usually performed inan EIA study in predictingimpacts. It is important that athorough EIA report be preparedby skilled and experiencedprofessionals for technical aspectsof the EIA. To overcome lack ofexpertise for conducting actualEIA study, it is proposed in theSDB that line ministries orconsultants could carry outtechnical studies, paid for by theproponent. However, to maintainimpartiality, the lineministry/department involved inthe EIA study is not part of thescoping or review team. Thereview team is at liberty to reviewthe EIA study or hire a consultantto assist in the reviewing exercise.

iv. EIA ReviewEIA reports are reviewed by areview team, which is formed onan ad hoc basis involving the typeof experts required. A checklist isavailable for the EIA review teamto ensure that the environmentalassessment is complete and theToR have been adhered to. Duringthe review process the reviewteam may:

request any organization tosubmit in writing any mattercontained in the report

request copies of any report,study or document mentionedin the report

require proponent to carry outany further study or submitadditional information

require an independent reviewby a technical specialist.

v. Decision on EIARecommendations arising out ofthe review exercise aretransmitted to the DTCP fordecision-making on thedevelopment application. Oftenthe EIA recommendations aretranslated into consent conditionsby the DTCP. An approval maybe subject to a requirement of anenvironmental bond to cover theestimated cost of preventing,mitigating or rehabilitating anyenvironmental damage to the site.

vi. AppealUnder SDB, the proponent mayappeal to the EnvironmentalTribunal within 21 days, if theEIA report is not approved.

vii. Compliance, Monitoring andEvaluation

Although the EIA procedure iswell developed – including theavailability of an EIA Guideline tothe Approving Authorities and theproponent – it must be notedhowever, that the monitoringoutcomes and consent conditionsare a weak link in the Fiji EIAsystem.

5.3.3 SamoaThe EIA process for Samoa hasbeen operational since 1989.4 Thethen Economic and PolicyPlanning Division of the TreasuryDepartment developed aframework to guide departmentsand agencies in the identificationand submission of projectproposals for approval andfunding (for large scale projects).According to the framework, anEIA is required in the planningphase. In 1998, draft EIAregulations and guidelines weredeveloped for the Division ofEnvironment and ConservationOfficers. These guidelines wereagain reviewed by BECAInternational Consultants in2001. However, it was onlyrecently that the EIA process isbeing legalised under the Planningand Urban Management Agency Act2004 (PUMA Act 2004). The Actserves to establish the Planningand Urban Management Agency,and Section 8 (a) specificallyprovides for the fair, orderly,economic and sustainable use,development and management ofland including the protection ofnatural and man-made resourcesand the maintenance of ecologicalprocesses and genetic diversity.

The Planning and UrbanManagement Agency (PUMA) ofthe Ministry of Natural Resourcesand Environment has the formalrole of offering advice andguidance on all aspects of the EIAprocess, particularly the scopingphase, assisting developers as wellas administering the publicreview. In the case of anapplication for development

4 The Department of Land Survey and Environment Act 1989, part 8 Section 95(a)(ii) - principal functions of the Department under this Act shall be to advise onthe ‘the potential environmental impact of any public or private development proposal’ Economic and Policy Planning Division of the Treasury Departmentdeveloped a framework to guide departments and agencies in the identification and submission of project proposals for approval and funding (for large scaleprojects).

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consent, the Agency may requirean applicant to provide anenvironmental impact assessmentin relation to the proposeddevelopment. Where the Agency

decides that an environmentalimpact assessment shall beprepared, the format, structure,subject matter of any suchassessment and any other related

matter, shall be specified inwriting by the Agency to theapplicant and the applicant shallcomply with the Agency’srequirements under this section.

Notification of ApplicationThe Agency, after receiving adevelopment application shallcause the placement of a publicnotice of the application, and, bywritten notice, will informrelevant people who will or maybe affected by the development.The Agency, where it considersappropriate, may also request thatall or any of the notices be givenby the applicant.

Referral to Relevant AuthoritiesThe Agency, under the 2003 Bill,is also required to consult withevery public authority that itconsiders relevant to thedevelopment application received.Likewise, if there are anysustainable management plans ordraft sustainable managementplans relating to the land, thesubject of the developmentapplication. All relevantauthorities shall consider everydevelopment application referredto it and may inform the Agencyin writing that:

It does not object to thegranting of developmentconsent; or

It does not object if thedevelopment consent is subjectto the conditions specified bythe relevant authority; or

It does object to the grantingof the development consent onany specified ground.

The relevant authority may alsogive the Agency its comments onthe application.

Integrating Climate Change Adaptation Considerations into theSamoa EIA Process:It is recommended that the following measures be implemented to supportthe integration of climate change adaptation considerations into the EIAprocess in the Samoa.

a) Terms of Reference (ToR)The ToR to be developed for projects that are proposed for highlyvulnerable environments such as coastal zones, flood plains, wetlands andsloping lands; it is recommended that climate change, variability and sealevel rise need to be specifically included as issues that need some detailanalysis.

b) EIA Review-Sheet/ChecklistThe EIA checklist should be reviewed to specifically incorporate naturalhazard and climate change issues.

c) Compliance, Monitoring and Evaluation SystemsOften very little attention is paid to compliance, monitoring and evaluationsystems of the EIA process, which defeats the whole purpose ofconducting an EIA study. Compliance, monitoring and evaluation areignored due to limited human and financial resources in the EnvironmentAgencies. To overcome this constraint, it is proposed that a Memorandumof Understanding (MoU) could be developed with Municipalities, RuralLocal Authorities, Civil Societies, Communities or any other party to assistin monitoring. It must also be noted that monitoring will not only providekey indicators to develop adaptive measures associated with climatechange but also ensure that the Environmental Management Plan (EMP) isfully realized.

d) Establishment of Formal EIA ProceduresAlthough some countries in the Pacific Region have formal EIA Proceduresin place, several countries still need to legislate these processes.Legislation or Acts of Parliaments should provide empowerment to the EIAprocess, however it does not stimulate the mainstreaming of emergingissues into the environmental impact assessments such as climate changeand natural hazards. By formalising the EIA process, the institutionalframework is established to undertake incorporation of emerging issuessuch as climate change and natural hazards into the EIA process.

e) EIA Experts RosterIt is recommended that a roster of experts be developed to undertake theclimate change and natural hazard component of the EIA. Such a rosterwould trigger internal quality control and reliability in the development ofthe EIA report.

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Submissions on DevelopmentApplicationsThe Agency will also receivesubmissions from persons whomay be affected by a developmentapplication by way of objectionsor otherwise. A submission ofobjection must state how theobjector would be affected by thegrant of development consent.The Agency may reject anobjection that it considers hasbeen made primarily to secure ormaintain a direct or indirectcommercial advantage for theobjector.

EIA Review ProcessEIA review process is necessaryand any member of the public canmake a submission. A period of 30days is available for submissions.After a review period, an AssistantCEO-PUMA forwards arecommendations on the EIA tothe CEO who in turn forwards italong with the EIA to theMinister. Within 10 days theMinister reaches a decision on theproposal – either approving it,with or without conditions, ordeclining it. Whatever thedecision, it is publicly advertised.

EIA Support from PUMAUnless the situation dictatesotherwise, PUMA does notundertake the EIA on behalf ofapplicants, including othergovernment departments. Partlythis is a resource issue: PUMAdoes not have the personnelavailable to take on such acommitment. PUMA under theSustainable Development Sectionshould, therefore, developpartnerships with applicants,including other governmentdepartments, to help applicantsstudy and respond to theenvironmental implications of a

proposal. Hence, PUMA is likelyto be involved in offering adviceand guidance on all aspects of theprocess. More specifically, PUMAwould normally have a role toplay in the scoping phase,assisting developers (usuallythrough their consultants). Insection 46 (b) the Agencyconsiders all the matters,including any decision andcomments of a relevant authority.PUMA also has the formal roles ofadministering the public review ofthe EIA and formulating advice tothe Minister about the likelyenvironmental implications of theproposal. These are furtherreasons for the Ministry not toundertake impact assessments.The position of PUMA as theadministrator of the EIA processand reviewer of completedassessments must, as far aspossible, be seen to be separatefrom the interests of applicants, ifthe public and other interestedparties (e.g., resource developmentcompanies, donor agencies) are tohave confidence and trust in theEIA process.

5.3.4 VanuatuPolicy and LegislationsEIA in Vanuatu is mandatedunder the EnvironmentalManagement & Conservation ActNo. 12 of 2002, formally legalisedon March 10, 2003. Prior to thisVanuatu had an adhocarrangement for EIAs. Theprovisions for the process of anEIA is provided under the Act butthis is yet to be formulated andaccepted.

It is legally constituted in Part 3,Division 1/11 of the EnvironmentalManagement & Conservation Act No.12 of 2002 that EIAs must beconducted for developments that

are likely to have significantenvironmental impacts and /orsocial impacts.

Activities subject to an EIAinclude all projects, proposals ordevelopments that will do or arelikely to:

a) Affect coastal dynamics orresult in coastal erosion

b) Result in the pollution ofwater resources

c) Affect any protected, rare,threatened, or endangeredspecies, its habitat or nestinggrounds

d) Result in the contamination ofland

e) Endanger public health;

f) Affect important customresources

g) Affect protected or proposedprotected areas

h) Affect air quality

i) Result in unsustainable use ofrenewable resources

j) Result in the introduction offoreign organisms and species.

Integrated PlanningIn Vanuatu the EIA is integratedinto the physical planning processand other legal developmentframeworks. The EnvironmentDepartment is the lead agency.The lead agency assessesapplications, determines the needfor EIAs, develops ToRs,publicises, registers, prepares EIAguidelines and carries outmonitoring. The lead agencyworks collaboratively with coreagencies including governmentministries, departments, localgovernments, municipal councilsand developers, who provide andcoordinate the undertaking ofpreliminary EIAs.

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At the moment, the EnvironmentDepartment does not have anofficer responsible for EIA. Thereis, however, a National AdvisoryCommittee on Environment thatscreens and approves EIAs. TheEnvironmental Management &Conservation Act provides that EIAsare to be prepared by individualsor companies on behalf of thedeveloper, at the cost of thedeveloper.

ProcessWhen a ministry, governmentagency, provincial or municipalcouncil receives an application forany project proposal ordevelopment activity it must:

Send a copy of the alldevelopment applications tothe Vanuatu EnvironmentDepartment

Within 21 days of receiving thedevelopment applicationconduct a PreliminaryEnvironment Assessment(PEA).

If the project proposal ordevelopment activity is likely tocause environmental, social,economic or custom impacts andrequires a full EIA, the ministry,government agency, provincial ormunicipal council must write tothe project proponent within 21days of receiving the application,requesting that a full EIA beconducted and directing them tocontact the Vanuatu EnvironmentDepartment to establish theTerms of Reference for the EIA.The project proponent isresponsible for preparing the EIAand all associated costs. Nodevelopment permit can be issueduntil after the EIA is completeand accepted.

If an agency decides there is nosignificant environmental, socialor custom impact posed by theproject proposal or developmentactivity, the application isprocessed and the VanuatuEnvironment Department mustbe advised within 10 days of thedecision.

Upon receipt of an application theDirector of Environment has 10days to determine whether an EIAis required, 21 days for an EIA tobe prepared if an EIA is required.Within 30 days after receivingwritten comments from theproject proponent, the EIA reportmust be lodged in theEnvironmental Registry at thesame time.

The Director of Environmentmust develop Terms of Referencefor any work that is to beundertaken by the EIA, includinga description of the scope of workrequired.

In developing the Terms ofReference, the Director must givespecial consideration to the needfor consultation, participation andinvolvement of customlandowners, chiefs and otherinterested parties and may consultwith the National Council ofChiefs for that purpose.

The project proponent isresponsible for the full cost ofpreparing the EIA report

Consultation between theVanuatu EnvironmentDepartment, a range ofstakeholders and the projectproponent develops the Termsof Reference on which toconduct the EIA

The project proponent submitsthe EIA report to the VanuatuEnvironment Department

which then makesrecommendation to theMinister responsible for thefinal ministerial approval

When a government agency isthe project proponent, theapplication must be forwardedto the Director of the VanuatuEnvironment Department whowill conduct the PEA anddecide on the need for an EIA

When the VanuatuEnvironment Department isaware of a project that has ahigh risk of impacting theenvironment it can directlyrequest that an EIA beconducted.

ConsultationThe public is invited to providewritten submissions on the EIAreport and when it is lodged inthe Environmental Registry, thepublic, not specifying any singlegroup of people, is allowed to lookat the EIA reports. All costsassociated with any public noticerequirement are the responsibilityof the project proponent.

For reviewing EIA reports, section22 of the EnvironmentalManagement & Conservation Act No.12 of 2002, states the following:

“After receiving and reviewing theEIA report, including anysubmissions made, the Director(of the Department ofEnvironment and Conservation)may, by notice in writing, requirethe project proponent to correctany deficiencies and/or provideadditional information.”

RecommendationsWithin 30 days after receiving theEIA report and any additionalmaterial required, the Directormust review the report and makerecommendation on the project,

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proposal or development activityto the Minister. The Ministermust consider the Director’srecommendation and, within 21days after receiving therecommendation, make a decisionon the application for the project,proposal or development activity.The Director must advise theproject proponent in writing ofthe Minister's decision within 14days after the Director becomesaware of it.

Integrating Climate change Adaptation Considerations into theVanuatu EIA Process:It is recommended that the following measures be implemented to supportthe integration of climate change adaptation considerations into the EIAprocess in the Vanuatu.

a) Terms of Reference (ToR)The ToR to be developed for projects that are proposed for highlyvulnerable environments such as coastal zones, flood plains, wetlandsand sloping lands; it is recommended that climate change, variability andsea level rise need to be specifically included as issues that need somedetail analysis.

b) EIA Review-Sheet/ChecklistThe EIA checklist should be reviewed to specifically incorporate naturalhazard and climate change issues.

c) Compliance, Monitoring and Evaluation SystemsOften very little attention is paid to compliance, monitoring and evaluationsystems of the EIA process, which defeats the whole purpose ofconducting an EIA study. Compliance, monitoring and evaluation areignored due to limited human and financial resources in the EnvironmentAgencies. To overcome this constraint, it is proposed that a Memorandumof Understanding (MoU) could be developed with Municipalities, RuralLocal Authorities, Civil Societies, Communities or any other party to assistin monitoring. It must also be noted that monitoring will not only providekey indicators to develop adaptive measures associated with climatechange but also ensure that the Environmental Management Plan (EMP)is fully realized.

d) EIA Experts RosterIt is recommended that a roster of experts be developed to undertake theclimate change and natural hazard component of the EIA. Such a rosterwould trigger internal quality control and reliability in the development ofthe EIA report.

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ANNEX 1Summary of

Climate ChangeScenarios for the

Caribbean andSouth Pacific

Regions

1.1 Climate ScenariosScenarios of future climate arebased mainly on the output ofatmospheric-ocean GeneralClimate Models (or GlobalCirculation Models) AOGCM’s.These use mathematicaldescriptions of atmospheric andoceanic motions, energy fluxesand water fluxes to simulate past,present and future climates. Pastand present climates are used tovalidate the models. Futureclimate is driven primarily byforcing due to greenhouse gasesand aerosol particles which tendto partly counteract thegreenhouse effect. These human-induced influences now outweighnatural factors that affect global

FIGURE 29 - The Global Climate of the 21st Century

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climate such as changes in solarradiation or volcanic emissions.

Greenhouse gas and aerosolforcing is estimated by means ofscenarios of future emissions.These can have a very wide rangedepending on the future evolutionof world populations, economies,energy use, the sources of energyused, and extent of deforestationor afforestation. Our present(2002) atmosphere has about 30%more CO2 (the most abundant ofthe greenhouse gases) than in pre-industrial times. IPCC’s range ofemission estimates suggest thatCO2 concentrations could be asmuch as triple pre-industrial by2100 or could be less than doublepre-industrial concentrations by

85

2100. The outcome dependsprimarily on the rate of growth ofeconomies and of fossil fuel useand the vigour of measures toreduce the latter. This creates thegreatest uncertainty in projectionsof future climate.

However, most climate modelanalyses have used simply aprojection of greenhouse gas andaerosol forcing that increases atapproximately the same rate asduring the past decade. This alsoresults in a range of outcomesbecause of the differencesbetween models. Most of theavailable literature is based onsuch climate model analyses, andthe following range of outcomesgenerally reflects these modeldifferences, except as specificallynoted. In cases where recenttrends are consistent with

FIGURE 30 - The Emissions Scenarios of the Special Report on Emissions Scenarios (SRES)

projections, more confidence canbe placed in the model outputs sosome recent trends are cited.However where results areavailable using a broader range offuture emission scenarios (theIPCC-SRES scenarios) these havebeen used (e.g., for sea level rise),and so reflect uncertainties inboth future emissions and in themodels.

To address the uncertaintyassociated with future climatechange, two climate changescenarios – a ‘low case’ and a ‘highcase’ scenario – are specified. Thesetwo scenarios are estimates of therange of potential economicimpacts due to climate change to2050 and 2080. These scenarios arebased on the third assessmentreport of the IPCC, Climate Change2001.

An increase in tropical cyclone(hurricane) peak wind and peakrainfall intensity are considered tobe “likely” (65-90% confidence) byIPCC this century.

1.2 Summary of ClimateChange Scenarios forthe South Pacific Region

Six coupled atmosphere-oceanclimate simulations were includedin the analysis of regional climatechange scenarios for the fourSouth Pacific regions ofMicronesia, Melanesia, and Northand South Polynesia: CSIROMark 2 GCM with and withoutsulfate aerosols, CSIRO DARLAM 125 km, DKRZ ECHAM4/OPYC3GCM, Hadley Centre HADCM2,and the Canadian CGCM1. Theregional scenarios derived can beconsidered as projections that

The A1 storyline and scenario familydescribes a future world of very rapideconomic growth, global population thatpeaks in mid-century and declinesthereafter, and the rapid introduction ofnew and more efficient technologies.Major underlying themes areconvergence among regions, capacitybuilding and increased cultural andsocial interactions, with a substantialreduction in regional differences in percapita income. The A1 scenario familydevelops into three groups that describealternative directions of technologicalchange in the energy system. The threeA1 groups are distinguished by theirtechnological emphasis: fossil intensive(A1F1), non-fossil energy sources (A1T),or a balance across all sources (A1B)(where balanced is defined as notrelying too heavily on one particularenergy source, on the assumptions that

similar improvement rates apply to allenergy supply and end-use technologies).

The A2 storyline and scenario familydescribes a very heterogeneous world.The underlying theme is self-relianceand preservation of local identities.Fertility patterns across regionsconverge very slowly, which results incontinuously increasing population.Economic development is primarilyregionally oriented and per capitaeconomic growth and technologicalchange more fragmented and slowerthan other storylines.

The B1 storyline and scenario familydescribes a convergent world with thesame global population, that peaks inmid-century and declines thereafter, asin the A2 storyline, but with rapid changein economic structures toward a serviceand information economy, with

reductions in material intensity and theintroduction of clean and resource-efficient technologies. The emphasis ison global solutions to economic, socialand environmental sustainability,including improved equity, but withoutadditional climate initiatives.

The B2 storyline and scenario familydescribes a world in which the emphasisis on local solutions to economic, socialand environmental sustainability. It is aworld with continuously increasing globalpopulation, at a rate lower than A2,intermediate levels of economicdevelopment, and less rapid and morediverse technological change than in theA1 and B1 storylines. While thescenario is also oriented towardsenvironmental protection and socialequity, it focuses on local and regionallevels.

Source: Box 5 IPCC 2001, The Scientific Basis, Technical Summary

FIGURE 31 - The Develpment of Climate Models - Past, Present and Future

86

represent a range of possiblefuture climates.

Generally, the models project atemperature increase that is lessthan the global mean. Resultsshow the least warming in theSouth Pacific; regional maximumwarming is projected in the farwest, central, and easternequatorial Pacific. Four of themodels show an increase inrainfall over the central andeastern Pacific over both half-years(i.e., May to October andNovember to April). Movementsof both the ITCZ and the SPCZwere not consistent betweenmodels, but rainfall consistentlyincreased. Increases in daily

rainfall intensity are expected inregions where rainfall increases.They remain the same, or decreaseslightly in areas of decrease inannual rainfall, as derived fromseveral models and studies. Highconfidence is attached to thisresult.

Historical sea-level rise over thePacific from tide gauge recordsadjusted for postglacial rebound isconsistent with global estimatesof 1-2 mm yr1. ENSO is thedominant influence on climatevariability in the Pacific, andmodel outputs show that theENSO phenomenon is likely tocontinue to 2100. The results alsosuggest that under climate

change, there is likely to be a moreEl Niño-like mean state over thePacific. There is no evidence thattropical cyclone numbers maychange, but a general increase intropical cyclone intensity, expressedas possible increases in wind speedand central pressure of 10-20%with 2xCO2 equivalent, nowappears likely. Moderateconfidence is attached to thisresult. No significant change inregions of formation was noted inthe DARLAM 125 km resolutionsimulation, although this mayalter in response to long-termchanges to ENSO. Although thereappears to be no major change inregions of origin, tropical cyclones

87

showed a tendency to trackfurther poleward. Low confidenceis attached to this result.

Based on global sea-level risescenarios produced by the HadleyCentre (HADCM2 andHADCM3),2 global sea levels areexpected to rise by about 40 cmbetween 1990 and the 2080s.They project that many coastalareas are likely to experienceannual or more frequent flooding,with the islands of the Caribbeanand the Indian and Pacific Oceansfacing the largest relative increasein flood risk. Projected out to the2080s, the number of peoplefacing high flood risk from sea-level rise in these regionswould be 200 times higher than inthe case of no climate change.3

Recent studies for Cuba (based onHADCM2 and IS92a scenarios)also project that 98 coastalsettlements with a combinedpopulation exceeding 50,000persons would be inundated by a1-m rise in sea level.4

1.3 Summary of ClimateChange Scenarios forthe Caribbean Region

1.3.1 Temperature andPrecipitation(Caribbean)

Temperature increases by seasonfor the two scenarios are shownin Table 2.1. The temperatureincrease for the low scenario is2oC and for the high scenario is3.3oC. Night time temperaturesare projected to rise more thandaytime temperatures, thus

1Jones, R. N. Hennessy, K. J., Page, C.M., Pittock, A.B., Suppiah, R., Walsh, K.J.E. and P.H. Whetton. 1999. Analysis of the Effects of the Kyoto Protocol on PacificIsland States. South Pacific Regional Environment Programme, Apia. 2Nicholls, N., Lavery, B., Fredericksen, C., Drosdowsky, W. and S. Torok. 1996. 'Recent apparent changes in relationships between the El Nino-SouthernOscillation and Australian rainfall and temperature', Geographical Research Letters, 23, pp. 3357-3360.

3Ibid. 4Perez et al., 1999

narrowing the daily temperaturerange by 0.3oC to 0.7oC.

The precipitation scenarios areshown in Table 2.2. The lowscenario shows decreases inprecipitation throughout the year,with larger reductions during therainy season. Precipitation isprojected to rise under the highscenario, with a smaller increaseduring the rainy than during thedry season. It should be notedthat the low and high values inthe case of rainfall do not reflectlow and high greenhouse gasemissions – they are simply therange of estimates from varioussources.

The variation among modeloutputs for precipitation asreflected in Table 2.2 is very high.The median values for thescenarios suggest:

less rain in the rainy season (-6.9% for 2050 and -8.2% for2080), and more rain in the dry season(+5.9% for 2050 and +8.2%for 2080).

Three points tend to reinforce thelikelihood of reducedprecipitation, in the rainy seasonat least:

In general, the Caribbeanreceives less rain in El Niñoyears and IPCC suggests that

TABLE 2.1: Temperature Increases by Season (Caribbean)

NOTE: A decrease in the daily temperature range of 0.3oC to 0.7oC is projected with greaterwarming at night than during the day.

Temperature Increase (oC)Scenario 1 (low)

Temperature Increase (oC)Scenario 2 (high)

Dec. - Feb. 20502080

1.42.0

1.52.0

2.03.3

June -August 20502080

1.93.3

TABLE 2.2: Precipitation Changes by Season (Caribbean)

NOTE: A decrease in the daily temperature range of 0.3oC to 0.7oC is projected with greaterwarming at night than during the day.

Precipitation Change %Scenario 1 (low)

Precipitation Change %Scenario 2 (high)

Dec. - Feb. 20502080

-1.5-4.4

+13.1+24.4

June - August 20502080

-18.4-25.3

+17.1+8.9

Scenario 1 (low) Scenario 2 (high)

20502080

eventual

0.08m0.13m

0.5 m

0.44m0.70m

2.0m

SRES Mean Sea Level Changes

Table 2.3: Mean Sea Level Rise (Caribbean)

future climate may be more “El Niño-like.”Trends in rainfall over the pastfew decades have been mostlydownward in the Caribbeanexcept for the northern islandsof the Bahamas.Increased evaporation losseswith higher temperatures willtend to overcome smallincreases in rainfall, with a netnegative moisture balanceespecially in the rainy season.

1.3.2 Sea Level Rise(Caribbean)

Climate change causes sea levelsto rise due to thermal expansionof ocean waters and melting ofglaciers and ice on land. Therange of mean sea level rise for theperiod 1990 to 2100 as estimatedby five models is 0.18 to 0.77metres. For the full range ofeconomic and energydevelopment in IPCC’s emissionscenarios (SRES scenarios), meansea level rise of 0.16 to 0.87 metresis anticipated by 2100. The meansea level rise for earlier periods isshown in Table 2.3.

There is a long lag time fromgreenhouse gas emissions to sealevel rise, so that mean sea levelwould continue to rise for morethan 1500 years. If emissionswere held constant after 70 yearsat twice pre-industrial levels, sea

5Rolle, The Bahamas Meteorological Service, personal communication.6Martin and Weech, 2001.

level would eventually rise tobetween 0.5 and 2.0 metres abovepresent levels.

To compare these projections toobserved sea level rise to date, thelongest observed record in theregion is from Key West, Florida,where average increases of 0.17 mper decade have been observedsince 1850. This is much morerapid than even the highest of theabove projections for theCaribbean. The high projectionsthus seem more compatible withthe observations to date.However, this should be temperedwith the note that the northernCaribbean mean sea level increase,during the relatively shortTopex/Poseidon satellite mission(1993-1998), was substantiallygreater than for the SouthernCaribbean.

1.3.3 Extreme Events(Caribbean)

1.3.3.1 Storm Surges(Caribbean)

It is not the mean sea level thatdoes the most damage to beachesand shorelines and causes majorfloods, but the extreme highwater under storm surges, tides,and waves. Probability analysisshows that for a location aboutone metre above present mean sealevel and a sea level rise of 20 cm,storm surges and tidal flooding

which now occur every 10 yearson average, would occur twice peryear – a twenty-fold increase.

To indicate the potentialmagnitude of storm surgeinundation, model calculations fora category 5 (most severe)hurricane approaching theBahamas from the east, indicate a“maximum envelope of water”(MEOW) 5.2 m deep moving onshore in the Nassau area. Theobserved MEOW in the Bahamasfrom hurricane Andrew (category 4) was 2.4 to 3.0 m.5

1.3.3.2 Tropical Storms andHurricanes(Caribbean)

Will tropical storms andhurricanes become more frequentor severe in a changing climate?

The historical record indicatesthat the:

Number of hurricanes plustropical storms (that did notreach hurricane intensity) inAtlantic-Caribbean basin hasincreased from 7 to 10 per yearsince 1886.6

Number of hurricanes aloneshows no long-term trend, butannual numbers are affected bythe state of ENSO (fewerduring El Niño and moreduring La Nina conditions), soa more “El Niño-like” climatewould mean fewer hurricanes.Number of hurricanes reachedthe unprecedented number of 4during 1999.

The climate change scenarios arepresented in Table 2.4. The trendin the number of tropical stormsand hurricanes is uncertain, so thenumber remains at 10 per year forboth scenarios. The number of

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Scenario 1 (low) Scenario 2 (high)

Number of tropical storms andhurricanes per year, 2050 and 2080

Number of severe hurricanes per year,2050 and 2080

Increased wind speed of the strongesthurricanes, 2050 and 2080

10

2

5%

10

4

15%

7Houghton, et al., 2001.8Zwiers and Kharin, 1998 and Kharin and Zwiers, 2000.

Table 2.5: Loss Potential in Future Hurricanes (Caribbean)

Storm Class Year

Estimated1990 InsuredLosses(000's) 5%

$4,902,70534%

$3,382,77539%

$4,120,73334%

10%

$6,514,17278%

$4,312,88477%

$5,438,33276%

15%

$8,542,428133%

$5,685,853133%

$7,095,008130%

Estimated 1990 Insured Lossesif Maximum Wind Speed Increases by

1989

1983

1969

$3,658,887

$3,658,887

$2,435,589

4

3

5

Hugo

Alicia

Camille

Source: Clark, 1997.

TABLE 2.6: Heavy Rains (Caribbean)

Scenario 1 (low)

Scenario 2 (high)

One day average rainfall, 2050 and 2080

20 year return period one-day rainfall2050 2080

+0.5 mm

95mm110 mm

+1.0 mm

severe hurricanes (category 4 and5 storms) is assumed to be 2 inthe low case and to equal the1999 level of 4 in the high case.The intensity (maximum windspeed) of the strongest hurricanesis projected to rise by 5% in thelow scenario and by 15% in thehigh scenario.7

Table 2.5 provides an estimate ofthe increase in insured losses withchanges in hurricane intensity(maximum wind speed) for theUnited States. The losses increaseexponentially – a 5% increase inmaximum wind increasesdamages by approximately 35%and a 15% increase in maximumwind speed increases damages byroughly 135%. These percentageincreases in losses likely apply inthe Caribbean as well.

1.3.3.3 Heavy Rains(Caribbean)

Despite a decline in total rainfall,there has been an increase in rainintensity on rain days in Guyana,Suriname and some islands. Suchheavy rains are due to tropicalwaves and upper level troughs inthe inter-tropical convergence zoneand cause local flooding. Therewere 46 cases of such eventsbetween 1955 and 2000 (46 years)in Barbados, most of which causedfloods and a few of which causedwind damage.

Further increases in rain intensitiesare projected with one-day averagerains increasing on average 0.5 mm(low) to 1.0 mm (high). The 20-year return period heavy one-day rainfalls over theCaribbean are approximately 80 mm/day on average (1973-93).

Table 2.4: Tropical Storms and Hurricanes (Caribbean)

These are expected to increase byan average over the region of 15mm/day (20%) by 2050 and 35mm/day (40%) by 2090. Theseestimates are used as the lowscenario in Table 2.6. No otherliterature is available as the basisfor the high scenario.8

The number of flooding eventsfrom short-duration intenserainfalls and the amount offlooding per event are thusprojected to increase, even thoughtotal rainy season rainfall is likelyto continue to decline.

89

90

ANNEX 2Climate Change

Induced Hazards

LandslidesThe term landslide includes slides,falls, and flows of unconsolidatedmaterials. Landslides can betriggered by earthquakes, volcaniceruptions, soils saturated byheavy rain or groundwater rise,and river undercutting.Earthquake shaking of saturatedsoils creates particularly dangerousconditions. Although landslidesare highly localized, they can beparticularly hazardous due totheir frequency of occurrence.Classes of landslide include:

Rockfalls, which arecharacterized by free-fallingrocks from overlying cliffs.These often collect at the cliffbase in the form of talus slopeswhich may pose an additionalrisk.

Slides and avalanches, adisplacement of overburdendue to shear failure along astructural feature. If thedisplacement occurs in surfacematerial without totaldeformation it is called aslump.

Flows and lateral spreads,which occur in recentunconsolidated materialassociated with a shallowwater table. Althoughassociated with gentletopography, these liquefactionphenomena can travelsignificant distances from theirorigin.

The impact of these eventsdepends on the specific nature ofthe landslide. Rockfalls areobvious dangers to life andproperty but, in general, they poseonly a localized threat due to theirlimited areal influence. Incontrast, slides, avalanches, flows,

and lateral spreads, often havinggreat areal extent, can result inmassive loss of lives and property.Mudflows, associated withvolcanic eruptions, can travel atgreat speed from their point oforigin and are one of the mostdestructive volcanic hazards.

FloodingTwo types of flooding can bedistinguished: (1) land-bornefloods, or river flooding, caused byexcessive run-off brought on byheavy rains, and (2) sea-bornefloods, or coastal flooding, causedby storm surges, oftenexacerbated by storm run-offfrom the upper watershed andsea-level rise associated withclimate change. Tsunamis are aspecial type of sea-borne flood.

a. Coastal floodingStorm surges are an abnormal risein sea water level associated withhurricanes and other storms atsea. Surges result from strong on-shore winds and/or intense lowpressure cells and ocean storms.Water level is controlled by wind,atmospheric pressure, existingastronomical tide, waves andswell, local coastal topographyand bathymetry, and the storm'sproximity to the coast.

Most often, destruction by stormsurge is attributable to:

Wave impact and the physicalshock on objects associatedwith the passing of the wavefront.

Hydrostatic/dynamic forcesand the effects of water liftingand carrying objects.

The most significant damageoften results from the directimpact of waves on fixed

91

structures. Indirect impactsinclude flooding and underminingof major infrastructure such ashighways and railroads. Floodingof deltas and other low-lyingcoastal areas is exacerbated by theinfluence of tidal action, stormwaves, and frequent channelshifts.

b. River floodingLand-borne floods occur when thecapacity of stream channels toconduct water is exceeded andwater overflows banks. Floods arenatural phenomena, and may beexpected to occur at irregularintervals on all streams, andrivers. Settlement of floodplainareas is a major cause of flooddamage.

HurricanesHurricanes are tropical depressionswhich develop into severe stormscharacterized by winds directedinward in a spiraling patterntoward the center. They aregenerated over warm ocean waterat low latitudes and areparticularly dangerous due totheir destructive potential, largezone of influence, spontaneousgeneration, and erratic movement.Phenomena associated withhurricanes are:

Winds exceeding 64 knots (74 mi/hr or 118 km/hr), thedefinition of hurricane force.Damage results from thewind’s direct impact on fixedstructures and from wind-borne objects.

Heavy rainfall whichcommonly precedes andfollows hurricanes for up toseveral days. The quantity ofrainfall is dependent on theamount of moisture in the air,the speed of the hurricane’s

movement, and its size. Onland, heavy rainfall cansaturate soils and causeflooding because of excessrunoff (land-borne flooding); itcan cause landslides because ofadded weight and lubricationof surface material; and/or itcan damage crops byweakening support for theroots.

Storm surge (explained above),which, especially whencombined with high tides, caneasily flood low-lying areasthat are not protected.

Hazards in Arid and Semi-Arid Areasa. DesertificationDesertification, or resourcedegradation in arid lands thatcreates desert conditions, resultsfrom interrelated andinterdependent sets of actions,usually brought on by droughtcombined with human andanimal population pressure.Droughts are prolonged dryperiods in natural climatic cycles.The cycles of dry and wet periodspose serious problems forpastoralists and farmers whogamble on these cycles. Duringwet periods, the sizes of herds areincreased and cultivation isextended into drier areas. Later,drought destroys human activitieswhich have been extended beyondthe limits of a region’s carryingcapacity.

Overgrazing is a frequent practicein dry lands and is the singleactivity that most contributes todesertification. Dry-land farmingrefers to rain-fed agriculture insemiarid regions where water isthe principal factor limiting cropproduction. Grains and cereals are

the most frequently grown crops.The nature of dry-land farmingmakes it a hazardous practicewhich can only succeed if specialconservation measures such asstubble mulching, summer fallow,strip cropping, and clean tillageare followed. Desertified dry landsin Latin America can usually beattributed to some combinationof exploitative land managementand natural climate fluctuations.

b. Erosion and SedimentationSoil erosion and the resultingsedimentation constitute majornatural hazards that producesocial and economic losses of greatconsequence. Erosion occurs in allclimatic conditions, but isdiscussed as an arid zone hazardbecause together withsalinization, it is a majorproximate cause of desertification.Erosion by water or wind occurson any sloping land regardless ofits use. Land uses which increasethe risk of soil erosion includeovergrazing, burning and/orexploitation of forests, certainagricultural practices, roads andtrails, and urban development.Soil erosion has three majoreffects: loss of support andnutrients necessary for plantgrowth; downstream damagefrom sediments generated byerosion; and depletion of thewater storage capacity because ofsoil loss and sedimentation ofstreams and reservoirs, resultingin reduced natural stream flowregulation. Stream and reservoirsedimentation is often at the rootof many water managementproblems. Sediment movementand subsequent deposition inreservoirs and river beds reducesthe useful lives of water storage

reservoirs, aggravates flood waterdamage, impedes navigation,degrades water quality, damagescrops and infrastructure, andresults in excessive wear ofturbines and pumps.

c. SalinizationSaline water is common in dryregions, and soils derived fromchemically weathered marinedeposits (such as shale) are oftensaline. Usually, however, salinesoils have received saltstransported by water from otherlocations. Salinization most often

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occurs on irrigated land as theresult of poor water control, andthe primary source of saltsimpacting soils is surface and/orground water. Salts accumulatebecause of flooding of low-lyinglands, evaporation fromdepressions having no outlets, andthe rise of ground water close tosoil surfaces. Salinization resultsin a decline in soil fertility or evena reduction in land available foragricultural purposes. In certaininstances, farmland abandonedbecause of salinity problems may

be subjected to water and winderosion and become desertified.

Inexpensive water usually resultsin over-watering. In dry regions,salt-bearing ground water isfrequently the major waterresource. The failure to properlyprice water from irrigationprojects can create a great demandfor such projects and result inmisuse of available water, causingwaterlogging and salinization.

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ANNEX 3 Modeling the

Climate Systemand FutureScenarios

Earth’s climate is a product ofmany complex processes. Thesource of energy which drivesthese processes is the sun. Thisenergy is received predominantlyin low latitudes near the equatorand is re-distributed, permittingabundant life in temperate andpolar zones. Re-distribution, inthe short term, is through thewinds of the atmosphere, inducedon the turning world. In thelonger term, ocean currents carryheat poleward from the tropics.The incoming energy from thesun is offset by radiation from theearth to space, some of which isintercepted by the greenhousegases. Clouds and particles(aerosols) in the atmosphere affectthese energy exchanges as doesice, snow, soil and vegetation, andthe distribution of water on theglobe.

In short, while the system isunderstood in general, the sub-processes are so complex thattheir simulation is only possiblewith mathematical modelsrequiring the most powerful high-speed computers available.Such models have been developedat some 15 climate researchcentres in the world. Each usessomewhat different ways tosimulate, or parameterize, some ofthe processes – e.g. the hydrologiccycle, ocean-atmosphereinteractions, cloud feedback, therole of vegetation, etc. In contrastto earlier global models that had a“fixed” ocean, more recent modelsinclude an interactive ocean, withsimulated currents andtemperatures. These aresometimes referred to asAtmosphere-Ocean GeneralCirculation Models (AOGCMs).

The remarkable thing is that, on aglobal or large continental scale,model simulations of futureclimate, with increasingconcentrations of greenhousegases in the global atmosphere,give similar but not identicalresults. This is mainly becausethe basic equations of motion ofthe atmosphere and oceans arewell known and the equationsdescribing the major energy fluxesare also well developed andproven. However, estimation offuture emissions over this centuryof greenhouse gases, and aerosolswhich partly offset thegreenhouse effect, are difficult.Such estimations are driven byassessments of future changes inpopulation, economicdevelopment, energy technologiesand land use (IPCC 2001). Itturns out that at least half of the“uncertainty range” of theprojected global warming of 1.4oC- 5.8oC over the 21st century(IPCC 2001) is due to thisinability to accurately foretellfuture greenhouse gas and aerosolemissions, and thereforeatmospheric concentrationsobserved in the region of interest.This yields a plausible range offuture regional climate scenarios.Using existing climatic records forplaces of interest within theregion (e.g., individual countriesof the Caribbean), statisticaltechniques have been developedfor downscaling results to a locallevel from the climate models’global projections. These permitmore reliable projections of futureclimate over small areas.

In the longer run regional climatemodels, for example for theCaribbean, could be developed to

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be “nested” within an AOGCM.However, this requires substantialfurther scientific effort. Resultswill still be dependent on thereliability of the “parent” GlobelAOGCMs. This regionalmodeling technique will becomplementary to the statisticaldownscaling.

Thus scientific developments nowpermit determination of a rangeof most likely future climates andsea level rises. As the scienceprogresses, the range will probablynarrow. Uncertainties remainabout the rates of change, but thedirections of change areunmistakable and can form thebasis for sound adaptationmeasures, using a riskmanagement approach.

Selecting Scenarios of Future ClimateSince greenhouse gasconcentrations in the globalatmosphere have been risingsharply in the past three or fourdecades, some signals of human-induced climate change arealready evident. Of the 17 or soAOGCM results now available, itis probably wise to rely on two ora few that best simulate therecent changes. For some variablesnot well simulated by the models,such as extreme events,extrapolation of the measuredexperience of the past 30 to 40years, when greenhouse gasincreases were the major influence

FIGURE 32 - Downscaled Climate Change Projections

Downscaled climate change projections,averaged for the Caribbean, from outputs of anumber of global climate models, based on arange of IPCC greenhouse gas emissionscenarios. There is close agreement betweenprojections of temperature rise andprecipitation changes for 2020, somewhatgreater scatter for 2050 but still reasonableagreement, but quite wide scatter for 2080.(Source: Elaine Barrow, MSC, 2003)

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Figure 34 on the previous pageshows the changes in temperatureand precipitation for theCaribbean as a whole, projectedby some 30 combinations ofmodels and scenarios of futureemissions. It will be immediatelynoted that for 2020 there is verygood agreement with resultsclustering around 0.8oC warmingand little change in rainfall. For2050 the agreement is somewhatdiminished but most projectionsare in a fairly useable range of1.3oC to 2.3oC warming and+5% to –15% change in rainfall.(It should be noted that increasedevaporation at highertemperatures would offset anysmall increase in rain, which onemodel suggest and still result in

on climate change, can yield auseful range of future scenarios.

There are two major sources ofuncertainty in AOGCMprojections. They are: (1)uncertainty in the rate of increaseof greenhouse gases (and aerosols)in the global atmosphere sincethey are a product of rate ofpopulation growth, economicgrowth and energy sources andpractices – all notoriously difficultto predict, and (2) differencebetween models for a givengreenhouse gas and aerosol future,because the AOGCM’s usevarying methods ofmathematically expressing themany interactions in the globalclimate system.

dryer conditions.) However, for2080 the scatter is quite large,primarily because amounts ofgreenhouse gas emissions over thiscentury could exhibit quite a widerange, depending on world-wideenergy policies, economic growth,etc.

Since climate planning beyond2050 is rare, climate scenariosresults to then can be readilyadopted. Some down-scaling ofthese scenario results from thewhole Caribbean to individualcountries is being undertaken bystatistical means by experts atUWI-Cave Hill and Monacampuses and the CARICOMclimate unit (seewwwwww..ccaarriibbbbeeaanncclliimmaattee..oorrgg).

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ANNEX 4 Guide to the Use of Risk

ManagementProcedures to

Address ScientificUncertainty

A guide has been developed toassist CARICOM countrypractitioners select andimplement feasible options foradaptation to climate change. Theguide adopts a risk managementapproach for addressing theuncertainties associated with thepresent status of our knowledgeto climate change. Themethodology employed in thisManual is based on the CanadianNational Standards AssociationRisk Management: Guidelines forDecision-Makers. The Manualfollows the key steps of thisstandard. It is also informed interms of its approach to dealingspecifically with climate changerisks by the ComprehensiveHazard and Risk Management(CHARM) process developed andutilized by the Pacific Islandcountries.

Why do we need a RiskManagement Process to help withClimate Adaptation Decisions?One of the major environmentalchallenges facing the Caribbean isthat of global climate change andincreased climate variabilitywhich affects many aspects ofCaribbean life and economy –agriculture, water availability,health, the coastal zone, tourismand, of course, the frequency andseverity of disasters from storms,floods and droughts. Caribbeanand Pacific governments, likeother Small Island DevelopingStates, have undertaken a strategyto adapt to climate change withthe hope that by so doing, theirsocial, economic andenvironmental systems would beable to better withstand theexpected impacts of climatechange.

Adapting to climate variability andchange is a problem involvingrisks and choices.The complexity of assessing theoptimal course forward wherethere are uncertainties about theneeds, the objectives, the processor the outcomes – or any numberof other parameters – oftenencourages denial, delay ordeferral of necessary action. Therisk management process providesa framework for managing theselection of adaptation strategiesfor those aspects of climatevariability and change impactsthat create or increase a risk to theCaribbean and Pacific regions,their member states, citizens,infrastructure, economies andenvironment.

Risk management is a decision-making tool that assists in theselection of optimal, or the mostcost-effective, strategies using asystematic, broadly acceptedpublic process.

The inclusion of a wide variety ofconcerned stakeholders offersopportunities for raisingawareness and bringing brightnew ideas into the decision-making process. In addition, acarefully managed, informationand science-based process with asecure and accessible documentrecord will benefit all users of theresults.

In this environment ofuncertainty, a risk managementapproach is considered to bedesirable for bringing someprecision to the decision-makingprocess involved in developingclimate change adaptation optionsfor implementation by countries.It will move toward a moremeasured regime of strategy

development, evaluation,continuous monitoring andresults measurement – leadingtowards improvements in regionalcapacities and resilience.

To facilitate its use, each step inthe risk management process isaccompanied by a concreteexample of how it is applied toaddress an actual risk arising froma climate hazard. It illustrateshow this is dealt with from riskidentification, through riskestimation, risk evaluation andfinally the selection of risk controlactions adaptation that should beimplemented.

The risk management processused in EIA decision-makingconsists of the steps illustrated inFigure 35.

These are the main activities inthe climate change component ofthe natural hazard riskmanagement process that formthe basis for the integration ofnatural hazard assessment intothe EIA process. The variousfeedback loops ensure the processaccounts for all information andperspectives. The figure also

FIGURE 33: Steps in the Natural Hazard Risk Management Process

COM

MUN

ICAT

ION

DOCU

MEN

TATI

ON

REVI

EW

Estimating the Risk

Evaluating the Risk

Adaptation, RiskControl and Financing

Implementation andMonitoring

Analyzing the Hazard

Initiating the Process

RiskAnalysis

RiskAssessment

RiskManagement

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shows how the riskcommunications process with keystakeholders and the publicintegrates with all stages of theprocess. It also shows thatrecords are kept of all significant

activities throughout the EIAprocess. The process is explainedin detail in the guide with anappropriate example illustratingeach step to help understand thekey elements.

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ANNEX 5 Summary ofAnticipated

Impacts Resultingfrom ClimateChange and

Climate Variabilityin the Caribbean

Region

IntroductionThe following summary ofpotential impacts from climatechange and climate variability inthe Caribbean Region wasdeveloped during extensiveregional and national stakeholderconsultations undertaken forComponent 4 of the CaribbeanPlanning for Adaptation toClimate Change (CPACC) project(1997-2001).

Beach and Shoreline StabilityThe climate change factors thatare most likely to impact coastalstability are sea level rise, changesin hurricane patterns and stormsurges. In the small-island andlow-lying coastal states of theregion, the coastal zones usuallyhave a high concentration ofcritical infrastructure, humansettlement, and social andeconomic activity. For example,90 % of the population of Guyanaresides in the coastal strip wherethe main urban centres andcommercial activities are found.

Beaches serve as buffer zonesbetween the land and the waterand many important birds,reptiles, and other animals nestand breed on the berm and theopen beach. Sea turtles use manybeaches in the Wider Caribbean todig their nests and deposit theireggs. The beach also provideshabitat for a multitude ofburrowing species, such as crabs,clams, and other invertebrates.Beaches also have a significanteconomic value in the region asbeach tourism is one of the majorcontributors to nationaleconomies. This is perhaps whythere has already been significantinterest and investment in coastalzone management all over theregion.

Where coastlines are particularlyvulnerable to incident waves(Dominica, Guyana and Belize) orwhere coastal areas are below sealevel, as in the case ofGeorgetown, Guyana, sea defensestructures have been erected. Thepresent state of these structures israther poor, although in the pastfew years rehabilitationprogrammes have been developed.Needless to say, increased stormsurge activity and sea level riseimpacting on inadequatestructures and exposed areas canlead to complete inundation andlost lives in some cases, andbiodiversity will be affected bothdirectly and indirectly. Lostinfrastructure and the consequenteffect on economic activity canreduce opportunities for social andeconomic development.

Marine EcosystemsMarine ecosystems in theCaribbean consist principally ofcoral reefs, sea-grass beds,mangroves and other wetlands.

Coral ReefsFor coral reefs to grow and remainhealthy the seawater in whichthey live must be shallow, clear,clean and warm. Watertemperatures must remainbetween 18 and 30 degrees Celsiusthrough out the year. A coral reefecosystem provides a number ofnatural services and functionsthat are of economic importanceto Caribbean countries. Some ofthese coral reef functions andservices are:

The generation of the whitesand that forms many of thebeaches in the Wider Caribbeanregion

Natural attractions and a focusfor a number of forms oftourist and local recreation,providing income from theseactivities

Natural breakwaters,protecting beaches, coastlinesfrom erosion and infrastructure(roads, buildings, harbours)from direct exposure to anddamage from waves, especiallyduring storms

Create natural protected baysand lagoons for recreationalactivities (swimming, watersports) and safe moorings forfishing and recreational vessels

Provide habitat foreconomically valuable fishableresources (fish, lobster, crabs)to live and reproduce.

Despite what may seem as idealconditions, coral reefs in theCaribbean continue to exhibitsigns of stress and bleachingduring ENSO15 events.Anticipated sea level rise andincreased ocean temperatures arelikely to increase incidents of coraldamage and mortality, therebyreducing their physiologicalfunctions.

Mangrove CommunitiesMangroves are expected torespond to rising sea levels andsaline intrusion by retreatingshoreward.2 This readjustment ofmangroves will result in changingacreage and salinity levels and alsoaffect the fish resources sincesome of the commercial specieshave nursery areas in the

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1El Niño - Southern Oscillation (ENSO) phenomenon is a global event arising from large-scale interaction between the ocean and the atmosphere. TheSouthern OOscillation, a more recent discovery, refers to an oscillation in the surface pressure (atmospheric mass) between the southeastern tropical Pacificand the Australian-Indonesian regions. When the waters of the eastern Pacific are abnormally warm (an El Niño event) sea level pressure drops in the easternPacific and rises in the west. The reduction in the pressure gradient is accompanied by a weakening of the low-latitude easterly trades.

2Snedaker, 1993, Vicente et al, 1993.3Bacon, 1989.4Lugo and Snedaker, 1974.

mangroves. Mangroves also serveas protection against storms,tides, cyclones and storm surgesand are used as filters fornutrients and to stabilizesubstrates. If the mangrove foresthas to re-establish itself at a newlocation then many valuablefunctions will be lost. At thelocal level, persons who dependheavily on fish as their mainsource of protein would beaffected when fish stocks arereduced, especially when there iscompetition by commercialfisheries.

Though adaptable to naturalclimate variability, storms maydamage mangroves severely aswas the case of Gilbert inJamaica.3 These fragile ecosystemsreach maturity in about 25 yearsand since the average inter-hurricane period for most of theregion is less than that, theirbiomass is generally considered tobe limited by hurricanes.4

Estuaries, Wetlands and WatershedsCoastal areas of the WiderCaribbean near major watershedsoften contain large lagoons offresh or brackish water. Estuaries,coastal lagoons, and other inshoremarine waters are very fertile andproductive ecosystems. Theyserve as important sources oforganic material and nutrients,and also provide feeding, nestingand nursery areas for various birdsand fishes. These ecosystems actas sinks of terrestrial run-off,trapping sediments and toxins

which may damage the fragilecoral reefs. Fragile ecosystems inthese areas are extremelyvulnerable to climate changeimpacts.

Water ResourcesIn most countries, no systematicwater monitoring programmesexist and this essentiallyundermines any attempt toaccurately assess vulnerability.However, the impacts of climatechange combined with highdemand during tourist seasonmay affect the ability of countriesto adequately deal with seasonaldemand for water in water-scarceregions. Total precipitation as wellas temporal distribution, are takeninto consideration when assessingclimate change effects. Countriesin the Caribbean typicallyexperience two distinct seasonalclimatic types that can beclassified as the rainy or wetseason (around January to May)and the dry seasons (around Juneto December).

Climate change can presentadditional water managementproblems. Such problems mayarise from increased flooding,impeded drainage and elevatedwater tables. It is projected thaton Andros Island in the Bahamas,where the water table is only 30 cm below the surface, highevaporation rates and increasingbrackishness will eventuate withcontinued sea level rise.4 For manysmall islands, saline intrusion intothe freshwater lens would be ofgreat concern, especially where

over-pumping of aquifers isalready occurring (e.g., Barbadosand the Bahamas). This wouldfurther diminish the amount offreshwater available for domesticand economic activity.

Studies have shown a decrease inprecipitation in the tropics andsub-tropics. Current climatechange-induced models simulatean increase in most equatorialregions but a general decrease insubtropics. Potential changes inintense rainfall frequency aredifficult to infer from GCMslargely as a result of coarse spatialresolution, however there areindications that the frequency ofheavy rainfall events andconsequent flooding is likely toincrease as a result of globalwarming. All water-relatedinfrastructure can be directlydamaged from severe weatherevents, and decreased wateravailability has implications forhealth, sanitation, and agriculture.These impacts are expected to becountry-specific as various factorswill influence the possible effects.

Although comprehensivewatershed managementprogrammes have been developedfor some Caribbean countries,there is a need to undertake aninventory of all water resources tobetter assess and quantify likelyimpacts arising from climatechange.

Food and Nutrition: Agricultureand FisheriesOne of the sectors mostvulnerable to climate change isagriculture, and hence foodsecurity in the Caribbean is apressing concern. This sector is of

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18Lugo and Snedaker, 1974.19Martin and Bruce, 1999

considerable importance to manyeconomies in the region. Whilethe full extent of impacts on thissector are yet to be assessed andquantified, it is expected thatclimate change will impact foodproduction by reducing yields andthereby affecting food security,and exacerbating other problemsassociated with this sector,namely soil erosion, landdegradation and soil fertility loss.Soil salinisation will also result incrop failure and reduced arableland acreage. Further work will beundertaken to understand theimpacts of climate change on theagricultural sector so thatappropriate intervention optionscan be developed.

Evidence of climate change can befound as persons directly involvedin agricultural production havereported that certain pests remainactive outside of their typicalseason and there is an apparentchange in temporal distribution ofrainfall (i.e., change in length ofwet or dry seasons).

A direct impact of rising sea levelswill be inundation and the threatof saline intrusion into cultivationfields. Drainage during the rainseasons may require additionaland more intensive pumpingfacilities. The possible intrusion ofsalt water into the waterconservancies and estuaries needsto be examined since these are theprime sources of irrigation water.

If weather systems become moreintense, then the effect offlooding conditions must beaddressed. More frequent ElNiño/La Niña events can subjectthe coast to cycles ofdrought/flood which can have

serious effects on the soil and,therefore, on food production.Cattle and other livestock maynot be spared because of theseverity of the conditionsassociated with these rainfallextremes. Apart from the effecton rice and sugar, scarcities ofcash crops will be a problem andan economic hindrance.

The state of the fisheries isintimately linked to the healthand resilience of the coastalecosystems. A coral reef showingsigns of degradation due topollution will not support ahealthy fishery. The clearance ofmangroves removes importantnursery areas of manycommercially valuable species,which may consequently notsurvive to see adulthood.

Fish kills in Guyana, Grenada, St.Lucia, St. Vincent and theGrenadines, Barbados andTrinidad and Tobago in 1999 havebeen linked to the influx ofnutrient rich algae from theOrinoco River into the CaribbeanSea, causing low oxygen contentand the consequent proliferationof deadly bacteria. Caribbeanscientists also confirmed that thewater temperatures weresignificantly higher that normal.Projected climate change inducedflooding and increased oceantemperatures can be expected toresult in increased fish kills of thisnature.

Housing, Settlement andInfrastructureMost settlements in theCaribbean are located in thecoastal regions, as this is also thelocation of much social andeconomic activity. Pre-existing

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conditions where coastaldevelopment has been approvedwithout consideration of prudentcoastal zone management, anddecaying sea defense structures,make these areas all the morevulnerable to sea level rise andstorm surges.

In 1999, the storm surges alonefrom Hurricane Lenny resulted inthe devastation of a significantportion of coastal infrastructureall over the region. Jetties andother facilities were destroyed andhouses were washed into the sea.With currently projected rates ofsea level rise and flooding, coupledwith the possibility of moreintense and frequent extremeevents such as cyclones(hurricanes) and associated stormsurge, critical infrastructure suchas social services, airports, portfacilities, roads, coastal protectionstructures, tourism facilities andvital utilities will be at severe risk.Storm surges and sea level rise canresult in the dislocation of coastalpopulations and will causepermanent inundation of theentire coastline in some areas if noresponse measures are taken.

TourismTourism is the main foreignexchange earner in the region andthe chief contributor to GNP formost countries. This sector alsomakes a significant contributionto employment, as for example inthe Bahamas where tourismprovides jobs for 70% of thecountry’s labour force in 1998.

Climate change impacts willaffect this industry both directlyand indirectly. Sea level rise, stormsurges and hurricane activity canresult in lost beaches, inundationand degradation of coastal

ecosystems and infrastructure.Saline intrusion can affect watersupplies thereby reducing thesupply of water for domestic,commercial and agriculturalpurposes. The loss of coral reefsand the biodiversity they supportmay also have a negative effect ontourism.

A significant proportion of touristarrivals in the Caribbean occurduring the winter months asvisitors from the NorthernHemisphere (the largest market)attempt to escape cold winters.Projected global warming maymean milder winters and thusreduce the appeal of theCaribbean as a transit destination.It is projected that tourism can befurther harmed by increasedairfares if airlines are heavily taxedfor greenhouse gas emissions.

To ensure sustainability of theindustry, some countries havealready invested quite heavily inreinforcing infrastructure and insound coastal zone managementpractices, including setback andwaste disposal regulations.

Human HealthThis sector possibly has the leastinformation in the region as itrelates to climate change impacts.Perhaps impacts are too subtle,hence extensive research is notseen as a priority. The Caribbeanhas a favourable climate for manydisease vectors. Therefore,climate-related chronic,contagious, allergic, and vector-borne diseases (e.g., malaria anddengue fever, asthma and hayfever), linked to plants or fungiwhose ranges and life cycles arestrongly affected by climate andweather can be expected toincrease with global warming.

Cuba has done extensive work onclimate change impacts on health.Their national climate changecommittee, working inconjunction with the Ministryresponsible for Health, has theauthority to issue warnings to thecountry when they expect/suspect that there is danger ofincreased respiratory disordersassociated with El Niño events.Their work on health alsoincludes skin disorders resultingfrom over exposure to solarradiation.

At the southern end of the region,while there is a lack of data inGuyana, there have been reportsthat skin cancer is on the rise in aregion of Guyana inhabitedmostly by Amerindians (region 9).This report seems to suggest thatAmerindians, who are repeatedlyexposed to solar radiation, arebeing affected by higherincidences of UV-b radiation andpossibly higher surfacetemperatures.

Climate-induced effects on othersectors such as agriculture,fisheries, water and coastalresources, and social andeconomic conditions might alsoaffect human health. Decreases infood production might result inpoorer diets, and rise in sea leveland changed precipitationpatterns may result in thedeterioration of water suppliesresulting in contamination.Greater numbers of humans couldmigrate from one area to another,changing the geographic rangesand susceptibility of humanpopulations to many diseases. Ingeneral, any event that reducesstandards of living will have anadverse impact on human health.

Recent global studies have focusedon the possible impact thatchanging climate, season, andweather variables might have onthe incidence of disease. Clearlinks have not yet beenestablished between climatechange and human health. Themore subtle impacts on healthmay not be readily discernible bythe public, thereby making itdifficult to mobilize publicsupport for policy changes thatmay be required.

Forestry and TerrestrialBiodiversityThe Caribbean has a highlyvariable incidence of biologicaldiversity, which is alreadythreatened by anthropogenicstresses: human consumption ofnatural resources and conversionof natural habitats to otherpurposes; ever increasingpopulations that result in theencroachment of agricultural andother cultural activities intonatural ecosystems, making itdifficult for these systems toadapt by moving with naturalclimate variability; and reducedresilience of many species whosenumbers have been significantlyreduced by hunting or harvesting.

Forest biodiversity in theCaribbean is very sensitive tochanges in climate patterns. The

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removal of indigenous species bydevelopment activities or humansettlement has caused micro-climates in cleared areas. Thesemicro-climates are impacted bychanging weather patterns and itis anticipated that exotic speciesmust be introduced to re-forestsuch areas. Impacts of climatechange on some species will resultfrom physiological stress due toloss of habitats.

Increased levels of carbon dioxidein the atmosphere will bebeneficial for some plant speciesbut the overall effect will benegative. Other impacts are directloss of forest cover and otherhabitats as well as many animalspecies due to heat stress or stormactivity.

Other Economic and Socio-cultural ImpactsClimate change could have directand indirect impacts on othersectors in the Caribbean region.The insurance industry, forinstance, is highly sensitive to theintensity and frequency ofdisasters – climate change-inducedor not. Because insurancepremiums are based onassessment of risk of occurrence ofa particular event, any indicationof an increase in hurricane andstorm activity can mean thatpremiums will increase. Within

the past decade the cost ofinsurance has increasedconsiderably – which is notsurprising when insurancecompanies have had to pay outbillions of dollars for damage fromhurricanes and other naturaldisasters which caused widespreadsocio-economic dislocation, injuryand loss of life. In Antigua,following the passage ofnumerous hurricanes in the1990’s, the cost of insurance formany coastal properties hasbecome prohibitive, with manyowners opting not to insure at all.Even in cases where there was nodamage in the insular Caribbeanitself – as with hurricane Andrewthat devastated Florida in 1992 –an increase in insurance premiumsin the Caribbean subsequentlyoccurred.

Certain traditional assets will alsobe at risk from climate change.These assets may includesubsistence and traditionaltechnologies (skills andknowledge), community structureand coastal villages andsettlements.

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ANNEX 6 “Model” Terms of

Reference forUndertaking

DetailedVulnerability

Assessment ofClimate Change*

Vulnerability Assessment forTrinmar Base Relocation

1.0 IntroductionPetroleum Company of Trinidadand Tobago (PETROTRIN)proposes to relocate it’s TrinmarMarine Base to the Mt. PellierEstate which is 7 km south westof the existing site in Point Fortin.A Certificate of EnvironmentalClearance (CEC) is required fromthe Environmental ManagementAuthority to proceed with thisproject. An Environmental ImpactAssessment (EIA) is beingconducted to fulfill therequirements of this CECapplication and a VulnerabilityAssessment of the proposed basefacilities and operations to theimpacts of sea level rise is to beconducted as an integralcomponent of this EIA.

2.0 Outline of WorksFor the proposed project andproject site, the contractor will berequired to undertake thefollowing.

2.1 Identify and EvaluatePotential Impacts FromClimate Change on theProject's Area ofInfluence.

In collaboration with projectplanners, consultants undertakingother aspects of baseline studiesand Petrotrin EIA team, thecontractor must assess thepotential impacts of climatedriven sea level rise on:

a) Marine Base’s Infrastructureand Operations

b) Hydrology (surface andsubsurface) of the Mt. Pellierestate

c) Biodiversity and wildlife of theMt. Pellier estate

d) Ecosystems and their goodsand services (agriculture,forestry, fisheries, aquaculture,coastal zones and marineecosystems)

e) Soils and land resources

f) Human settlements

g) Human health

h) Socio-economic development.

2.2 Develop Sea Level andTemperature RiseScenarios

Temperature and sea-level risescenarios over an 70-year timelinemust be developed with the use ofgeneral circulation models (A-OGCM) to illustrate theimpacts of sea level rise on 2.1 a)and b). Preferred GeneralCirculation models are CGCM 1and HadCM3.

2.3 Mapping Sea Level RiseScenarios

Topographic maps must beprovided showing sea levels after20, 50 and 80 years in the Mt. Pellier area with the proposedmarine base and supportinfrastructure on site.

2.4 Develop Climate ChangeAdaptation Plan

Contractor must develop aClimate Change Adaptation Planto address potential impacts of sealevel rise on 2.1 a) to h). The EIAteam, project planners,consultants undertaking baselineassessments and evaluations areto be consulted in developing thisadaptation plan.

* courtesty of the Petroleum Company ofTrinidad and Tobago (PETROTRIN)

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2.5 Develop Climate ChangeMonitoring Program

Contractor must develop aclimate change monitoringprogram. Such a program shouldbe designed to monitor:

a) patterns of climate and coastalwaters affecting the projectarea

b) climate change impacts on keysocial, economic andenvironmental indicators.

N.B. – WORKS MUST BE DONEIN ACCORDANCE WITH THEACCC DRAFT GUIDELINESFOR INTEGRATING CLIMATECHANGE ADAPTATION INTOTHE ENVIORNMENTALIMPACT ASESSMENT PROCESS.

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ANNEX 7 Sample Terms ofReference (ToR)

for EIA*

Definitions: “Environment” and“Environmental Impacts”, as usedin the report, are to include

*Adapted from Caribbean Development Bank (CDB) EIA Guidelines

1. INTRODUCTION. This section should: a) state the purpose and objectives of the EIA;b) identify the development project to be assessed; c) identify natural hazard and climate change elements that may affect the development project; and d) explain the executing arrangements for the environmental assessment.

2. BACKGROUND INFORMATION. Pertinent background for the potential parties who may conduct theenvironmental assessment, whether they are consultants or government agencies, would include: a briefdescription of the major components of the proposed project, a statement of the need for it and the objectives it isintended to meet; the implementing agency; a brief history of the project (including alternatives considered), itscurrent status and timetable; and the identities of any associated projects. If there are other projects in progressor planned within the zone of influence of the proposed project which may compete for or utilize the same naturalresources, these should also be identified here.

3. OBJECTIVES. This section will summarise the general scope of the environmental assessment which shall be toassess: a) the impacts of the proposed project on the environment; and b) the impacts of natural hazards and climate change on the proposed project, and discuss its timing in

relation to the processes of project preparation, appraisal and implementation.

4. ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT REQUIREMENTS. This section should identify any regulations andguidelines that will govern conduct of the assessment or specify the content of its report. These may include any orall of the following:

national laws and/or regulations on environmental reviews and impact assessments; regional, parish/districtenvironmental assessment regulations; environmental assessment regulations of any other financing organizations involved in the project; and applicable national or regional guides for the integration of natural hazard and climate changeconsiderations into the EIA process.

5. STUDY AREA. Specify the:a) spatial or geographic boundaries of the study area for the assessment (e.g. water catchment, air shed);b) temporal boundaries for major project activities (design, construction, operation, decommissioning,

abandonment); and c) natural hazard or climate change elements affecting the spatial or temporal boundaries of the proposed

project.

natural hazards (including climatechange) and natural hazardimpacts.

6. SCOPE OF WORK. In some cases, the tasks to be carried out by a consultant will be known with sufficientcertainty to be specified completely in the TOR. In other cases, information deficiencies need to be alleviated,orspecialized field studies or modeling activities performed to assess environmental, socio-economic, natural hazardand climate change impacts, and the consultant will be asked to define particular tasks in more detail for contractingagency review and approval. Task 4 in the Scope of Work is an example of the latter situation.

7. TASKSDescription of the Proposed Project. Provide a brief description of the relevant parts of the project, using maps(at appropriate scale) where necessary, and including the following information: location; general layout; size,capacity, any natural hazard or climate change element affecting the temporal or spatial boundaries of the proposedproject, etc.; pre-construction activities; construction activities; schedule; staffing and support; facilities and services;operation and maintenance activities; required off-site investments; and life span.

Description of the Environment. Assemble, evaluate and present baseline data on the relevant environmentalcharacteristics of the study area that are relevant to project siting or design, or to the formulation of mitigationmeasures. Include information on any changes anticipated before the project commences.

a) Physical environment: geology; topography; soils; climate and meteorology; air quality; surface andgroundwater hydrology; coastal and oceanic parameters; existing sources of air emissions; existing waterpollution discharges and receiving water quality; areas vulnerable to flooding, inundation, landslides, erosionand other impacts from natural hazards or climate change.

b) Biological environment: flora; fauna; rare or endangered species; sensitive habitats, including parks orpreserves, significant natural sites, etc.; species of commercial importance; species with potential tobecome nuisances, vectors or dangerous; species or ecosystems vulnerable to natural hazard or climatechange impacts.

c) Socio-cultural environment (include both present and projected where appropriate): population; land use;planned development activities; community structure; employment; distribution of income, goods andservices; recreation; public health; cultural properties; tribal peoples; customs, aspirations and attitudes;socio-economic activities vulnerable to natural hazard or climate change impacts.

Description of the Vulnerability of the Project to Natural Hazards and Climate Change. Describe thevulnerability of the project to natural hazards and climate change impacts including the frequency, magnitude anddistribution of any natural hazard or climate change element affecting the spatial or temporal boundaries of theproposed project. Assemble, evaluate and present baseline data on the relevant natural hazard/climate changecharacteristics of the study area that are relevant to project siting or design, or to the formulation of mitigation oradaptation measures. Include information on any changes anticipated before the project commences.

Legislative, Regulatory and Related Considerations. Describe the pertinent regulations and standards governingenvironmental quality, health and safety, protection of sensitive areas, protection of endangered species, siting, landuse control, etc., at international, national, and where relevant at the local levels including relevant MultilateralEnvironmental Agreements (MEAs). (The TOR should specify those that are known and require the consultant toinvestigate for others).

Determination of (a) Potential Impacts of the Proposed Project; and (b) Impacts of Natural Hazards and ClimateChange on the Proposed Project. In this analysis, distinguish between significant positive and negative impacts,direct and indirect impacts, cumulative impacts, and immediate and long-term impacts. Identify impacts which areunavoidable or irreversible. Wherever possible, describe impacts quantitatively, in terms of social/environmental

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costs and benefits. The analysis of potential impacts of the proposed project is to include an assessment of potentialexacerbations or reduction of natural hazard impacts, both on- and off-site. Characterise the extent and quality ofavailable data, explaining significant information deficiencies and any uncertainties associated with predictions ofimpact. If possible, give the TOR for studies to obtain the missing information. (Identify the types of special studieslikely to be needed for this project category.)

Analysis of (a) Feasible Alternatives to the Proposed Project, and (b) Feasible Mitigation and Adaptation Plans toaddress significant impacts frtom Natureal Hazards and Climate Change. Describe feasible alternatives and feasiblemitigation and adaptation plans that were examined in the course of developing the proposed project and identifyother alternatives which would achieve the same objectives. Alternatives considered must address natural hazardimpacts that have been identified. The concept of alternatives extends to siting, design, technology selection,construction techniques and phasing, and operating and maintenance procedures. Compare alternatives in terms ofpotential environmental impacts; capital and operating costs; suitability under local conditions; and institutional,training and monitoring requirements. When describing the impacts, indicate which are irreversible or unavoidableand which can be mitigated, managed or addressed under an appropriate climate change adaptation plan. To theextent possible, quantify the costs and benefits of each alternative, incorporating the estimated costs of anyassociated mitigation/adaptation measures. Include the alternative of not constructing the project, in order todemonstrate environmental conditions without it.

Development of Management, Mitigation and Adaptation Plan to Address Negative Impacts. Recommend feasibleand cost-effective measures to prevent or reduce significant negative impacts to acceptable levels. Estimate theimpacts and costs of those measures, and of the institutional and training requirements to implement them. Considercompensation to affected parties for impacts which cannot be mitigated, managed or addressed under anappropriate adaptation plan.. Prepare a management plan including proposed work programmes, budget estimates,schedules, staffing and training requirements, and other necessary support services to implement the mitigatingmeasures.

Identification of Institutional Needs to Implement Environmental Assessment Recommendations. Review theauthority and capability of institutions at the local and national levels and recommend steps to strengthen or expandthese so that the management, mitigation and adaptation plans and any monitoring program in the environmentalassessment can be implemented. The recommendations may extend to new laws and regulations, new agencies oragency functions, intersectoral arrangements, management procedures and training, staffing, operation andmaintenance training, budgeting, and financial support. The role of Climate Change Focal Points and NationalDisaster Management Agencies involved in the review of any environmental assessment and in any monitoring andevaluation should be outlined.

Development of a Monitoring Plan. Prepare a detailed plan to monitor the implementation of management, mitigation oradaptation measures and the impacts of (a) the project during construction and operation, and (b) climate change duringall phases of the project (design, construction, operation, abandonment and decommissioning). Include in the plan anestimate of capital and operating costs and a description of other inputs (such as training and institutional strategy).

Assist in Inter-Agency Coordination and Public/NGO Participation. Assist in coordinating the environmentalassessment with other government agencies, in obtaining the views of local NGOs and affected groups, and inkeeping records of meetings and other activities, communications, and comments and their disposition. Describe theprocess and procedures whereby hazard maps, climate change scenarios were made available for the publicconsultation process. (The TOR should specify the types of activities; e.g., inter-agency scoping session,environmental briefings for project staff and inter-agency committees, support to environmental advisory panels,public forum.)

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8. Report. The environmental assessment report should be concise and limited to significant environmental, naturalhazard and climate change issues. The main text should focus on findings, conclusions and recommended actions,supported by summaries of the data collected and citations for any references used in interpreting those data.Detailed or uninterpreted data are not appropriate in the main text and should be presented in appendices or aseparate volume. Unpublished documents used in the assessment may not be readily available and should also beassembled in an appendix. Organise the environmental assessment report according to the outline below.

a) Executive Summary;

b) Policy, Legal and Administrative Framework;

c) Description of the Proposed Project including overall goals and objectives;

d) Description of the Environment including natural hazards and climate change;

e) Significant Environmental, Natural Hazard and Climate Change Impacts;

f) Analysis of Alternatives;

g) Management, Mitigation and Adaptation Plan;

h) Environmental Management and Training;

i) Monitoring Plan including for Natural Hazards and Climate Change;

j) Inter-Agency and Public/NGO Involvement;

k) List of References; and

l) Appendices:i) List of Environmental Assessment Preparers;ii) Records of Inter-Agency and Public/NGO Communications; and iii) Date and Unpublished Reference Documents.

9. CONSULTING TEAM. Environmental assessment requires interdisciplinary analysis. Identify in this paragraphwhich specializations ought to be included on the team for the particular project category. Team should includemembers trained in the integration of natural hazards/climate change into the EIA process.

10. SCHEDULE. Specify dates for inception report, progress reviews, interim and final reports, and other significantmilestones.

11. OTHER INFORMATION. Include here lists of data sources, project background reports and studies, relevantpublications, and other items to which the consultant's attention should be directed, including climate changescenarios, climate impact data, and vulnerability maps.

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ANNEX 8 Sample Project

Appraisal/ReviewChecklist 1 DESCRIPTION OF THE DEVELOPMENT, THE LOCAL ENVIRONMENT

AND THE BASELINE CONDITIONS

1.1 Policy, Legal and Administrative Framework: The adherence tonational policies and legislation where necessary should be clearlyoutlined in the report.

1.1.1 The regulations, standards, policies and guidelines applicable to projectshould be referred to and reference to those applicable made in thereport. The terms of reference for the environmental impact assessmentshould be included and made available.

1.2 Description of the development: The purpose of the developmentshould be described as should the physical characteristics, scale,design and where appropriate a description of the productionprocess should be included.

1.2.1 The purposes and objectives of the development should be explained.

1.2.2 The design and size of the development should be described includingdiagrams, plans or maps.

1.2.3 The nature of the production processes intended to be employed in thecompleted development should be described with the appropriate layoutsand the expected rate of production outlined.

1.3 Baseline conditions: A description of the affected environment as itis currently and as it could be expected to develop should bepresented.

1.3.1 Local land use plans, guidelines and policies should be consulted and theother data collected to assist in the determination of the baselineconditions (biological and social) i.e., the probable future state of theenvironment in the absence of the project, taking into account natural andman-induced fluctuations and human activities.

1.3.2 From this information a description of the project without the proposeddevelopment must be documented in the report.

1.3.3 Include historical background in terms of climate conditions, andanticipated climate change scenarios and impacts affecting the area of theproposed development.

1.4 Environment description: The area and location of the environmentlikely to be affected by the development proposals should bedescribed. (See Appendix 5 for a list of factors that the developershould consider when describing the environment.)

1.4.1 The environment expected to be affected by the development should beindicated with the aid of a suitable map of the area – for example does thestudy area fall within a Conservation Area/ Protected Area/ vulnerablearea. Include hazard and/or vulnerability maps.

This document is an excerpt fromthe Draft EIA Report ReviewManual, produced by the JamaicaNational Environment and

Planning Agency (NEPA), 10-11Caledonia Avenue, Kingston 5,Jamaica; December 2003.

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1.4.2 The affected environment should be defined broadly enough to includeany potentially significant effects occurring away from the immediateconstruction site. For example the dispersion of pollutants, etc.

1.4.3 The boundaries of the development site should be defined and its location clearly shown on a map.

1.4.4 The uses to which this land will be put should be described and the different land use areas demarcated.

1.4.5 The duration of construction, operational and where appropriate, decommission phase should be estimated. Climate change impacts should be determined for each phase of the project.

1.5 Wastes:* The types and quantities of wastes which might be produced should be estimated, and the proposed disposal routes to the environment described, including a description of the vulnerability of the proposed route to natural hazards associated with climate change.(*Wastes include all residual process materials, effluents and emissions.)

1.5.1 The types and quantities of waste matter, and there residual material and the rate at which these will be produced should be estimated.

1.5.2 The ways which it proposed to treat these wastes and residuals should be indicated, together with the routes by which they will eventually be disposed of to the environment. If waste is to be recycled the process should be outlined in the report.

2 IDENTIFICATION AND EVALUATION OF KEY ENVIRONMENTAL(INCLUDING CLIMATE CHANGE) & SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPACTS

2.1 Identification of Environmental Impacts: Methods should be used which are capable of identifying all significant impacts of the project on the environment and identifying significant impacts on the projectfrom climate change.

2.1.1 Impacts (including climate change impacts) should be identified using asystematic methodology such as a matrix, consultations etc.

2.1.2 A brief description of the impact (including climate change impacts)identification method should be given, as should the rationale for usingthem.

2.2 Definition of environmental impacts: Potential impacts of thedevelopment on the environment as well as the potential impact fromclimate change on the development should be investigated anddescribed. Impacts should be broadly defined to cover all potentialeffects on the environment, and all potential climate change impactson the development and surrounding area.

2.2.1 An exhaustive list/matrix should be compiled including all:i) the direct effects and any indirect, cumulative, short, medium and long-

term permanent and temporary, positive and negative effects of theproject, and

ii) the direct climate change impacts and any indirect, cumulative, short,medium and long-term permanent and temporary, positive and negativeimpacts from climate change on the project.

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2.2.2 The above types of effects should be investigated and described withparticular regard to identifying effects on or affecting biodiversity, soil,water, air, climate landscape, material assets, human health risk and theinteractions between these.

2.3 Assessment of socio-economic and environmental impactsignificance: The expected significance that the projected impactswill have for society and the environment should be estimated. Theclimate change models used for the assessment should be identified.The sources of quality standards, together with the rationale,assumptions and value judgments used in assessing significanceshould be fully described.

2.3.1 The significance of an impact should be assessed, taking intoconsideration national and international quality standards where available.

2.3.2 Where mitigating or climate change adaptation measures for impacts havebeen proposed, the significance of any impact remaining after mitigation orappropriate adaptation measures should be described.

2.4 Prediction of environmental impact (including climate change impacts) magnitude: The likely impacts of: (a) thedevelopment on the environment; and (b) climate change on thedevelopment, should be described in exact terms wherever possible.

2.4.1 The magnitude of the predicted impact should be identified. Wherepossible predictions of impacts should be expressed in measurablequantities with ranges and or confidence limits as appropriate.

2.4.2 The methods used to predict magnitude should be described and beappropriate to the size and importance of the projected impact.

2.5 Definition and identification of potential socio-economic impacts: Theeffect of the development on the socio-economic characteristics ofthe project area should be investigated and described. This shouldalso include the prediction of impacts that the project will have on thesocio-economic characteristics of the area to be developed and theextent to which this may be affected by climate change impacts.

2.5.1 The socio-economic characteristics of the existing location should beidentified.

2.5.2 The impacts of: (a) the proposed project; and (b) climate change, on thesocio-economic environment should be analyzed including the use of land,the main economic activities (tourism etc.), and the social level withinnearby communities, employment levels and existence of archaeologicaland historical sties.

2.5.3 These impacts should be categorized in terms of being positive ornegative

3 ALTERNATIVES

3.1 Alternatives: Feasible alternatives to the proposed project shouldhave been considered. These should be outlined in the Report, thesocio-economic and environmental implications of each presented,and the reasons for their rejection briefly discussed, particularlywhere the preferred project is likely to have significant adverseenvironmental impacts or is likely to be severely compromised byprevailing and projected environmental issues.

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3.1.1 Alternative sites should have been considered where these arepracticable, available and cost-effective to the developer. The mainenvironmental advantages and disadvantages of these should bediscussed and the reasons for the final choice given.

3.1.2 Where available, alternative processes, designs and operating conditionsshould have been considered at an early stage of the project planning andthe socio-economic and environmental implications of these investigatedand reported where the proposed project is likely to have significantadverse environmental impacts.

3.1.3 The analysis of alternatives should include the “no-action” alternative.

4 MITIGATION AND ADAPTATION

4.1 Mitigation Measures: All significant adverse impacts of the project onthe environment and vice versa should be considered for mitigation.Evidence should be presented to show that proposed mitigationmeasures will be effective when implemented.

4.1.1 The mitigation of all significant adverse impacts should be considered andwhere practicable, specific mitigation measures should be put forward. Thecost of the mitigation action should be assessed and included in the Report.

4.1.2 It should be clear to what extent mitigation methods will be effective whenimplemented. Where the effectiveness is uncertain or depends onassumptions about operating procedures, climatic conditions etc., datashould be introduced to justify the acceptance of these assumptions.

4.1.3 Any unmitigated impacts should be indicated and justification offered as towhy these impacts were not mitigated for.

4.1.4 In the case of beneficial impacts it should be demonstrated how these canbe maximized.

4.2 Commitment to mitigation: developers should be committed to, andcapable of, carrying out the mitigation measure and should presentplans of how they propose to do so.

4.2.1 There should be a clear record of the commitment of the developer to themitigation measures presented in the Report. Details of how the mitigationmeasures will be implemented and function over the time span for whichthey are necessary should be given.

4.3 Adaptation measures: All significant climate change impactsaffecting the project should be considered in the formulation ofappropriate adaptation measures. Evidence should be presented toshow that proposed adaptation measures are consistent with anyadaptation policy or program being implemented at the national level,and will be effective when implemented.

4.3.1 The implementation of appropriate adaptation measures to address allsignificant adverse impacts should be considered and where practicable,specific adaptation measures should be put forward. The cost of theadaptation measures should be assessed and included in the Report.

4.3.2 It should be clear to what extent adaptation measures will be effectivewhen implemented. Where the effectiveness is uncertain or depends onassumptions about operating procedures, climatic conditions etc., datashould be introduced to justify the acceptance of these assumptions.

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4.3.3 Any significant climate change impacts that cannot be adequatelyaddressed through appropriate adaptation measures should be indicatedand justification offered as to why suitable adaptation measures were notprovided for these impacts.

4.3.4 In the case of beneficial impacts it should be demonstrated how these canbe maximized.

4.3.5. Commitment to adaptation: developers should be committed to, andcapable of carrying out the proposed adaptation measure and shouldpresent plans of how they propose to do so.

4.3.6 There should be a clear record of the commitment of the developer to theadaptation measures presented in the Report. Details of how theadaptation measures will be implemented and function over the time spanfor which they are necessary should be given.

5 MONITORING

5.1 Monitoring programme: Developers should include a detailedmonitoring plan and present how they intend to implement this plan.

5.1.2 A detailed environmental and climate change monitoring plan should bedescribed outlining the reasons for the costs associated with themonitoring activities.

5.1.3 The plan should clearly state the institutional arrangements for carryingout the work, the parameters to be monitored, methods employed,standards or guidelines to be used, evaluation of results, schedule andduration of monitoring, initiation of action necessary to limit adverseimpacts disclosed by monitoring, format and frequency of reporting.

5.2 Environmental management and training: Developers should includea detailed management plan for all stages of the development.

5.2.1 The developer should include a detailed management plan outlining howthe environment and any significant impacts from climate change will bemanaged or addressed during the implementation of both the constructionand operational phases of the project.

5.2.2 The training programme for employees of the facility should be outlined.

5.2.3 The plan should also include any institutional needs for implementing therecommendations of the EIA report.

6 PUBLIC / COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT

6.1 The public should be actively involved in the EIA process usingappropriate methods of garnering public opinion, including localknowledge of past events. The public should be provided with fullinformation concerning any anticipated climate change impactsaffecting the development.(See Appendix 7 for various public consultation methods that may beemployed.)

6.1.1 Where applicable, the Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) andcitizens within the community in which the project is proposed to beimplemented should be formally contacted in writing and be informed ofthe project. Comments should be sought from all parties who will beaffected by the proposed action.

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6.1.2 The methods employed to obtain public/community input should bedescribed and assessed for appropriateness depending on size ofaudience, expertise required and issues and concerns should bedocumented in accordance with the guidelines for Public Participation.

7 COMMUNICATION OF RESULTS

7.1 Layout: The layout of the Report should enable the reader to find andassimilate data easily and quickly. External data sources should beacknowledged.

7.1.1 There should be an introduction briefly describing the project, the aims ofthe environmental assessment and how these aims are to be achieved.

7.1.2 Information should be logically arranged in sections or chapters and thewhereabouts of important data should be signaled in a table of contents orindex.

7.1.3 Unless the chapters themselves are short, there should be chaptersummaries outlining the main findings of each phase of the investigation.

7.1.4 When data, conclusions or quality standards from external sources areintroduced, the original source should be acknowledged at that point in thetext. Full reference should also be included either with theacknowledgment, at the bottom of the page or in a list of references.

7.1.5 Where climate change models and scenarios are used, the source of suchmodels and scenarios should be identified. The risk management regimeused to address any scientific uncertainty should be identified.

7.2 Presentation: Care should be taken in the presentation of informationto make sure that it is accessible to the non-specialist.

7.2.1 Information should be presented so as to be comprehensible to the non-specialist. Tables, graphs and other devices should be used asappropriate. Unnecessary technical or obscure language should beavoided.

7.2.2 Technical terms acronyms and initials should be defined, either when firstintroduced into the text or in a glossary.

7. 3. Emphasis: Information should be presented without bias and receivethe emphasis appropriate to its importance in the context of theenvironmental report.

7.3.1 Prominence and emphasis should be given to potentially severe adverseimpacts as well as to potentially substantial favourable environmental andclimate change impacts.

7.3.2 The Report should be unbiased. Adverse impacts should not be disguisedby euphemisms or platitudes.

7.4 Executive Summary: There should be a clearly written executivesummary of the main findings of the study and how they werereached.

7.4.1 There should be an executive summary of the main findings andconclusion of the study. Technical terms, lists of data and detailedexplanations of scientific reasoning should be avoided.

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7.4.2 The summary should cover all main issues discussed in the Report andcontain at least a brief description of the project and the environment, abrief summary of anticipated significant climate change impacts affectingthe development, an account of the main mitigation and adaptationmeasures to be undertaken by the developer and a description of anysignificant residual impacts.

7.4.3 A brief explanation of the method by which these data were obtained andan indication of the confidence which can be placed in them should also beincluded.

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ANNEX 9 References andFurther Reading

Asian Development Bank (ADB). (2003) “Cumulative Effects Assessmentin Environmental Assessment.” Environmental Assessment Guidelines.

Biliana Cicin-Sain. February 1997. Guidelines for Integrating CoastalManagement Programs and National Climate Change Action Plans.

Canadian Environmental Assessment Agency. (1999) Cumulative EffectsAssessment Practitioners Guide.

CARICOM. (2003) Caribbean Risk Management Techniques for ClimateChange.

D.F. Oderson. (2003) Review of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)Procedures in CARICOM States Participating in the Adapting to Climate Changein the Caribbean (ACCC) Project.

Government of Barbados. (1998) Environmental Impact Assessment Guidelinesand Procedures for Barbados.

Government of Jamaica. (1998) Guidelines for Conducting EnvironmentalImpact Assessments. Natural Resources Conservation Authority.

Government of Trinidad and Tobago (2001) A Guide to the Application for aCertificate of Environmental Clearance. Environmental ManagementAuthority (EMA).

Government of Trinidad and Tobago. (2001) CEC Review Manual.Environmental Management Authority (EMA).

Inter American Development Bank (IADB). (2001) Review of EnvironmentalImpact Assessment in Selected Countries of Latin-America and the Caribbean.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). 2001. Climate Change2001 - Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. WMO/UNEP.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Response Strategies WorkingGroup (Coastal Zone Management Subgroup). March 1992. Global ClimateChange and the Rising Challenge of the Sea.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). 1994. IPCC TechnicalGuidelines for Assessing Climate Change Impact and Adaptations.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). June 1990.Policymakers Summary of the Formulation of Response Strategies.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). April 1994. Preparingto Meet the Coastal Challenges of the 21st Century.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). 1998. RegionalImpacts of Climate Change: An Assessment of Vulnerability.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 2000. Special Report onEmission Scenarios, Nakicenovic, N., et al., Cambridge University Press 599 pp.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2001. Volume I, ThirdAssessment Report: The Scientific Basis, Houghton, J.T. et al., ed. CambridgeUniversity Press, 867 pp.

National Centre for Environmental Assessment, United StatesEnvironment Protection Agency. (2003) Framework for Cumulative RiskAssessment.

R.J. Nicholls, S.P. Leatherman, K.C. Dennis, C.R. Volonte. 1995. “Impactsand Responses to Sea-level Rise: Qualitative and QuantitativeAssessments.” Journal of Coastal Research. SI. 14. 26-43. 1995.

Roger A. Pielke. (1998) “Rethinking the Role of Adaptation in Climate Policy.”Global Environmental Change. Vol. 8. No. 2., P.159.

Samuel Fankhauser, Joel B. Smith, Richard S. Tol. (1999) “WeatheringClimate Change: Some Simple Rules to Guide Adaptation Decisions.”Ecological Economics 30, 67-68.

Thomas Downing. September 1999. Confidence and Speculation in theAssessment of Climate Change Impacts. Paper Presented to the UNFCCCWorkshop on Articles 4.8 and 4.9. of the Framework Convention onClimate Change.

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). October 1996.Handbook on Methods for Climate Change Impact Assessment and AdaptationStrategies.

UNFCC Secretariat. May 1999. Compendium of Decision Tools to EvaluateStrategies for Adaptation to Climate Change.

University of the West Indies. (May 2003) Environmental Impact Assessment.Master’s Program in Natural Resource Management Course Material.

World Bank Environment Division. January 1999. Environmental Assessment.(OP 4.01).

World Bank Environment Division. January 1999. Environmental Assessment(Guidelines). (BP 4.01).

World Bank Environment Department. July 1991. Environmental AssessmentSourcebook. Volume I - Policies, Procedures, and Cross-Sectoral Issues.

World Bank Environment Division. December 1997. Environmental Hazardand Risk Assessment. Environmental Assessment Sourcebook Update.

World Bank Environment Department. March 1995. The World Bank andthe UN Framework Convention on Climate Change. ESSD/World Bank.

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