catelite converter compelete report
TRANSCRIPT
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CATELITE CONVERTER
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of degree of
DIPLOMA
IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
BY
Under the guidance of -----------------------------
2011-2012
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
CERTIFICATE
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Register number: _________________________
This is to certify that the project report titled CATELITE
CONVERTER submitted by the following students for the award of thedegree of bachelor of engineering is record of bonafide work carried out by
them.
Done by
Mr. / Ms_______________________________
In partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of degree in
Diploma in mechanical Engineering
During the Year(2004-2005)
_________________ _______________
Head of Department Guide
Coimbatore641651.
Date:
Submitted for the university examination held on ___________
_________________ ________________
Internal Examiner External Examiner
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
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At this pleasing moment of having successfully completed our
project, we wish to convey our sincere thanks and gratitude to the
management of our college and our beloved chairman
.. , who provided all
the facilities to us.
We would like to express our sincere thanks to our principal
, for forwarding us to do our
project and offering adequate duration in completing our project.
We are also grateful to the Head of Department Prof.
.., for her constructive suggestions
& encouragement during our project.
With deep sense of gratitude, we extend our earnest & sincere
thanks to our guide
.., Department of
EEE for her kind guidance & encouragement during this project.
We also express our indebt thanks to our TEACHING and
NON TEACHING staffs of MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT,.(COLLEGE NAME).
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BUTTON OPERATED ELECTRO-
MAGNETIC GEAR SHIFTING
SYSTEM------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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CONTENTS---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CONTENTS
ADKNOWLEDGEMENT
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1. SYNOPSIS2. INTRODUCTION3. I.G ENGINE4. TYPES OF CATELITE5. SCEUBBER UNIT6. WORKING PRINCIPLE7. DESIGN AND DRAWINGS8. LIST OF MATERIAL9. COST ESTIMATION10.ADVANTAGES11.APPLICATIONS AND DISADVANTAGES12.PROGRAME13.CONCLUSION
BIBLIOGRAPHY
PHOTOGRAPHY
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Chapter-1-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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SYNOPSIS---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CHAPTER-1
SYNOPSIS
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Diesel power invitably finds a very important role in the development of the
plants economy and technical growth. Inspite of their high thermal efficiency, one
cannot ignore the fact about the effect of their exhaust, in the atmosphere.
It is a well-known fact that the toxic gases emitted in diesel engines are less than
the engines.
Due to high cost of petrol, diesel engines are more in use. Anticipating the use of
diesel engines, even more in the near future; this system developed can be used to control
the toxic gases, coming out of the diesel engines.
These toxic gases are harmful not only to the atmosphere, but also to the human &
animal race. Objective of this project is to design & fabricate a simple system, where the
toxic levels are controlled through chemical reaction to more agreeable level. This system
acts itself as a silencer; there is no need to separate the silencer. The whole assembly is
fitted in the exhaust pipe; it does not give rise to any complications in assembling it. This
system is VERY COST EFFECTIVE AND MORE ECONOMICAL.
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Chapter-2-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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INTRODUCTION---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CHAPTER - 2
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INTRODUCTION
Diesel engines are playing a vital role in Road and sea transport, Agriculture,
mining and many other industries. Considering the available fuel resources and the
present technological development, Diesel fuel is evidently indispensable. In general, the
consumption of fuel is an index for finding out the economic strength of any country.
Inspite, we cannot ignore the harmful effects of the large mass of the burnt gases,
which erodes the purity of our environment everyday. It is especially so, inmost
developed countries like USA and EUOPE. While, constant research is going on to
reduce the toxic content of diesel exhaust, the diesel power packs find the ever increasing
applications and demand.
This project is an attempt to reduce the toxic content of diesel exhaust,
before it is emitted to the atmosphere. This system can be safely used for diesel power
packs which could be used in inflammable atmospheres, such as refineries, chemicals
processing industries, open cost mines and other confined areas, which demands the need
for diesel power packs. For achieving this toxic gases are to be reduced to acceptable
limits before they are emitted out of this atmosphere, which otherwise will be hazardous
and prone to accidents.
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Chapter-3-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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I.C ENGINE---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CHAPTER-3
I.C ENGINE
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Internal combustion engines are those heat engines that burn their fuel inside the
engine cylinder. In internal combustion engine the chemical energy stored in their
operation. The heat energy is converted in to mechanical energy by the expansion of
gases against the piston attached to the crankshaft that can rotate.
4.1 Diesel ENGINE
The engine which gives power to propel the automobile vehicle is a diesel burning
internal combustion engine.dieselis a liquid fuel and is called by the name gasoline in
America. The ability of diesel to furnish power rests on the two basic principles;
Burning or combustions always accomplished by the production of heat. When a gas is heated, it expands. If the volume remains constant, the pressurerises according to Charles law.
4.2 WORKING
There are only two strokes involved namely the compression stroke and the power
stroke, they are usually called as upward stroke and downward stroke respectively.
4.2.1 UPWARD STROKE
During this stroke, the piston moves from bottom dead center to top dead
center, compressing the charge-air mixture in combustion chamber of the cylinder, at the
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time the inlet port is uncovered and the exhaust, transfer ports are covered. The
compressed charge is ignited in the combustion chamber by a spark given by spark plug.
4.2.2 DOWNWARD STROKE
The charge is ignited the hot gases compress the piston moves downwards,
during this stroke the inlet port is covered by the piston and the new charge is compressed
in the crankcase, further downward movement of the piston uncovers first exhaust port
and then transfer port and hence the exhaust starts through the exhaust port. As soon as
the transfer port open the charge through it is forced in to the cylinder, the cycle is then
repeated.
4.3 ENGINE TERMINOLOGY
The engine terminologies are detailed below,
4.3.1 CYLINDER
It is a cylindrical vessel or space in which the piston makes a reciprocating
motion.
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4.3.2 PISTON
It is a cylindrical component fitted to the cylinder which transmits the bore
of explosion to the crankshaft.
4.3.3 COMBUSTION CHAMBER
It is the space exposed in the upper part of the cylinder where the
combustion of fuel takes place.
4.3.4 CONNECTING ROD
It inter connects the piston and the crankshaft and transmits the
reciprocating motion of the piston into the rotary motion of crankshaft.
4.3.5 CRACKSHAFT
It is a solid shaft from which the power is transmitted to the clutch.
4.3.6 CAM SHAFT
It is drive by the crankshaft through timing gears and it is used to control
the opening and closing of two valves.
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4.3.7.1CAM
These are made as internal part of the camshaft and are designed in such a way to
open the valves at the current timing.
4.3.7.2PISTON RINGS
It provides a tight seal between the piston and cylinder wall and preventing
leakage of combustion gases.
4.3.7.3GUDGEON PIN
It forms a link between the small end of the connecting rod and the piston.
4.3.7.4INLET
The pipe which connects the intake system to the inlet valve of the engine end
through which air or air fuel mixture is drawn in to the cylinder.
4.3.7.5EXHAUST MANIFOLDThe pipe which connects the exhaust system to the exhaust valve of the
engine through which the product of combustion escape in to the atmosphere.
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4.3.7.6INLET AND EXHAUST VALVE
They are provided on either on the cylinder head or on the side of the cylinder and
regulating the charge coming in to the cylinder and for discharging the product of
combustion from the cylinder.
4.3.7.7FLYWHEEL
It is a heavy steel wheel attached to the rear end of the crank shaft. It absorbs
energy when the engine speed is high and gives back when the engine speed is low.
4.4 NOMENCLATURE
This refers to the position of the crank shaft when the piston is in it slowest
position.
4.4.1 BORE(d)
Diameter of the engine cylinder is refers to as the bore.
4.4.2 STROKE(s)
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Distance traveled by the piston in moving from TDC to the piston in
moving from TDC to the BDC.
4.4.3 CLEARANCE VOLUME (V)The volume of cylinder above the piston when it is in the TDC position.
4.4.4 SWEPT VOLUME (V)
The swept volume of the entire cylinder
Vd = Vs N
Where,
Vs ------- Swept Volume
N --------- Number of cylinder
4.4.5 COMPRESSION RATIO (R)
It is the ratio of the total cylinder volume when the piston is at BDC to the
clearance volume.
4.5 ENGINE SPECIFICATION
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Type of fuel used : Deisel
Make : Hero Honda
Cooling system : Air cooled
Number of cylinder : Single
Number of stroke : Four Stroke
Number of Gear : Four
Arrangement : Vertical
Cubic capacity : 100 cc
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Chapter-4-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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Types of catelite---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CHAPTER-4
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Types
Two-way
A two-way (or "oxidation") catalytic converter has two simultaneous tasks:
1. Oxidation ofcarbon monoxide to carbon dioxide: 2CO + O2 2CO22. Oxidation ofhydrocarbons (unburnt and partially-burnt fuel) to carbon dioxide
and water: CxH2x+2 + [(3x+1)/2] O2 xCO2 + (x+1) H2O (a combustion
reaction)
This type of catalytic converter is widely used on diesel engines to reducehydrocarbon and carbon monoxide emissions. They were also used on gasoline
engines in American- and Canadian-market automobiles until 1981. Because of their
inability to control oxides of nitrogen, they were superseded by three-way converters.
Three-way
Since 1981, "three-way" (oxidation-reduction) catalytic converters have been used in
vehicle emission control systems in the United States and Canada; many other
countries have also adopted stringent vehicle emission regulations that in effect
require three-way converters on gasoline-powered vehicles. The reduction and
oxidation catalysts are typically contained in a common housing, however in some
instances they may be housed separately. A three-way catalytic converter has three
simultaneous tasks:
1. Reduction of nitrogen oxides to nitrogen and oxygen: 2NOx xO2 + N22. Oxidation of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide: 2CO + O2 2CO23. Oxidation of unburnt hydrocarbons (HC) to carbon dioxide and water:
CxH2x+2 + [(3x+1)/2]O2 xCO2 + (x+1)H2O.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_monoxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unburned_hydrocarbonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diesel_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NOxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicle_emissions_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redoxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redoxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redoxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redoxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicle_emissions_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NOxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diesel_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unburned_hydrocarbonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_monoxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidation -
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These three reactions occur most efficiently when the catalytic converter receives
exhaust from an engine running slightly above the stoichiometric point. This point is
between 14.6 and 14.8 parts air to 1 part fuel, by weight, for gasoline. The ratio
for Autogas (or liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)), natural gas and ethanol fuels is eachslightly different, requiring modified fuel system settings when using those fuels. In
general, engines fitted with 3-way catalytic converters are equipped with
acomputerized closed-loop feedbackfuel injection system using one or more oxygen
sensors, though early in the deployment of three-way converters, carburetorsequipped
for feedback mixture control were used.
Three-way catalysts are effective when the engine is operated within a narrow band ofair-fuel ratios near stoichiometry, such that the exhaust gas oscillates between rich
(excess fuel) and lean (excess oxygen) conditions. However, conversion efficiency
falls very rapidly when the engine is operated outside of that band of air-fuel ratios.
Under lean engine operation, there is excess oxygen and the reduction of NOx is not
favored. Under rich conditions, the excess fuel consumes all of the available oxygen
prior to the catalyst, thus only stored oxygen is available for the oxidation function.
Closed-loop control systems are necessary because of the conflicting requirements for
effective NOx reduction and HC oxidation. The control system must prevent the
NOx reduction catalyst from becoming fully oxidized, yet replenish the oxygen
storage material to maintain its function as an oxidation catalyst.
Oxygen storage
Three-way catalytic converters can store oxygen from the exhaust gas stream, usually
when the air-fuel ratio goes lean.[12]When insufficient oxygen is available from the
exhaust stream, the stored oxygen is released and consumed (see cerium(IV) oxide). A
lack of sufficient oxygen occurs either when oxygen derived from NOxreduction is
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoichiometrichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autogashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquefied_petroleum_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engine_control_unithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Closed-loop_controllerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_injectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen_sensor#Automotive_applicationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen_sensor#Automotive_applicationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carburetorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air-fuel_ratiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Catalytic_converter&printable=yes#cite_note-11http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Catalytic_converter&printable=yes#cite_note-11http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Catalytic_converter&printable=yes#cite_note-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerium(IV)_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerium(IV)_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Catalytic_converter&printable=yes#cite_note-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air-fuel_ratiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carburetorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen_sensor#Automotive_applicationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen_sensor#Automotive_applicationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_injectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Closed-loop_controllerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engine_control_unithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquefied_petroleum_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autogashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoichiometric -
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unavailable or when certain maneuvers such as hard acceleration enrich the mixture
beyond the ability of the converter to supply oxygen.
Unwanted reactions
Unwanted reactions can occur in the three-way catalyst, such as the formation of
odoriferous hydrogen sulfide and ammonia. Formation of each can be limited by
modifications to the washcoat and precious metals used. It is difficult to eliminate
these byproducts entirely. Sulfur-free or low-sulfur fuels eliminate or reduce hydrogen
sulfide.
For example, when control of hydrogen-sulfide emissions is
desired, nickel or manganese is added to the washcoat. Both substances act to block
the absorption ofsulfur by the washcoat. Hydrogen sulfide is formed when the
washcoat has absorbed sulfur during a low-temperature part of the operating cycle,
which is then released during the high-temperature part of the cycle and the sulfur
combines with HC.
For diesel engines
For compression-ignition (i.e., diesel engines), the most-commonly-used catalytic
converter is the Diesel Oxidation Catalyst (DOC). This catalyst uses O2 (oxygen) in
the exhaust gas stream to convert CO (carbon monoxide) to CO2 (carbon dioxide) and
HC (hydrocarbons) to H2O (water) and CO2. These converters often operate at 90
percent efficiency, virtually eliminating diesel odor and helping to reduce
visible particulates (soot). These catalysts are not active for NOx reduction because
any reductant present would react first with the high concentration of O2 in diesel
exhaust gas.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammoniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nickelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manganesehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absorption_(chemistry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfurhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diesel_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particulatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particulatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diesel_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfurhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absorption_(chemistry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manganesehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nickelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammoniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide -
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Reduction in NOx emissions from compression-ignition engines has previously been
addressed by the addition of exhaust gas to incoming air charge, known asexhaust gas
recirculation (EGR). In 2010, most light-duty diesel manufacturers in the U.S. added
catalytic systems to their vehicles to meet new federal emissions requirements. Thereare two techniques that have been developed for the catalytic reduction of
NOx emissions under lean exhaust conditions - selective catalytic reduction (SCR) and
the lean NOx trap or NOx adsorber. Instead of precious metal-containing NOx
adsorbers, most manufacturers selected base-metal SCR systems that use
a reagent such as ammonia to reduce the NOx into nitrogen. Ammonia is supplied to
the catalyst system by the injection ofurea into the exhaust, which then undergoes
thermal decomposition and hydrolysis into ammonia. One trademark product of urea
solution, also referred to as Diesel Emission Fluid (DEF), is AdBlue.
Diesel exhaust contains relatively high levels of particulate matter (soot), consisting in
large part of elemental carbon. Catalytic converters cannot clean up elemental carbon,
though they do remove up to 90 percent of the soluble organic fraction[citation needed], so
particulates are cleaned up by a soot trap or diesel particulate filter(DPF). A DPF
consists of a Cordierite or Silicon Carbide substrate with a geometry that forces the
exhaust flow through the substrate walls, leaving behind trapped soot particles. As the
amount of soot trapped on the DPF increases, so does the back pressure in the exhaust
system. Periodic regenerations (high temperature excursions) are required to initiate
combustion of the trapped soot and thereby reducing the exhaust back pressure. The
amount of soot loaded on the DPF prior to regeneration may also be limited to prevent
extreme exotherms from damaging the trap during regeneration. In the U.S., all on-road light, medium and heavy-duty vehicles powered by diesel and built after January
1, 2007, must meet diesel particulate emission limits that means they effectively have
to be equipped with a 2-Way catalytic converter and a diesel particulate filter. Note
that this applies only to the diesel engine used in the vehicle. As long as the engine
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exhaust_gas_recirculationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exhaust_gas_recirculationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective_catalytic_reductionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NOx_adsorberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reagenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammoniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ureahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AdBluehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diesel_exhausthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diesel_particulate_filterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diesel_particulate_filterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diesel_exhausthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AdBluehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ureahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammoniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reagenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NOx_adsorberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective_catalytic_reductionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exhaust_gas_recirculationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exhaust_gas_recirculation -
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was manufactured before January 1, 2007, the vehicle is not required to have the DPF
system. This led to an inventory runup by engine manufacturers in late 2006 so they
could continue selling pre-DPF vehicles well into 2007.[13]
Lean Burn Spark Ignition Engines
For Lean Burn spark-ignition engines, an oxidation catalyst is used in the same
manner as in a diesel engine. Emissions from Lean Burn Spark Ignition Engines are
very similar to emissions from a Diesel Compression Ignition engine.
Installation
Many vehicles have a close-coupled catalysts located near the engine's exhaust
manifold. This unit heats up quickly due to its proximity to the engine, and reduces
cold-engine emissions by burning off hydrocarbons from the extra-rich mixture used
to start a cold engine.
Air injection
When catalytic converters were first introduced, most vehicles used carburetors that
provided a relatively rich air-fuel ratio. Oxygen (O2) levels in the exhaust stream were
generally insufficient for the catalytic reaction to occur efficiently, so most
installations included secondary air injection which injected air into the exhaust
stream to increase the available oxygen and allow the catalyst to function. Some three-
way catalytic converter systems have air injection systems with the air injected
between the first (NOx
reduction) and second (HC and CO oxidation) stages of the
converter. As in the two-way converters, this injected air provides oxygen for the
oxidation reactions. An upstream air injection point, ahead of the catalytic converter,
is also sometimes present to provide oxygen during engine warmup, which causes
unburned fuel to ignite in the exhaust tract before reaching the catalytic converter.
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Catalytic_converter&printable=yes#cite_note-12http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Catalytic_converter&printable=yes#cite_note-12http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Catalytic_converter&printable=yes#cite_note-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lean_burnhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exhaust_manifoldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exhaust_manifoldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carburetorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air-fuel_ratiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_air_injectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_air_injectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air-fuel_ratiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carburetorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exhaust_manifoldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exhaust_manifoldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lean_burnhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Catalytic_converter&printable=yes#cite_note-12 -
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This reduces the engine runtime needed for the catalytic converter to reach its "light-
off" or operating temperature.
Many modern vehicles do not have air injection systems. Instead, they provide a
constantly varying air-fuel mixture that quickly and continually cycles between lean
and rich exhaust. Oxygen sensors are used to monitor the exhaust oxygen content
before and after the catalytic converter and this information is used by the Electronic
control unit to adjust the fuel injection so as to prevent the first (NOx reduction)
catalyst from becoming oxygen-loaded while ensuring the second (HC and CO
oxidization) catalyst is sufficiently oxygen-saturated.
Damage
Poisoning
Catalyst poisoning occurs when the catalytic converter is exposed to exhaust
containing substances that coat the working surfaces, encapsulating the catalyst so that
it cannot contact and treat the exhaust. The most-notable contaminant is lead, so
vehicles equipped with catalytic converters can be run only on unleaded fuels. Other
common catalyst poisons include fuel sulfur, manganese (originating primarily from
the gasoline additive MMT), and silicone, which can enter the exhaust stream if the
engine has a leak that allows coolant into the combustion chamber. Phosphorus is
another catalyst contaminant. Although phosphorus is no longer used in gasoline, it
(and zinc, another low-level catalyst contaminant) was until recently widely used in
engine oil antiwear additives such as zinc dithiophosphate (ZDDP). Beginning in
2006, a rapid phaseout of ZDDP in engine oils began.[citation needed]
Depending on the contaminant, catalyst poisoning can sometimes be reversed by
running the engine under a very heavy load for an extended period of time. The
increased exhaust temperature can sometimes liquefy or sublime the contaminant,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_temperaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen_sensorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_control_unithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_control_unithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalyst_poisoninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetra-ethyl_leadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unleaded_gasolinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfurhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manganesehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methylcyclopentadienyl_manganese_tricarbonylhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siliconehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antifreezehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphorushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zinchttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AW_additivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zinc_dithiophosphatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zinc_dithiophosphatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AW_additivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zinchttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphorushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antifreezehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siliconehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methylcyclopentadienyl_manganese_tricarbonylhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manganesehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfurhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unleaded_gasolinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetra-ethyl_leadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalyst_poisoninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_control_unithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_control_unithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen_sensorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_temperature -
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removing it from the catalytic surface. However, removal of lead deposits in this
manner is usually not possible because of lead's high boiling point.
Meltdown
Any condition that causes abnormally high levels of unburned hydrocarbonsraw or
partially burnt fuelto reach the converter will tend to significantly elevate its
temperature, bringing the risk of a meltdown of the substrate and resultant catalytic
deactivation and severe exhaust restriction. Vehicles equipped with OBD-IIdiagnostic
systems are designed to alert the driver to a misfire condition by means offlashing the
"check engine" light on the dashboard.
Regulations
Emissions regulations vary considerably from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. Most
automobile spark-ignition engines in North America have been fitted with catalytic
converters since 1975,[2][3][4][5]and the technology used in non-automotive
applications is generally based on automotive technology.
Regulations for diesel engines are similarly varied, with some jurisdictions focusing
on NOx (nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide) emissions and others focusing on
particulate (soot) emissions. This regulatory diversity is challenging for manufacturers
of engines, as it may not be economical to design an engine to meet two sets of
regulations.
Regulations of fuel quality vary across jurisdictions. In North America, Europe, Japan
and Hong Kong, gasoline and diesel fuel are highly regulated, and compressed natural
gas and LPG (Autogas) are being reviewed for regulation. In most of Asia and Africa,
the regulations are often laxin some places sulfur content of the fuel can reach
20,000 parts per million (2%). Any sulfur in the fuel can be oxidized to SO2(sulfur
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OBD-IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Catalytic_converter&printable=yes#cite_note-Palucka-1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Catalytic_converter&printable=yes#cite_note-Palucka-1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Catalytic_converter&printable=yes#cite_note-GM_advert-3http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Catalytic_converter&printable=yes#cite_note-GM_advert-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong_Konghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compressed_natural_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compressed_natural_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfurhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur_dioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur_dioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfurhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compressed_natural_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compressed_natural_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong_Konghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Catalytic_converter&printable=yes#cite_note-GM_advert-3http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Catalytic_converter&printable=yes#cite_note-GM_advert-3http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Catalytic_converter&printable=yes#cite_note-Palucka-1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Catalytic_converter&printable=yes#cite_note-Palucka-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OBD-II -
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dioxide) or even SO3(sulfur trioxide) in the combustion chamber. If sulfur passes
over a catalyst, it may be further oxidized in the catalyst, i.e., SO2 may be further
oxidized to SO3. Sulfur oxides are precursors to sulfuric acid, a major component
ofacid rain. While it is possible to add substances such as vanadium to the catalystwashcoat to combat sulfur-oxide formation, such addition will reduce the
effectiveness of the catalyst. The most effective solution is to further refine fuel at the
refinery to produce ultra-low sulfur diesel. Regulations in Japan, Europe and North
America tightly restrict the amount of sulfur permitted in motor fuels. However, the
expense of producing such clean fuel may make it impractical for use in developing
countries. As a result, cities in these countries with high levels of vehicular traffic
suffer from acid rain, which damages stone and woodwork of buildings, poisons
humans and other animals, and damages local ecosystems.
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Chapter-5-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur_dioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur_dioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur_trioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combustion_chamberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfuric_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_rainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanadiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultra-low_sulfur_dieselhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultra-low_sulfur_dieselhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanadiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_rainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfuric_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combustion_chamberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur_trioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur_dioxide -
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SPROCKET AND CHAIN DRIVE---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CHAPTER-5
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
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2.1 EXHAUST OF BACK PRESSURE AND ENGINE PERFORMANCE
The exhaust gas contains carbondioxide, sulphurdioxide, carbon monoxide and
other oxides of nitrogen. At full load, the temperature of the exhaust gas will lie anywhere
between 500c to 700c.
The pressure of the exhaust gas depend upon so many factors viz.,
1. The design of exhaust gas manifold2. Magnitude of valve overlap3. Engine speed4. Number of cylinders5. The length of the exhaust gas flow path, etc,
The design of exhaust gas manifold is very important in case of high sped diesel engines. In
order to maintain the exhaust gas pressure with in required limits, the exhaust gas manifold is
designed so that, the gases which come out of the cylinder flows very smoothly, before it is let
out to the atmosphere.
This is absolutely essential in order to maintain the back pressure with in safe limits, so that
the engine can be kept at the optimum operating level. The back pressure, if it is allowed to
exceed the pre-determined level, the effort on the part of the piston for scavenge is
considerable increased and so power is lost in performing the above so, the primary
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consideration when introducing any modification in exhaust system does not and shall not
increase the back pressure which drastically affect the performance characteristics of an
engine. To be more precise, the speed of the engine is affected for a given specific fuels
consumption rate and so the combustion characteristics of an engine is all affected.
As a net result of the combustion is not proper and complete which results in the increased
impurities or unburnt gases. This principle against the purpose of introducing any system
whose sole object is reducing the very toxic property of the exhaust gas.
So, it is implied that the introduction of any system reduce the toxic property of the
exhaust gas, shall not result in any effects in the opposite direction. So by introducing any
component in the system the flow path length and the resistance to flow are indirectly
increased. So the increase of back pressure is inevitable unless the increase in magnitude
compensated in the design of the component itself.
Considering the factors to the specific application of this project, introductions of a
scrubber tank will definitely increase the back pressure. In the scrubber Tank the followings
are the factors which will contribute to the increase of back pressure.
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2.2 BACK PRESSURE EXERTED BY WATER IN THE SCRUBBER
Exhaust gas has to pass through the water, which is filled in the scrubber tank. In any case, the
outlet from the engine shall be kept below the water level in the scrubber tank for that the gas
will pass through the water. The gas has no to push the water, in order to bubble through the
water. The gas has to push the water, in order to bubble through the water in the scrubber
tank. This may create chances to increase the backpressure.
2.3 BACK PESSUE EXERTED BY BAFFLES
The baffles, which are provided to deflect the exhaust gases, also offers resistance to the flow
and inturn increases the back, pressure.
2.4 BACK PRESSURE EXERTED BY EVAPORATED WATER PARTICLES
Due to the high temperature, the exhaust gas is let out from the engine, some of the water
particles which comes in contact, readily changes its phase from liquid state to gaseous state
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i.e., steam Which increases the net mass of the exhaust gas flow per unit time. The resultant
may increase the backpressure.
2.5 BACK PRESSURE EXERTED BY LIME STONE CONTAINERThe lime stone container is used to stores the lime stone and offers a definite and increased
resistance to flow which again, contributes to the increase of backpressure. The limestones,
are originally intended to reduce the toxic ingredients of the exhaust, gas through chemical
reaction. It is evidently affects the flow of resistance and hence the combustion characteristics
of the engine will finally contributes the increased toxic ingredients of the exhaust gas.
2.6 BACK PRESSURE EXERTED BY EXHAUST FLOW PATH LENGTHBecause of the introduction of the scrubber, the net length of the exhaust gas flow path also is
increased which is again, against the original intention.
So, while all the above factors contribute for the increased backpressure of the system, the
system has to be so designed or constructed to reduce the above increase of pressure to its
original intended value or original designed value of the engine exhaust system. This could be
in principle, accomplished by so many ways. Basically, the elimination of a separate silencer
will half way solve the problem, because the scrubber tank itself will act as a silencer and
hence the resistance offered by a separate silencer, which is eliminated totally.
2.7 EFFECT OF BELLMOUTH IN SCRUBBER TANK
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The introduction of the bell-mouth assembly facilitates the exhaust gas to expand many times
by volume gradually before it is coming in contact with the water in the scrubber tank. The
process in itself contributes to the reduction of pressure of the whole system.
While, designing the system, have to be very careful so as not to increase the backpressure
unduly which will affect the performance of the engine in the negative direction and so the
constant of the exhaust gases. Hence, it is absolutely essential to make a provision for the
measurement of backpressure in the system, so, that it can be controls the same if necessary
occurs. This ensures not only the safety, but enhances the performance of the system as a
whole.
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Chapter-6-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CHAPTER-6
CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES
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3.1 OUTLET PIPE FROM THE ENGINE (OR) INLET TO THE SCRUBBER TANK:-
The outlet pipe from the engine was connected to the scrubber tank. The nominal bore of
the pipe is 50mm, which is also the inlet diameter of the scrubber tank. The shape and length
of the pipe is decided according to the space availability to keep the flow resistance to a
minimum.
3.2 SCRUBBERTANK ASSEMBLY :-
The scrubber tank is fabricated in three stages and it contains the following sub assemblies.
1. Tank.2. BellMouth.3. Lime stone container4. Level plugDrain Assembly.
3.2.1 TANK FABRICATION
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The tank is made of standard steel plates of 3mm thickness of quality structional steel
conforming to BIS: 226, Designation ST 42S. The tank is fabricated using Electric Arc
Welding process to withstand a maximum pressure of 0.8N/mm2
[8Kg/Cm2], with leak
proof.
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
The tank is 40 liters capacity keeping in view the size of Bell-mouth and lime stone
container, which are to be accommodated inside. The maximum water content of the tank is
about 15 liters, corresponding to 115mm of water level from the bottom of the scrubber tank.
Suitable baffles are provided which will encourage through scrubbing of the exhaust gas. The
baffles also prevent entry of water into the stone container to a considerable extent.
3.2.2 BellMouth Fabrication
The bellmouth is made of standard steel plates of 3mm thickness of quality structural
steel conforming to BIS: 226, Designation ST 42S.
Design consideration
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The bellmouth is provided to expand the exhaust gas so, as to reduce the backpressure
and temperature. The areas at the inlet portion are about 9025mm2. At the end where the
expansion is complete, the area is about 22500mm2. This accounts for a total enlargement of
more than 2 times, the area, which is originally available, the overall flow path of times,
the area, which is originally available. The overall flow path of the bellmouth is more than
330mm. The water column inside the bellmouth is 2530mm maximum. This accounts for
a maximum amount water displacement under peak load conditions. The greater amount of
expansion and lesser-required water displacement ensures minimum backpressure during the
bubbling of exhaust gas. The back pressure can be further reduced by introducing a suitable
space between the bellmouth and tank top flange without necessitating the reduction of
water level in the scrubber tank.
3.2.3 Lime stone Container Fabrication
The container is made of standard steel plates, which has 2mm thickness of quality steel
plates conforming to BIS: 226, Designation ST 42S Mild steel Plates, using Electric Arc
welding.
Design considerations
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The stone container is designs to accommodate 3540mm cross sectional area (approx.)
limestone. The capacity of the container is less than 2 liters. Limestones are to be only below
the outlet portion, which is above the top plate of the tank. Suitable holes are provided at the
circular sidewalls of the container. This facilitates the easy flow of exhaust gas, because the
effective area is more than 1.5 times the area at the inlet of bellmouth. But the diameter of
the holes is less than the lime stone which is filled, to prevent the lime stones from falling into
the tank. The conical shape at the top ensures gradual reduction of flow area, there by
increasing velocity and reduces pressure before it is let into the outlet pipe.
By separating the out let portion, the lime stone container can be easily visible for that
cleaning and changing the lime stone becomes very simple.
3.3 LEVEL PLUG CUM DRAINFabrication
The level plug cum drain is fabricated using 12.7mm nominal bore pipes fittings and
conforming to BIS: 1369 Where, fabricated using electric arc welding. The surface is rough
ground in order to have better finish.
Design consideration
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The level plug is designed to maintain a level of 115mm inside the tank. Instead of providing
a separate drain plug, a tee welded at the bottom of the level pipe to accommodate the drain
plug.
The whole assembly can be unscrewed and taken out of the tank for periodic maintenance
and repair by unscrewing the thread, which is fastening it to the boss, which is welded to the
bottom of the tank. Water level indicator is fixed in the tee joint, which shows the level of
water in the scrubber tank. During the evaporation period this will be useful to maintain the
level of water.
3.4 OUTLET PIPE FROM THE SCUBBER TANK
The outlet pipe from the scrubber tank is fabricated using standard medium duty pipes, which
are conforming to BIS 1369. The nominal bore of the pipe is 60mm, which is also the
diameter of the inlet pipe. The flange at the end is to suit the flange on the outlet of the lime
stone container. The shape and length of the pipe are to keep the flow resistance to a
minimum.
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Chapter-7-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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CHEMICAL REACTION DETAILS---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CHAPTER-7
DETAILS OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS
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In the scrubber tank water is used as a alkaline solution mainly to dissolve the
Unburned Hydro Carbons (UBHC). By this method, the UBHC, even if it is in glowing
conditions, it is dissolved in water, there by it is suppressing a spark which could escape
from the engine to the inflammable environment.
Chemical Reaction 1
The obnoxious product of combustion is NOXthe oxides of Nitrogen. Water will
absorb the oxides of Nitrogen to a larger extent. The following chemical reaction will
enhance the proof, for the above statement.
NO2 + 2H2O 2 HNO2 + 2HNO3(Diluted)..I
Chemical Reaction 2
If a small amount of limewater is added to scrubber tank, further reaction takes place as below.
Ca (OH)2 + 2HNO3 Ca(No3)2 = 2H2O
Ca (OH)2 + 2HNO2 Ca(NO2)2 + 2H2O..II
Chemical Reaction 3
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When the carbon-di-oxide present in the exhaust gas comes in contact with the limewater, calcium carbonate will precipitate.
The calcium carbonate when further exposed to carbon-di-oxide, calcium-bi-carbonate will be precipitated. The following is the chemical
reaction,
Ca(OH) + CO2 CaCO3 = H2O
CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 Ca(HCO3)2..III
Chemical Reaction 4
The sulphur-di-oxide present in the Diesel Exhaust also reacts with the limewater. But the small trace of sulphur-di-oxide
makes it little difficult to measure the magnitude of the chemical reaction, accurately. The following equation gives the chemical reaction
and calcium sulphite will precipitate.
Ca (OH) 2 + SO2 CaSO3 + H2OIV
Because CO is chemically balanced and stable, it will not readily react with water
or with any byproducts, which is resulted from the above reactions. Also the negligible
volume (0.2%) of CO present in the Diesel emission is not such a menace, when
compared to the petrol engine exhaust which as high as 10% of CO.
Even though, the limewater absorbs a part of the oxides of Nitrogen, carbon-di-
oxide, the time limitation for the reaction take place allows a considerable percentage to
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escape. But, the stone container, which is provided with limestone or calcium carbonate,
(CaCO3), encourages further chemical reaction, in the presence of steam, which
evaporates from the scrubber tank due to the high exhaust temperature (400C - 700 C).
The following are the chemical reactions for the oxides of Nitrogen (Nox) Carbon-di-
oxide (CO2) and Sulphur-di-oxide (SO2).
Chemical Reaction 6
CaCO3 + SO2 + H2O CaSO3 + CO2 + H2OVI
From calcium carbonate, calcium sulphite will precipitate and CO2 will be by-
product. Because of the small percentage and SO2 presence, the liberation of Carbon
dioxide is very less. But the liberated CO2 will again combine with CaCO3 to form
calcium bicarbonate as mentioned in equation 5.
Chemical Reaction 7
The presence of steam makes it possible to have a preliminary reaction with
oxides of nitrogen, in the following manner;
4NO2 + 2H2O 2HNO2 + 2HNO3VII
The resultant products when come in contact with calcium carbonate the following reaction takes place
CaCO3 + 2HNO3 Ca(NO3)2 + CO2 + H2O.
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CaCO3 + 2HNO2 Ca(NO2)2 +CO2 + H2O..VIII
i.e., calcium Nitrate Ca(NO3)2 and calcium Nitrite Ca(NO2)2 are the by products,
and CO2 is liberated. The liberated CO2again combines with calcium carbonate to form
calcium bicarbonate (equation 5).
CON
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Chapter-8-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
WORKING PRINCIPLE---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CHAPTER-8
WORKING PRINCIPLE
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The problems that arise from the Diesel utilization in inflammable
environment may be listed as follows:
1. Gases and particulate in engine emission.2. Heat and Humidity.3. Risk of explosion and fires.4. Transportation and storage of fuel.5. High speed in long hauls.6. Risk of trackless vehicles entering inadequately ventilated areas.7. Noise.
This section examines the first two of these problems and suggests means by which they may
be reduced or overcome.
GASES AND PARTICULATES IN DIESEL EXHAUST
In addition to heat and water vapor, the pollutants in diesel exhaust are,
a) Carbon monoxide (CO)b) Carbon dioxide (CO2)c) Oxides of Nitrogen (Nox)
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d) Sulphur dioxide(SO2)e) Particulate and Unburned Hydrocarbons (UBHC)f) Respirable combustible Dust (RCD)
The above polluting contents in the diesel engine exhaust are to be controlled by the
scrubbing method, details of which are followed.
EXPANSION AND SCRUBBING
The high temperature high pollutant exhaust gas is allowed to pass through the
belt mouth assembly of the scrubber in the first phase. The bell mouth at the
inlet/outlet is approximately 2 times more in an area is that of the inlet. This allows the
exhaust gas to expand considerably. This expansion allows the gas to cool, because the
temperature is a function of pressure. This considerable reduction of backpressure allows
for the additional involved due to the introduction of water and lime stone container. The
venture effect of the bellmouth is minimized because the exhaust gas escapes out of the
bellmouth randomly along the periphery.
After expansion, the emission comes in contact with water; (which could be
otherwise being any alkaline solution) where the obnoxious products of combustion are
scrubbed when bubbled through it. The bell mouth also allows for more contact area
with water, so that effective cooling takes place with in the short span of time available
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extent of scrubbing can be analyzed by using an ORSAT apparatus very easily. The
procedure and results are explained in the subsequent chapter. The area at any particular
and results are explained in the subsequent chapter. The area at any particular section in
the whole system is more than the outlet of exhaust manifold of the engine, which
contributes to the reduction of backpressure of the system as a whole.
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Chapter-9-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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DESIGN AND DRAWINGS---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CHAPTER 9
DESIGN AND DRAWINGS
1. ENGINE DESIGN CALCULATIONS:-
DESIGN AND ANYLSIS ON TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION FOR TWO-
STROKE ENGINE COMPONENT USING FINITE ELEMENT METHOD:
SPECIFICATION OF FOUR STROKE DESIEL ENGINE:
Type : Four strokes
Cooling System : Air Cooled
Bore/Stroke : 50 x 50 mm
Piston Displacement : 98.2 cc
Compression Ratio : 6.6: 1
Maximum Torque : 0.98 kg-m at 5,500RPM
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CALCULATION:
Compression ratio = (Swept Volume + Clearance Volume)/ Clearance Volume
Here,
Compression ratio = 6.6:1
6.6 = (98.2 + Vc)/Vc
Vc = 19.64
Assumption:
1. The component gases and the mixture behave like ideal gases.2. Mixture obeys the Gibbs-Dalton law
Pressure exerted on the walls of the cylinder by air is P
P = (MRT)/V
Here,
M = m/M = (Mass of the gas or air)/(Molecular Weight)
R = Universal gas constant = 8.314 KJ/Kg mole K.
T = 303 K
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V = V = 253.28 x 10 m
Molecular weight of air = Density of air x V mole
Here,
Density of air at 303K = 1.165 kg/m
V mole = 22.4 m/Kg-mole for all gases.
Molecular weight of air = 1.165 x 22.4
P = {[(m/(1.165 x 22.4)] x 8.314 x 303}/253.28 x 10
P = 381134.1 m
Let Pressure exerted by the fuel is P
P = (N R T)/V
Density of Diesel = 800 Kg/m
P = {[(M)/(800 x 22.4)] x 8.314 x 303}/(253.28 x 10
P = 555.02 m
Therefore Total pressure inside the cylinder
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PT = P + P
= 1.01325 x 100 KN/m
381134.1 m + 555.02 m = 1.01325 x 100 ------------------------- (1)
Calculation of air fuel ratio:
Carbon = 86%
Hydrogen = 14%
We know that,
1Kg of carbon requires 8/3 Kg of oxygen for the complete combustion.
1Kg of carbon sulphur requires 1 Kg of Oxigen for its complete combustion.
(From Heat Power Engineering-Balasundrrum)
Therefore,
The total oxygen requires for complete combustion of 1 Kg of fuel
= [ (8/3c) + (3H) + S] Kg
Little of oxygen may already present in the fuel, then the total oxygen required for
complete combustion of Kg of fuel
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= { [ (8/3c) + (8H) + S ] - O} Kg
As air contains 23% by weight of Oxygen for obtain of oxygen amount of air
required = 100/23 Kg
Minimum air required for complete combustion of 1 Kg of fuel
= (100/23) { [ (8/3c) + H + S] - O} Kg
So for diesel 1Kg of fuel requires = (100/23) { [ (8/3c) x 0.86 + (8 x 0.14) ] }
= 14.84 Kg of air
Air fuel ratio = m/m = 14.84/1
= 14.84
m = 14.84 m-------------------------- (2)
Substitute (2) in (1)
1.01325 x 100 = 3.81134 (14.84 m) + 555.02 m
m = 1.791 x 10 Kg/Cycle
Mass of fuel flow per cycle = 1.791 x 10 Kg cycle
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Therefore,
Mass flow rate of the fuel for 2500 RPM
[(1.791 x 10 )/3600] x (2500/2) x 60
= 3.731 x 10 Kg/sec
Calculation of calorific value:
By Delongs formula,
Higher Calorific Value = 33800 C + 144000 H + 9270 S
= (33800 x 0.86) + (144000 x 0.14) + 0
HCV = 49228 KJ/Kg
Lower Calorific Value = HCV(9H x 2442)
= 49228[(9 x 0.14) x 2442]
= 46151.08 KJ/Kg
LCV = 46.151 MJ/Kg
Finding Cp and Cv for the mixture:
We know that,
Air contains 77% N and 23% O by weight
But total mass inside the cylinder = m + m
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= 2.65 x 10 + 1.791 x 10 Kg
= 2.8291 x 10 Kg
(1) Weight of nitrogen present = 77% = 0.77 Kg in 1 Kg of air
In 2.65 x 10 Kg of air contains,
= 0.77 x 2.65 x 10 Kg of N
= 2.0405 x 10 Kg
Percent of N present in the total mass
= (2.0405 x 10 /2.8291 x 10 )
= 72.125 %
(1) Percentage of oxygen present in 1 Kg of air is 23%Percentage of oxygen present in total mass
= (0.23 x 2.65 x 10 )/(2.8291 x 10 )
= 21.54 %
(2) Percentage of carbon present in 1 Kg of fuel 86%Percentage of carbon present in total mass
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= (0.866 x 1.791 x 10 )/(2.8291 x 10 )
= 5.444%
(3) Percentage of Hydrogen present in 1 Kg of fuel 14%Percentage of Hydrogen present in total mass
= (0.14 x 1.791 x 10 )/(2.8291 x 10 )
= 0.886 %
Total Cp of the mixture is = msi Cpi
Cp = (0.72125 x 1.043) + (0.2154 x 0.913)
+ (0.54444 x 0.7) + (8.86 x 10 x 14.257)
Cp = 1.1138 KJ/Kg.K
Cv = msi Cvi
= (0.72125 x 0.745) + (0.2154 x 0.653)
+ (0.05444 x 0.5486) + (8.86 x 10 x 10.1333)
= 0.8 KJ/Kg.K
(All Cvi, Cpi values of corresponding components are taken from clerks table)
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n For the mixture = (Cp/Cv)
= 1.11/0.8
n = 1.38
Pressure and temperature at various PH:
P = 1.01325 x 100 bar
= 1.01325 bar
T = 30C = 303 K
P/P = (r)
Where,
P = 1.01325 bar
r = 6.6
n = 1.38
P = 13.698 bar
T = (r) x T
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Where,
T = 303 K
T = 620.68 K
3
P 4
2
1
V
Heat Supplied by the fuel per cycle
Q = MCv
= 1.79 x 10 x 46151.08
Q = 0.8265 KJ/Cycle
0.8265 = MCv (T - T)
T = 4272.45 K
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(P V) / T = (P V) / T
Where,
V = V
P = (T x P)/T
Where,
P = 94.27 bar
P = P / (r)
P = 6.973 bar
T = T / (r)
= 2086.15 K
POINT POSITION PRESSURE (bar) TEMPERATURE
POINT-1 1.01325 30 C 303 K
POINT-2 13.698 347.68 C 620.68 K
POINT-3 94.27 3999.45 C 4272.45 K
POINT-4 6.973 1813.15 C 2086.15 K
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DESIGN OF ENGINE PISTON:
We know diameter of the piston which is equal to 50 mm
Thickness of piston:
The thickness of the piston head is calculated from flat-plate theory
Where,
t = D (3/16 x P/f)
Here,
P - Maximum combustion pressure = 100 bar
f - Permissible stress in tension = 34.66 N/mm
Piston material is aluminium alloy.
t = 0.050 (3/16 x 100/34.66 x 10/10) x 1000
= 12 mm
Number of Piston Rings:
No. of piston rings = 2 x D
Here,
D - Should be in Inches = 1.968 inches
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No. of rings = 2.805
We adopt 3 compression rings and 1 oil rings
Thickness of the ring:
Thickness of the ring = D/32
= 50/32
= 1.5625 mm
Width of the ring:
Width of the ring = D/20
= 2.5 mm
The distance of the first ring from top of the piston equals
= 0.1 x D
= 5 mm
Width of the piston lands between rings
= 0.75 x width of ring = 1.875 mm
Length of the piston:
Length of the piston = 1.625 x D
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Length of the piston = 81.25 mm
Length of the piston skirt = Total lengthDistance of first ring from top of
The first ring (No. of landing between rings x
Width of land)(No. of compression ring x
Width of ring)
= 81.2552 x 1.8753 x 2.5
= 65 mm
Other parameter:
Centre of piston pin above the centre of the skirt = 0.02 x D
= 65 mm
The distance from the bottom of the piston to the
Centre of the piston pin = x 65 + 1
= 33.5 mm
Thickness of the piston walls at open ends = x 12
= 6 mm
The bearing area provided by piston skirt = 65 x 50
= 3250 mm
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--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Chapter-10
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
LIST OF MATERIALS---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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CHAPTER-10
LIST OF MATERIALS
Sl. No. PARTS Qty. Material
i. Frame Stand 1 Mild Steel
ii. Tank cover 1 Lead Acid
iii. Small tubing 3 Coil
iv. Gasket 1 M.S
v. Sealant 1 75 Cc
vi MS coupling 1 M.S
viii. Connecting Tube 1 meter Plastic
ix. Bolt and Nut - M.S
x Baffle Arrangement 1 -
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--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Chapter-11-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
COST ESTIMATION
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---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CHAPTER-11COST ESTIMATION
1. MATERIAL COST:-
Sl.
No.
PARTS Qty. Material Amount
i. Frame Stand 1 Mild Steel 1500
ii. Tank cover 1 Lead Acid 2000
iii. Small tubing 3 Coil 550
iv. Gasket 1 M.S 350
v. Sealant 1 75 Cc 100
vi MS coupling 1 M.S 250
viii. Connecting Tube 1 meter Plastic 150
ix. Bolt and Nut - M.S 100
x Baffle Arrangement 1 - 250
TOTAL =
2. LABOUR COST
LATHE, DRILLING, WELDING, GRINDING, POWER HACKSAW, GAS CUTTING:
Cost =
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3. OVERHEAD CHARGES
The overhead charges are arrived by Manufacturing cost
Manufacturing Cost = Material Cost + Labour cost
=
=
Overhead Charges = 20% of the manufacturing cost
=
TOTAL COST
Total cost = Material Cost + Labour cost + Overhead Charges
=
=
Total cost for this project =
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--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Chapter-12-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ANALYSIS OF EXHAUST EMISSION
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CHAPTER-12
ANALYSIS OF EXHAUST EMISSION
5.1 DIESEL EMISSION
Emissions from diesel engines can be classified in same categories as those from the gasoline
engines but the level of emission in these categories varies considerably. A sample of diesel
exhaust may be free from smoke, odorless, and have no unburned hydrocarbons (UBHC) or it
may be heavily smoke laden, highly mal-odorous and can have heavy concentration of
UBHC.
It shows the approximately the possible variations in concentration of different
constituents of diesel exhaust. The concentration is deceptively low in diesel engines, as
compared to petrol engines. However, as the specific air consumption in diesel engines is
always high due to excess air, the total amount of pollutants is nearly same in diesel and
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petrol engine exhaust. Hence, diesel exhaust emissions are as great concern as of petrol
engines.
Engine type and the mode of operation are two main factors, which influence the
exhaust emissions from a diesel engine.
Table 5.1 RANGE OF CONCENTRATION OF DIFFERENT CONSTITUENTS
OF DIESEL EXHAUST
Sl.No Constituent Minimum Maximum
1.
2.
3.
4.
Hydrocarbon, (HC)
Nox
RCD
CO
A few ppm
100ppm
few
zero
1000 ppm
2000 ppm
100 ppm
2 percent
Table 5.2 EMISSION LEVELS OF 4STOKE NOMALLY ASPIRATED ENGINE
AT MEDIUM SPEED & HIGH SPEED
Sl.No Emission or Exhaust Quality At high Speed At Medium Speed
1.
2.
3.
CO, %
CO2, %
UBHC, ppm C
0.14
7.79
1000.00
0.26
7.14
370.00
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4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
NOX, ppm
RCD,ppm
SMOKE (Haritridge units)
ODOUR, DI units Turk
AIR FUEL RATIO
790.00
54.00
60.00
3.50
25.00
800.00
1.60
60.00
3.30
25.00
Table 5.3 EMISSION CHAACTERISTICS OF 4STROKE NORMALLY
ASPIRATED ENGINE.
Sl.No Emission Medium Speed High Speed
1.
2.
3.
4.
Hydrocarbon, (HC)
NOX
RCD
SMOKE
Low
Low
Low
High
High
Low
High
High
Table 5.4 INFLUENCE OF OPERATIONAL MODED ON EMISSION EVELS IN
FOUR-CYCLE NORMALLY ASPIRATED MEDIUM SPEED ENGINE.
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SL.no Engine Exhaust
Constituent
Concentration Values as Measure in Exhaust Gas
Idle Acceleration Partial Full Load
Load
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
HC, ppm
Nox,ppm
RCHO, ppm
SMOKE,
(Hartridge Unit)
ODOUR, (Diesel
Indensity truk)
CO, %
CO2, %
180
330
7.9
4.0
3.6
0.02
2.56
330
920
7.5
44
4.1
0.08
3.40
210
590
4.9
4.0
3.0
0.04
5.33
150
780
1.6
10
3.5
0.26
6.68
Table 5.4 summarizes these observations.
Effect of mode of operation on diesel exhaust Idle, full load at rated speed, and
acceleration at full rack are the three modes of operation which have been found to
significantly affect the emission levels in diesel exhaust as can be seen.
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During the idle mode the concentration of HC, Nox and aldehyde emissions are
lower than other modes the emissions at idle are less significant than during any other
mode. The acceleration mode has profound influence on odor. Highest odor occurred
when full rack acceleration was encountered. Smoke levels are also high during
acceleration Emissions at full load relative to emissions at other operational modes very
significantly with engine type. Four stroke normally aspirated engines smoke very
much at rated full load.
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CHAPTER 13
ADVANTAGES
It requires simple maintenance cares
The low cost catelite system for automobile.
Checking and cleaning are easy, because of the main parts are screwed.
Easy to Handle.
Low cost automation Project
Repairing is easy.
Replacement of parts is easy.
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Chapter-13-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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APPLICATION AND
DISADVANTAGES
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CHAPTER-
APPLICATIONS AND DISADVANTAGES
APPLICATIONS
It is very much useful for Car Owners & Auto-garages.
Thus it can be useful for the two wheeler application
It very use full for generator users
DISADVANTAGES
Initial cost is required.
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Chapter-14-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CONCLUSION---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CHAPTER-14
CONCLUSION
This project work has provided us an excellent opportunity and experience, to use
our limited knowledge. We gained a lot of practical knowledge regarding, planning,
purchasing, assembling and machining while doing this project work. We feel that the
project work is a good solution to bridge the gates between institution and industries.
We are proud that we have completed the work with the limited time successfully.
CATELITE CONVERTER is working with satisfactory conditions. We are able to
understand the difficulties in maintaining the tolerances and also quality. We have done
to our ability and skill making maximum use of available facilities.
In conclusion remarks of our project work, let us add a few more lines about our
impression project work. Thus we have developed a BUTTON OPERATED
ELECTRO-MAGNETIC GEAR SHIFTING SYSTEM which helps to know how to
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achieve low cost automation. The application of electro-magnetic coil produces smooth
operation. By using more techniques, they can be modified and developed according to
the applications.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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BIBLIOGRAPHY---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
BIBLIOGRAPHY
AUTOMOBILE ENGG. - N.M AGGARWAL
S.K.KATARIA & SONS
ADVANCES IN AUTOMOBILE ENGG. - S.SUBRAMANIAM
ALLIED PUBLISHERS LTD.
THEORY & PERFORMANCE OF - J.B.GUPTA
ELECTRICAL MACHINES S.K.KATARIA & SONS
PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRICAL
ENGINEERING AND ELECTRONICS - V.K.METHTA
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---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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PHOTOGRAPHY---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
PHOTOGRAPHY
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