can semiconductor photodetectors replace traditional photomultipliers ?

GOMEL09 July 15-26 FZiaziula 1

CAN SEMICONDUCTOR PHOTODETECTORS REPLACE

TRADITIONAL PHOTOMULTIPLIERS

F Ziaziulia NC PHEP BSU Minsk


Photon-counting devices are used for more and more applications for example inbull nuclear and high energy physicsbull medicinebull ecologybull quantum communicationbull fluorescence spectroscopybull etc etcHere the attention will be paid to the first point mainly For registering the pulse optical low-intensity radiation are used different types of photodetectors - the instruments which convert photon energy into the electrical signal the main of them arebullvacuum photomultipliers - PMT capable of registration separate photons bullsemiconductor detectors -without the internal amplification of charge -with the internal amplification of charge

INTRODUCTION


In 1906 Geiger Marsden and Rutherford scattered alpha-particles on a thin gold foil and determined the scattering angle from the light flash produced at the impact point of the alpha-particles on a phosphor screen The light detector was the human eye which has a remarkable sensitivity when it is adapted to the dark

In the year 1913 Elster and Geiter invented the photoelectric tube and in 1930 the first photomultiplier tube (PMT) was invented by L Kubetsky

In 1939 V Zworykin and his colleagues from the RCA laboratories developed a PMT with electrostatic focusing [3] the basic structure of current PMTrsquos and a short time after it became a commercial product Single photons were detectable from now on Further innovations have led to highly sophisticated devices available nowadays PMTrsquos have two severe handicaps they are very sensitive to magnetic fields (some devices tolerate axial magnetic fields) and their price is high because the complicated mechanical structure inside a vacuum container is mostly handmade

THE MAIN PROPERTIES OF PMTBrief introductin


The main properties of PMT


Microchannel plate (MCP)

GOMEL09 July 15-26 FZiaziula 6Typical spectrum

Na22 +NaI(Tl)


Block diagrams of high-voltage dividers (a) resistive (b) on bipolar transistors (c) on field-effect transistors and (d) on composite transistors Particular rated values of resistors depend on the selected initial current value The distribution of voltages between the dynodes is given in arbitrary units


Some spectral responses





APPLICATION of PMTbull UVVisibleIR Spectrophotometerbull Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometerbull Photoelectric Emission Spectrophotometerbull Fluorescense Spectrophotometerbull Raman Spectroscopybull Liquid or gas chromotographybull X-ray difractometerbull Electron microscopesbull Mass Spectroscopy and Solid Surface Analysisbull Pollution Monitoring Dust counter Turbidimeter NOx amp SOx meters bull Biotecnologybull Medical Applications Gamma Camera Positron CT In-Vitro Assay X-

ray photometerbull Aerospacebull Laser Radar Fluorescent Lifetime measurementbull Plasma bull High Energy Physics Hodoskope TOF Counter Cherencov Counter

Calorimeter Neutrino experiments Neutrino and Proton Decay Experiments Neutrino and proton Decay Experiments Air Shower Counter


SMS ECAL

Spectrometer ARGUS (IF NANB )

Signal from UHECR appears as a moving spot of light in focal plane It produced a track on the pixel network which is finishing by spot of Cherenkov light scattered and reflected by clouds

Signal track is resulting in a number of triggered pixels and recorded by pixel electronics in form of oscillogram

The amplitude and temporal characteristic of the signal give information about CR energy and coming direction

The presence of Cherenkov signal allows to measure absolute track depthLIDAR system is used to measure distance to the ldquoreflectiverdquo clouds and finding depth development of the signal in atmosphere

Photodetector of TUS space spectrometer for COSMOS Satellite


The crystal ball for the measurement of pibeta decay π+rarrπ0+e++ν followed by π0rarrγ+γ which has a branching ratio of 10-8 is made of 240 pure CsI crystals The crystal readout needs to cover the large area of the rear crystal face it has

to be very sensitive because the light yield of pure CsI is only few percent compared to NaI(Tl) and it has to be fast in order to allow an efficient

suppression of accidental coincidences The choice was a fast 10-stage PMT with 78 mm diameter from Electron Tubes The PMTrsquos have a quartz entrance window (emission wavelength of pure CsI is 315 nm) and are directly glued to

the crystals

The Muegamma experiment at PSI measure the decay μ+rarr e+γ with a sensitivity better than 5 10sdot 14 The γrsquos detected in a 800 l liquid xenon calorimeter by the observation of the scintillation light with 800 PMTrsquos The deposited energy derived from the sum of all PMT signals and the position of the γ conversion calculated from the distribution of the individual amplitudes


Super Kamiokande Detector size 414 m (height)X 393 m (diameter) cylinder formweight Pure water 50000 toptical sensor Photomultiplier (a diameter of 50 cm of the largest area in the world) 11200energy precision 25 (for 1GeV) to 16 (for 10MeV)energy threshold 5MeVplace Mozumi mine Kamioka Japanconstruction cost about 90 million dollars (104 billion yen) (for 6 years 1991-1996)


SOLID STATE DETECTORSThe main disadvantages which impede use PMT in some specific applications are large sizes the high voltage of power supply and sensitivity to the magnetic fields Furthermore during the construction of the systems which contain hundred thousand channels of registration important factor becomes the price of detector which in the case PMT is sufficiently highThese factors became the reason for the active development of the solid-state instruments which use a phenomenon of the photoconductive effect The semiconductor detectors of photons can be divided into two large groups the photodetectors in which the transformation of light signal occurs bullwithout the internal amplification of chargebull photodetectors with the internal amplification of charge The first group includes the p-i-n photodiodes which because of their reliability compactness and low cost successfully adapt in different physical experimentsThe quantum effectiveness of these photodiodes in the maximum of spectral sensitivity reaches 90


However with light recording of the short duration (less than 1 μs) it is necessary to use the external wideband amplifier whose noise does not make it possible to register the flash of light with the number of photons of less than 1000 Furthermore relatively great thickness of the depletion layer makes p-i-n photodiodes sensitive to others emissions (gamma-quanta the charged particles)

VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration) cheap for the silicon photosensitive co-ordinate detector (ldquoINTEGRALrdquo PLANTMinsk) 128 х 128 micropixel

(256x256 possible) active readout and contro lwith threshold management


In the detectors of the second group the internal amplification of charge occurs as a rule due to the impact ionization of carriers in the high electric fields Under the action of field free charge carrier (electron or hole) obtain energy sufficient for the ionization of neutral atom and release one additional electron hole pair this process can be repeated repeatedly Semiconductor detectors with the internal strengthening of charge caused by impact ionization avalanche photodiodes (APD) ) were developed more than 50 years agoMerits of APD - high speed operation and quantum effectiveness (to 90) and also broad dynamic band Mu-factor of the industrial standards of silica APD which work in the proportional regime (ie with the signal at the output APD proportional to the intensity of recorded light) comprises ~102

Thus to record single photons by the traditional detectors on the basis of p-n junction which workin the proportional regime of amplification is impossible


Special technologies make it possible to make APD with the mu-factor to ~103 With this mu-factor the signal from the single photoelectron can exceed the level of noise of amplifier however the fluctuations of multiplication factor in APD do not make it possible to register the light pulses which contain less than 20-50 photonsTo increase the multiplication factor of traditional silica APD to 104 or more is impossible for the thermal breakdown of p-n- junction and the failure of instrumentHowever the way has been found allowing to increase amplification It is a creation of structure in which the avalanche discharge is limited to a feedback mechanism Works in this direction to Russia were spent at Physical institute of PNLebedev of the Russian Academy of Sciences where the structure of type metal-dielectric-semiconductor (MDS)] was investigated In such structures carriers appearing during an avalanche collect on border has undressed the semiconductor-dielectric that leads to local decrease in intensity of electric field reduction of factors of shock ionization and the termination of formation of an avalanche mode


The basic lacks of MDP-structures - necessity of giving the pulse voltage power supply and degradation of characteristics of the device

Problems have been solved at use of structures metal-resistive a layer-semiconductor (MRS) It has allowed to increase essentially factor of strengthening of a photocurrent (to 104) to improve stability of characteristics to increase the area of a sensitive surface and service life of devices

bullSimultaneously in a number of world laboratories possibility of application for registration of single photons of the p-n-junction working in an avalanche mode at voltage above breakdown was studied ie in a Geiger mode Geiger Such detectors named SPAD (Single Photon Avalanche Diode) are capable to register single photons with efficiency to 80 In Geiger mode the signal from one photon arriving on 50 Ohm loading can make some volt


Lack SPAD - the fixed amplitude output signal and also tolerance of the detector to

external influence during the period after operation and till the restoration moment

The next step achieved with the novel photo-detectors developed in Russia Silicon

Photomultipliers (SiPMs) at the beginning of this millennium

Pulse height spectrum of weaklight flashes measured with a G-APD

This device can detect single photons like a PMT and therefore some people call it Silicon PhotoMultiplier SiPM The pulse height spectrum measured with a G-APD shows a resolution which is even better than what can be achieved with a photomultiplier and even with a hybrid photomultiplier tube


SiPM what is itThe MRS (Metal-Resistor-Silicon) structure SiPM (Silicon PhotoMultiplier) is a new type of Geiger-mode avalanche photodiode that shows promise for use with scintillators They have recently been tested as possible detectors for the hadron calorimeter tiles for the next-generation International Linear Collider The SiPM is a p-n junction diode that is biased above the breakdown voltage in order to create a Geiger avalanche Structure of the micropixel of a SiPM

The resulting depletion region in this device is of the order of just 5microm

with an avalanche region of around 1microm Such a thickness is sufficient for

optical photon detection The Geiger avalanche is passively quenched by

a resistive load in series with the diode In the MRS structure of this

SiPM the resistive load takes the form of a special technology layer

deposited on the diode surface


SiPM what is

it

By using the high-resistivity material SiC the resistor element can be made small

whilst providing adequate quenching

A semi-transparent metal contact layer on top of the quenching resistance forms the electrode


SiPMT is a photodetector on the basis of the ordered set (matrix) of the p-n-junction (cells) executed on the general substrate The characteristic size of a cell is an order 30-100 microns Density of packing of a matrix - about 100-1000 cellsmm2 The area of the sensitive surface SiPMT may lays in limits from 1times1 to 5times5 mm2 and more All cells are identical All of them are united in the general point by current-carrying bus Displacement voltage of all cells the general It on some volts (value of an overvoltage) exceeds voltage of breakdown of p-n junction Each cell contains current-limiting resistor Therefore Geiger breakdown current in a cell is limited The signal of each cell - logic also does not depend on number of the initial carriers which have caused operation of a cell

SiPMT itself as whole represents the analogue detector as its output signal is equal to the sum ofidentical signals of the p-n junctions which have operated at absorption by them of photons


The general equivalent circuit of the SiPM

The photodetection efficiency of SiPM of 25

(5x5) mm2 with micropixels size of 100x100

μm2 (filling factor of 64) at large overvoltages


Microscope picture of a 9(3x3) mm2 SiPM It consists of an array of 5625 (7575) micropixels with 30 x 30 mm2 size

25(5x 5) mm2 SiPM It consists of an array of

1600 (4040) micropixels with 100100 μm2 size


SiPM 300 pixels


The photodetection efficiency of SiPM of 25(5x5) mm2 with micropixels size of 100x100μm2 (filling factor of 64) at a temperature of1048576-60 C0 is compared with that of a Photomultiplier


The energy resolution of CMS ECAL meets the design goal for the detector For uniform illumination of a crystal with 120 GeV electrons a resolution of 05 was achieved

The avalanche photodiode (APD) developed for the electromagnetic calorimeter of CMS has a thin p-doped layer of silicon in front of the p-n junction where the photo conversion takes place The created electrons are amplified The internal gain of an APD improves the signal to noise ratio but the excess noise factor (avalanche fluctuations) and the gain sensitivity to voltage and temperature variations contribute to the energy resolution

bull Basic structure of the APD developed for CMS


CONCLUSIONSolid-state silicon photoelectronic multipliers (SiPMT) - quickly developing class of photodetectors which becomes a basis for the decision of a wide range of the scientific and applied problems demanding registration of pulse radiation of small intensity Characteristics of modern detectors allow not only to replace vacuum PMT in many applications but also to create on their basis qualitatively new systems containing thousand of channels of registration hadron calorimeters telescopes for gamma astronomy pozitron tomographs of new generation and so on Small dimensions compatibility with standard MOP-TECHNOLOGY and as consequence low cost will do this class of photoelectronic devices by a perspective commercial productNow the stage of laboratory researches of characteristics SiPMT is finished In the world there was a serious interest to manufacture SiPMT to their application not only in the accelerating physics but also in astrophysics medicine the industry and so on


The business concerns already letting out first samples of such detectors (Photonique SensL RMD) or planning their release (Photonis Siemens) Company Hamamatsu Photonics developing SiPMT under name MPPC (Multy-Pixel Photon Counter) has achieved the big successes Already today it is possible to find in the Internet proposal about sale of the detectors similar SiPMT Their price is still rather high however it is possible to expect that in the future it will not exceed several dollars on 1 square мм


MERCIFor attention


LiteraturebullКашеваров ВЛ Павлюченко ЛН Сокол ГА Кремниевые детекторы с внутренним усилением ndash Препринт ФИАН 1994

bullГасанов АГ Головин ВМ Садыгов ЗЯ и др mdash Письма в ЖЭТФ 1988 т14 с706bullГасанов АГ Головин ВМ Садыгов ЗЯ Юсипов ЮН mdash Письма в ЖТФ 1990 т16 вып1 с14bullHaitz RH Model for Electrical Behavior of a Microplasma ndash Journal of Applied Physics May 1964 vol35 N5 p1370ndash1376

bullCova S Ghioni M Lacaita A et al Avalanche photodiodes and quenching circuits for single-photon detection ndash Applied Optics April 20 1996 v35 N12

bullBondarenko G Dolgoshein B Golovin V et al Limited Geiger-mode silicon photodiode with very high gainndash Nuclear Physics B ndash Proceedings Supplements Supplement 2 1998 v61 p347ndash352

bullAndreev V et al A high-granularity scintillator calorimeter readout with silicon photomultipliersndash NIM A 540 2005 Issues 2ndash3 p368ndash380

bullSefkow F Presentation MGPDs for calorimeter and muons sytems requirements and first experience in the CALICE test beam ndash httpwww-confkekjpPD07

bullV M Grebenyuk A I Kalinin Nguyen Manh Shat AK Zhanusov V A Bednyakov Simulation of the Avalanche Process in the GndashAPD and Circuitry Analysis of the SiPM

bull Farrel R at al Nucl Instr and Meth in Phys Res A353 (1994) 176ndash179bullВ А Калинников Н А Кучинский В С Смирнов А Г Тихонов Н В Хомутов Mаломощный транзисторный делитель для фотоэлектронных умножителей ПРИБОРЫ И ТЕХНИКА ЭКСПЕРИМЕНТА 2006 1 с 1-5

bullОК БАРАНОВСКИЙ ИР ГУЛАКОВ АО ЗЕНЕВИЧ Амплитудные характеристики одноквантовых фотоприемников с большой фоточувствительной поверхностью Доклады БГУИР 2007 июльndashсентябрь 3 (19)

PBuzhan BDolgoshein LFilatov et al Large area silicon photomultipliersPerformance and applications NIM A 567 (2006) 76


В А Калинников Н А Кучинский В С Смирнов А Г Тихонов Н В Хомутов Mаломощный транзисторный делитель для фотоэлектронных

умножителейПРИБОРЫ И ТЕХНИКА ЭКСПЕРИМЕНТА 2006 1 с 1-5

ОК БАРАНОВСКИЙ ИР ГУЛАКОВ АО ЗЕНЕВИЧ Амплитудные характеристики одноквантовых фотоприемников с большой

фоточувствительной поверхностью Доклады БГУИР 2007 июльndashсентябрь 3 (19)


ZSadygov AOlshevski IChirikov et al Three advanced designs of micro-plxel avalanche photodiodes their present maximum possibilities and

limitatios NIM A567 (2006) 70

M TESHIMA B DOLGOSHEIN R MIRZOYAN J NINCOVIC E POPOVASiPM development for Astroparticle Physics applications

arXiv07091808v1 [astro-ph] 12 Sep 2007

V A Kalinnikov N A Kuchinskiy V S Smirnov A G Tikhonov N V Khomutov and F E Zyazyalya A Small-Power Transistor Divider for Photomultiplier Tubes

Dieter Renker Photodetectors in High Energy PhysicsPoS(PD07)001

E Rutherford Philosophical Magazine Series 6 21 (1911) 669 H Geiger and E Marsden Proceedings of the Royal Society 82A (1909) 495BK Lubsandorzhiev Nucl Instr Meth A 567 (2006) 236VK Zworykin and JA Rajchman Proc IRE 27 (1939) 558P P Antich et al Nucl Instr Meth A 389 (1997) 491V Saveliev and V Golovin Nucl Instr Meth A 442 (2000) 223




bull YAGCebull Yttrium aluminum garnet activated by

cerium is fast with excellent mechanical properties and is chemically resistant scintillator Mechanical properties enable to produce YAGCe scintillation screens down to a thickness of 30 microm YAGCe detectors are excellent for electron microscopy beta and X-ray counting electron and X-ray imaging screens

bull BGObull Bismuth germanate is intrinsic scintillation

material with high absorption power Due to its high effective atomic number and high density BGO is a very efficient gamma absorber with high photo effect fraction which results in a very good photo peak to Compton ratio BGO detectors are preferred for medium and high-energy gamma counting and high-energy physics applications

bull NalTlbull Sodium iodide activated by thallium has long

been the scintillation standard NalTl has good performance economical price high luminescence efficiency very good spectroscopic performance and no significant self absorption of the scintillated light

bull YAPCebull Yttrium aluminum perovskite activated by

cerium is a fast mechanically strong and chemically resistant scintillation material Mechanical properties enable precise machining and entrance windows can be made with a very thin aluminum layer deposited directly on the entrance surface of the crystal YAPCe scintillators have very low energy secondary X-ray emissions which makes them desirable for imagining applications YAPCe detectors are used for gamma and X-ray counting electron microscopy electron and X-ray imaging screens and tomography systems

SCINTILLATORSCrystal Properties


bull CaFEubull Calcium fluoride activated by Europium is

light scintillators are used for detection of charged particles and soft gamma ray up to several hundreds keV CaFEu is typically used for detection of beta rays due to its relatively small back scattering It is not suitable for detection of high-energy gamma ray because has a small photo fraction It is non hygroscopic and is relatively chemically inert

bull CsITlbull Cesium Iodide activated by thallium is a

scintillation material with high absorption power and can be used as an efficient gamma ray absorber CsITl is soluble in water but is not hygroscopic in laboratory conditions It has high resistance to mechanical and thermal shocks CsITl can be easily fabricated into wide variety of shapes and geometries It can be also fabricated into detection matrices

bull LuAGCebull Lutetium Aluminum Garnet activated by Cerium

(chemical formula Lu3Al5O7) is relatively dense and fast scintillation material Its density of 673 gcm3 is about 94 of density of BGO (713 gcm3) Decay time is much faster (70 ns) compared to BGO (300 ns) This is advantage for time dependent and coincidence measurements

bull Wavelength of scintillation emission is about 535 nm similar as BGO (480 nm) which is ideal for Photodiode and Avalanche Diode readout This material can by used also for Imaging Screens similarly to YAGCe The advantage of LuAGCe is its higher density allowing for thinner screens with higher spatial resolution The material is mechanically and chemically stable it can be machined to variety of shapes and sizes including prisms spheres and very thin plates Its primary advantage high density fast decay time a wavelength of luminescence emission well suitable for photodiode and avalanche diode readout chemical mechanical and temperature resistance make it an ideal choice for PET scanners high energy gamma and charge particle detection and high spatial resolution Imaging Screens for Gamma X Beta and UV ray


bull PWObull Lead tungstate PbWO4 (PWO) is a new

heavy highly efficient and fast scintillator for high energy physics It has the shortest radiation length and Moliere radius among the known scintillators satisfactory light yield for this energy range high radiation stability Production technology which under continuous development allows to prepare uniform scintillators ensuring high energetic and special resolution of the detecting assembles on accelerators

bull NBWObull Double tungstate of sodium and bismuth

NaBi(WO4)2 (NBWO) is also a new heavy fast and optically dense oxide single crystal Is used as a Cherenkov radiator

bull GSObull Gadolinium silicate doped with cerium is a

fast crystal and can be used as a protection scintillator Its possible applications include computer tomography spatial resolution of less than 1 mm Is the most promising for spectrometry and radiometry of gamma-radiation in the low energy range (lt1 MeV) Has good temperature stability due to which can be used in system equipment

bull CWObull Cadmium tungstate CdWO4 (CWO) due to

its low intrinsic background and afterglow together with sufficiently high light yield is the most promising for spectrometry and radiometry of radio nuclides under extremely low activities and also for computer tomography Technology of its production is also well developed

bull is


bull ZnSe(Te)bull ZnSe(Te) single crystals are characterized

by the unique combination of high conversion efficiency intrinsic luminescence in the red region of spectrum high thermal and radiation stability they are not hygroscopic and afterglow is practically absent Production technology has been developed of fast and slow scintillation crystals with different decay times and intrinsic luminescence maximum wavelengths

bull ZnSe(Te) crystals are not toxic moisture-resistant conserve working parameters after gamma-irradiation up to 107 Rad and continuous heating up to 400 K These qualities make ZnSe(Te) an excellent material for multi-purpose ionizing radiation detectors of the scintillator-silicon photodiode type They are used for radiation monitoring medical and technical tomography X-ray medical devices non-destructive testing systems customs inspection spectrometry of alpha- and beta-radiation as well as soft X-rays




CMS Fragment of Preshower


SPIROC (SiPM Integrated Read-Out Chip) Dedicated very front-end electronics for an ILC prototype hadronic calorimeter with SiPM read-out Technology AMS 08 μm CMOSChip area ~10mmsup2Package QFP-100

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Photon-counting devices are used for more and more applications for example inbull nuclear and high energy physicsbull medicinebull ecologybull quantum communicationbull fluorescence spectroscopybull etc etcHere the attention will be paid to the first point mainly For registering the pulse optical low-intensity radiation are used different types of photodetectors - the instruments which convert photon energy into the electrical signal the main of them arebullvacuum photomultipliers - PMT capable of registration separate photons bullsemiconductor detectors -without the internal amplification of charge -with the internal amplification of charge

INTRODUCTION











Na22 +NaI(Tl)













SMS ECAL











the crystals



































SiPM what is

it

















SiPM 300 pixels












MERCIFor attention






















































bull is











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Na22 +NaI(Tl)













SMS ECAL











the crystals



































SiPM what is

it

















SiPM 300 pixels












MERCIFor attention






















































bull is











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SMS ECAL











the crystals



































SiPM what is

it

















SiPM 300 pixels












MERCIFor attention






















































bull is











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the crystals



































SiPM what is

it

















SiPM 300 pixels












MERCIFor attention






















































bull is











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SiPM what is

it

















SiPM 300 pixels












MERCIFor attention






















































bull is











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SiPM 300 pixels












MERCIFor attention






















































bull is











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MERCIFor attention






















































bull is











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can semiconductor photodetectors replace traditional photomultipliers ?

Documents

neutrino experiments

proton decay experiments

cosmos satellite f

vacuum photomultipliers

dust counter

tof counter

cherencov counter

ziaziulablock diagrams