calling names
DESCRIPTION
Calling names. ALK ANE S ALK ENE S ALK YNE S CYCLO - ALK YL -. Cycloalkanes with Side Groups. Bonding in ethane. CH 3 -CH 3. Bonding in ethylene. CH 2 =CH 2. Bonding in acytylene. CH=CH. Cis and Trans Isomers. Double bond is fixed Cis/trans Isomers are possible - PowerPoint PPT PresentationTRANSCRIPT
![Page 1: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Calling names
• ALKANES
• ALKENES
• ALKYNES
• CYCLO-
• ALKYL-
![Page 2: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/2.jpg)
Cycloalkanes with Side GroupsCH3
CH3
CH3
CH3
CH3
CH3
methylcyclopentane
1,2-dimethylcyclopentane
1,2,4-trimethylcyclohexane
![Page 3: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/3.jpg)
Bonding in ethane
CH3-CH3
![Page 4: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/4.jpg)
Bonding in ethylene
CH2=CH2
![Page 5: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/5.jpg)
Bonding in acytylene
CH=CH
![Page 6: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/6.jpg)
Cis and Trans Isomers
Double bond is fixed Cis/trans Isomers are possible
CH3 CH3 CH3
CH = CH CH = CH
cis trans CH3
![Page 7: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/7.jpg)
isomers
• Structural – chain
• Structural - position
• Structural – function
• Stereo - geometrical
• Stereo - optical
butanemethyl propane
2methylhexane3methylhexane
cistrans
![Page 8: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/8.jpg)
alkan-OL
alkan-AL
alkan-ONE
![Page 9: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/9.jpg)
Amino Acids and Proteins
Types of Proteins
Amino Acids
The Peptide Bond
![Page 10: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/10.jpg)
Amino Acids
• Building blocks of proteins• Carboxylic acid group• Amino group• Side group R gives unique characteristics
R side chain I
H2N—C —COOH I
H
![Page 11: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/11.jpg)
Amino Acids as Acids and Bases
• Ionization of the –NH2 and the –COOH group
• Zwitterion has both a + and – charge
• Zwitterion is neutral overall
NH2–CH2–COOH H3N–CH2–COO– glycine zwitterion of glycine
+
![Page 12: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/12.jpg)
pH and ionization
H+ OH-
H3N–CH2–COOH H3N–CH2–COO– H2N–CH2–
COO–
Positive ion zwitterion Negative ion
Low pH neutral pH High pH
+ +
![Page 13: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/13.jpg)
Most Amino Acids Have
Non-Superimposable Mirror Images
What is the exception?
![Page 14: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/14.jpg)
D vs L Alanine
![Page 15: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/15.jpg)
Examples of Amino Acids
H I
H2N—C —COOH I
H glycine
CH3 I
H2N—C —COOH I
H alanine
![Page 16: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/16.jpg)
Types of Amino Acids
Nonpolar R = H, CH3, alkyl groups, aromatic
OPolar ll
R = –CH2OH, –CH2SH, –CH2C–NH2,
(polar groups with –O-, -SH, -N-)
Polar/Acidic
R = –CH2COOH, or -COOH
Polar/ Basic
R = –CH2CH2NH2
![Page 17: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/17.jpg)
PO
LAR
NO
N-
PO
LAR
Tyr His
Gly
Acidic Neutral Basic
Asp
Glu GlnCys
Asn Ser
Thr Lys
Arg
Ala
ValIle
Leu MetPhe Trp
Pro
Classification of Amino Acids by Polarity
Polar or non-polar, it is the bases of the amino acid properties.
Juang RH (2003) Biochemistry
![Page 18: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/18.jpg)
Nonpolar R groups
ISOPROPYL
![Page 19: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/19.jpg)
Polar R groups.
![Page 20: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/20.jpg)
Polar R groups
![Page 21: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/21.jpg)
20 “standard” amino acids used by cells in protein biosynthesis
Alanine(Ala / A)
Arginine(Arg / R)
Asparagine(Asn / N)
Aspartic acid
(Asp / D) Cysteine(Cys / C)
Glutamic acid(Glu / E)
Glutamine(Gln / Q)
Glycine(Gly / G)
Histidine
(His / H) Isoleucine(Ile / I)
Leucine(Leu / L)
Lysine
(Lys / K) Methionine
(Met / M) Phenylalanine(Phe / F)
Proline
(Pro / P)
Serine(Ser / S)
Threonine(Thr / T)
Tryptophan
(Trp / W) Tyrosine
(Tyr / Y) Valine
(Val / V)
This information will be available on information sheets provided with the final exam,
If needed
![Page 22: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/22.jpg)
ala arg asn asp cys
gln glu gly his ile
leu lys met phe pro
ser thr trp tyr val20 “Standard” Amino Acids
![Page 23: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/23.jpg)
Essential Amino Acids
• 10 amino acids not synthesized by the body
• arg, his, ile, leu, lys, met, phe, thr, trp, val
• Must obtain from the diet
• All in dairy products
• 1 or more missing in grains
and vegetables
![Page 24: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/24.jpg)
![Page 25: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/25.jpg)
![Page 26: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/26.jpg)
NH2 COOH1 NH2 COOH2
NH2 C N COOH
O
H21
Amino acids are connected head to tail
Formation of Peptide Bonds by Dehydration
Dehydration-H2O
Juang RH (2004) BCbasics
![Page 27: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/27.jpg)
H O I H2N—C —COH I H gly
CH3 OI
HN—C —COH I I H H ala
H O I H2N—C —C — I
H glyala
CH3 O I N—C —COH I IH H Dipeptide
Peptide Linkage
![Page 28: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/28.jpg)
Peptides• Amino acids linked by amide (peptide)
bonds
Gly Lys Phe Arg Ser
name: Glycyllysylphenylalanylarginylserine
Symbol: GlyLysPheArgSer
Or: GKFRS
H2N- end -COOH end
Peptide bonds (N-terminus) (C-terminus)
![Page 29: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/29.jpg)
What are the possible tripeptides formed from one each of leucine, glycine, and alanine?
![Page 30: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/30.jpg)
Tripeptides possible from one each of leucine, glycine, and alanine
Leu-Gly-Ala
Leu-Ala-Gly
Ala-Leu-Gly
Ala-Gly-Leu
Gly-Ala-Leu
Gly-Leu-Ala
![Page 31: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/31.jpg)
Tripeptide containing glycine, cysteine, and alanine
Source: Photo Researchers, Inc.
![Page 32: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/32.jpg)
Write the three-letter abbreviations for the following tetrapeptide:
H3N CH
CH3
C
O
N
H
CH C
O
N
H
CH C
O
N
H
CH C O-
OCH
CH CH3
CH3
CH2
SH
CH2
CH2
S
CH3
Alanine(Ala / A)
Leucine(Leu / L)
Cysteine(Cys / C)
Methionine(Met / M)
Focus Attention on the Side Group
![Page 33: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/33.jpg)
Proteins
• Proteins are sequences of amino acid residues– Amino acid: carbon atom (C), amino group
(NH3),carboxyl group (COOH), variable sidechain (20 different types)
– Amino acids are linked with the peptide bond
• Protein structure:– Primary – sequence of amino acids– Secondary – local 3D arrangement of amino acids– Tertiary – 3D structure of a complete protein– Quaternary – 3D structure of functional protein
(complex)
![Page 34: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/34.jpg)
Types of Proteins
Type Examples• Structural tendons, cartilage, hair, nails• Contractile muscles• Transport hemoglobin• Storage milk• Hormonal insulin, growth hormone• Enzyme catalyzes reactions in cells• Protection immune response
![Page 35: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/35.jpg)
Proteins Vary Tremendously in Size
• Insulin - A-chain of 21 residues, B-chain of 30 residues -total mol. wt. of 5,733
• Glutamine synthetase - 12 subunits of 468 residues each - total mol. wt. of 600,000
• Connectin proteins - alpha - MW 2.8 million!
• beta connectin - MW of 2.1 million, with a length of 1000 nm -it can stretch to 3000 nm!
![Page 36: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/36.jpg)
Four Levels of Protein Structure
• Primary, 1o
– the amino acid sequence• Secondary, 2o
– Local conformation of main-chain atoms ( and angles)
• Tertiary, 3o
– 3-D arrangement of all the atoms in space (main-chain and side-chain)
• Quaternary, 4o
– 3-D arrangement of subunit chains
![Page 37: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/37.jpg)
HIERARCHY OF PROTEIN STRUCTURE
Tertiary
1. 2.
3. 4.
![Page 38: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/38.jpg)
Secondary Structure
• The two most common regular (repetitive) 2˚ structures are:
-helix-sheet
• Both use hydrogen bonding between N-H & C=O of peptide group as primary stabilizing force.
![Page 39: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/39.jpg)
Nter
Cter
Helices (1)
Hydrogen bonds: O (i) <-> N (i+4)
![Page 40: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/40.jpg)
![Page 41: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/41.jpg)
The -strand
Extended chain is flat “Real -strand is twisted”
N-H---O-CHydrogen bonds
![Page 42: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/42.jpg)
Pleated sheet
![Page 43: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/43.jpg)
Tertiary Structure
• Specific overall shape of a protein
• Cross links between R groups of amino acids in chain
Ionic H-bond Disulfide Hydrophobic H-bond
![Page 44: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/44.jpg)
Figure 22.26: Permanent waving of hair
![Page 45: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/45.jpg)
Building the Hemoglobin Protein
![Page 46: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/46.jpg)
Figure 2 – 09
Urey/Miller Experiment
![Page 47: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/47.jpg)
Figure 2 – 09
Urey/Miller Experiment
![Page 48: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/48.jpg)
Cytoplasm
Nucleus
DNA
DNA is the genetic material within the nucleus.
Central Dogma
RNA
Protein
Replication
The process of replication creates new copies of DNA.
TranscriptionThe process of transcription
creates an RNA using
DNA information.
TranslationThe process of translation
creates a protein using
RNA information.
![Page 49: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/49.jpg)
DNA Double Helix-Held Together with
H-Bonds
![Page 50: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/50.jpg)
![Page 51: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/51.jpg)
Base Pairs Double Helix
![Page 52: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/52.jpg)
base: thymine(pyrimidine)
sugar: 2’-deoxyribose
monophosphate
no 2’-hydroxyl
(5’ to 3’)
5’
3’
base:adenine(purine)
1’2’
4’
3’ linkage
5’ linkage
Three Components of DNA Structure
![Page 53: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/53.jpg)
Pyrimidines used in Base Pairs, DNA
6-membered rings only
![Page 54: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/54.jpg)
Purines used in Base Pairs, DNA
Fused 5 and 6 member rings
![Page 55: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/55.jpg)
DNA Base Pairing
A-T pairing
2 H-Bonds
G-C pairing
3 H-bonds
![Page 56: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/56.jpg)
A-T and G-C Base Pairs Hold the DNA helices together
![Page 57: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/57.jpg)
A-T and G-C Base Pairs Hold the DNA helices together
![Page 58: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/58.jpg)
A-T and G-C Base Pairs Hold the DNA helices together
![Page 59: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/59.jpg)
A-T and G-C Base Pairs Hold the DNA helices together
![Page 60: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/60.jpg)
A-T and G-C Base Pairs Hold the DNA helices together
![Page 61: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/61.jpg)
Transcription• The new RNA molecule is formed by incorporating • nucleotides that are complementary to the
template strand.
DNA coding strand
DNA template strand
DNA
5’
3’
5’
3’
G T C A T T C G G
C A G T A A G C C
G
RNA
5’
GG U C A U U C
3’
![Page 62: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/62.jpg)
# of strands
kind of sugar
bases used
![Page 63: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/63.jpg)
RNA Polymerase is the Enzyme that Catalyzes Transcription of DNA Information to RNA
DNA (Blue)
Newly Synthesized RNA (Red)
Active Site Metal (Pink)
Bridge Helix Moves DNA through Polymerase during RNA Synthesis (Green)
![Page 64: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/64.jpg)
Transcription• The new RNA molecule is formed by incorporating • nucleotides that are complementary to the
template strand.
DNA coding strand
DNA template strand
DNA
5’
3’
5’
3’
G T C A T T C G G
C A G T A A G C C
G
RNA
5’
GG U C A U U C
3’
![Page 65: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/65.jpg)
Translation• The process of reading the RNA sequence of an
mRNA and creating the amino acid sequence of a protein is called translation.
Transcription
Codon Codon Codon
Translation
DNA
T T C A G T C A G
DNAtemplatestrand
mRNA
A A G U C A G U C MessengerRNA
Protein Lysine Serine ValinePolypeptide(amino acidsequence)
![Page 66: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/66.jpg)
![Page 67: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/67.jpg)
• The “words” of the DNA “language” are triplets of bases called codons
– 3 bases or nucleotides make one codon
– Each codon specifies an amino acid
– The codons in a gene specify the amino acid sequence of a polypeptide
Genetic information written in codons is translated into amino acid sequences
![Page 68: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/68.jpg)
• Virtually all organisms share the same genetic code
• All organisms use the same 20 aa
• Each codon specifies a particular aa
The genetic code is the Rosetta stone of life
Figure 10.8A
![Page 69: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/69.jpg)
• Tryptophan and Methionine have only 1 codon each
• All the rest have more than one
• AUG has a dual function
• 3 stop codons that code for termination of protein synthesis
• Redundancy in the code but no ambiguity
Figure 10.8A
![Page 70: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/70.jpg)
![Page 71: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/71.jpg)
Structure of the Heme GroupPorphyrin Ligand
![Page 72: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/72.jpg)
Heme Group Found Bonded to Proteins
![Page 73: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/73.jpg)
Hemoglobin• Multi-subunit protein (tetramer)
– 2 and 2 subunits
• Heme– One per subunit– Has an iron atom
– Carries O2
• In red blood cells
![Page 74: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/74.jpg)
Sickle Cell AnemiaGenetic Disease Heterozygous individuals – carriers Homozygous individuals – diseased
Hemoglobin Found in red blood cells Carries oxygen to tissues
SCA Results from Defective Hemoglobin Hemoglobins stick together Red blood cells damaged
Complications from low oxygen supply to tissues Pain, organ damage, strokes, increased infections, etc.
Incidence highest among Africans and Indians Heterozygotes protected from Malaria
![Page 75: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/75.jpg)
Sickle Cell Hemoglobin
GUG CAC CUG ACU CCU GAG GAG AAGval his leu thr pro glu glu lys 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
GUG CAC CUG ACU CCU GUG GAG AAGval his leu thr pro val glu lys 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Mutation (in DNA)
Normal mRNA
Normal protein
Mutant mRNA
Mutant protein
Glutamate (glu), a negatively charged amino acid, is replaced by valine (val), which has no charge.
![Page 76: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/76.jpg)
Structures of Amino Acids
Glutamic Acid
Polar, Acidic
Valine
Non-polar, Neutral
![Page 77: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/77.jpg)
![Page 78: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/78.jpg)
Glu 6 Val
![Page 79: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/79.jpg)
A single amino acid substitution in a protein causes sickle-cell disease
![Page 80: Calling names](https://reader033.vdocuments.mx/reader033/viewer/2022051018/56814411550346895db0adc3/html5/thumbnails/80.jpg)