cad/cam, robotics and automated manufacturing and the connection to fem

Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 2 (1986) 125-142 125 North-Holland

C A D / C A M , R O B O T I C S A N D A U T O M A T E D M A N U F A C T U R I N G A N D T H E C O N N E C T I O N T O F E M

Nicholas P E R R O N E

Computer A ided Structural Analysis - G I F T S (CA SA - GIFTS), Greenbelt, M D 20770, U.S.A.

Abstract. An assessment is given of CAD/CAM and related areas including various aspects of Automated Manufacturing and Robotics. Flexible manufacturing systems, the forerunner of the factory of the future, are discussed in some detail. Some perspectives are given of developments and prospects in artificial intelligence. The interaction of Finite Element Methods with CAD/CAM is also addressed.

INTRODUCTION

During the last few years the technical literature is replete with studies and surveys on computational engineering and computer aided manufacturing (see for example, Lax [1], Smelt [2], Harrington [3], Quinn [4]). Usually, these assessments underscore the importance of concerted educational, R&D and industrial initiatives. Activity and progress is difficult to track in such a dynamic field, and the opportunity to participate in some way is elusive.

In addition, related "Hi-tech" research fields are considered by localities as important focal points of future economic progress, and key government contracts viewed as major prizes (Washington Post [5], Science [6]).

In this paper an interpretive assessment is given of CAD/CAM and automated manufacturing, and its connection to Finite Elements. We begin by defining CAD/CAM and explaining the phenominal growth of the field. CAD and CAM are examined separately and further attention devoted to robotics. Activities in CAM in Japan, Europe and the U.S. are discussed. The interaction of FEM with CAD/CAM is described next including prospects for future evolutions. Conclusions are discussed in the closing section.

WHAT IS CAD/CAM? WHY IS IT INCREASING EXPONENTIALLY?

The term CAD/CAM (standing for computer aided design and computer aided manufacturing) is frequently utilized to

0168-874X/86/$3.50 © 1986, Elsevier Science Publishers B.V. (North-Holland)

126 N. Perrone / CA D/CA M, robotics and automated manufacturing in FEM

encompass the entire field of automated manufacturing, design,and robotics. Generically, we might say it includes all areas where we use the computer as an adjunct in design and manufacturing or in a combined mode.

The decade of the 80's has seen a virtual explosion in CAD and CAM with the link between the two areas being weak but continually emphasized. In many countries educational and R&D programs are being directed towards these ends which are relatively modest by comparison with the huge industrial sums devoted towards CAD/CAM. The market is expected to expand from about one billion dollars in 1980 to ten times that amount in 1990. (Business Week [7]).

Not unexpectedly, the driving force in this exponential expansion is cost. During the decade of the 70's, unit labor costs approximately doubled while computer power (integration of hardware and software) decreased by a factor of i0, Figure i. The inevitable substitution of automated or computer skills for human power led to the natural explosion in CAD/CAM.

COMPUTER-AIDED DESIGN (CAD)

The U.S. at this point is still the undisputed leader in the development of CAD systems. So called turnkey systems are increasing at the rate of more than 35% annually in sales and expected to reach $2.5 billion in 1985. Even Japan is importing primarily U.S. CAD systems (totalling approximately $200 million in 1984). Worldwide, 75% of the systems sold are from the U.S.

Computervision is the largest turnkey vender with sales approaching 35% of the market. Other conspicuous vendors include INTERGRAPH APPLICON, AUTOTROL, IBM (CADAM), and CALMA (a GE subsidiary). The term computer-aided design is perhaps a misnomer, for many of these systems are used for computer-assisted drawings. Applications include electronic systems such as printed circuit boards and mechanical systems of all sorts. Many attempts are being made to utilize these CAD turnkey systems in a full design and analysis mode including such important capabilities as finite elements.

There are few if any CAD systems which are linked to effective analyses which in turn can form the data base for a computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) to begin to automatically manufacture an actual part. The link between CAD and CAM is a very significant one which has not been bridged yet. Few engineering colleges in the U.S. give their students a good exposure to CAD systems.

COMPUTER-AIDED MANUFACTURING (CAM)

The component activities of CAM include the following:

N. Perrone / CAD~CAM, robotics and automated manufacturing in FEM 127

a. Flexible manufacturing systems (FMS)

b. Computer-aided process planning

C. Computer-aided scheduling

d. Robotics

FMS is related to batch manufacturing wherein a versatile arra~ of machine tools, transfer and control systems, and posslbly robots are orchestrated to efficiently produce a small number of items (up to a few hundred a month). A schematic of an FMS operation is shown in Figure 2 (Reference [8]). It has been estimated that such short production runs account for up to 75% of all U.S. manufacturing and are hence economically extremely significant. However, FMS systems are used but infrequently (only about 30 exist in the U.S.) so that only a tiny fraction of our total batch oriented production items are being manufactured in this manner.

Figure 3 from Reference [3] illustrates the amount of automation occurring in batch and mass produced products. Clearly mass produced items which are virtually identical like cars, have'the much higher automation both in machining and assembly processes. Obviously, there is room for enormous automated improvements in batch on FMS type products. Examples of such products include ships, planes, tanks, weapon systems, etc.

Japan leads the world with 50 FMS systems, whereas Eastern and Western Europe have about 30 each. Much research is necessary to enhance the operation of FMS systems which are the key component in the factory of the future (unmanned, efficient, versatile).

Computer-aided process planning includes precision engineering and materals processing (consisting of removal, forming, joining and malfunction science such as chatter or failure). Europeans have been especially proficient in process planning.

Computer-aided scheduling can have an important impact on the cost of a given product. For example, making parts or having components delivered as required (just in time production) could greatly reduce inventory and other expenses. (Perrone [9]).

Some co~ents are in order concerning the state-of-the-art in automated production or CAM. Using industrial robots in place per capita as a criterion, the U.S. would rank 4th or 5th in world markets. Sweden, Japan, and

128 N. Perrone / CAD~CAM, robotics and automated manufacturing in FEM

Germany would place in front of us. The connection of CAD to CAM is very rarely a reality for any product. Certainly, if the CAM portion includes FMS, there is virtually no example worldwide of a functioning operating system. Each FMS factory is usually operating on a certain class of product for which the associated machine tool operations are carefully programmed and orchestrated. However, FMS systems would undoubtedly work more effectively if at the preliminary design stage manufacturing aspects are given prime consideration.

Robotics systems are rarely used in FMS factories. Whenever robots are used in an industrial mode they are primarily used for such things as spot welding, pick and place operations, and materials handling. It is expected that increases in the capabilities in sensing, assembly and arc welding will occur which will greatly expand their use. At this point, in automated production environments, no visible impact has been had of artificaial intelligence nor is any serious application foreseen for the intermediate future. Some so-called expert systems are being contemplated in a very restricted sense but these are not in the automated production field.

When machine tools are utilized in the typical factory mode even including numerical controlled (NC), a time and study analysis shows that they are only used about 5% of their useful time. Considering that these tools cost up to hundreds of thousands of dollars, this situation represents a wasteful use of capital equipment. Automated production techniques and FMS should greatly impact this usage time, if properly implemented, and specific examples have indicated usage rates of up to 75% in an FMS mode. No national focused effort exists in manufacturing research. Most efforts are concentrated within the Department of Defense and only one modest laboratory effort exists in the government system at the National Bureau of Standards Center for Manufacturing Research. Of the approximately 250 engineering colleges in the U.S., only a handful have any kind of manufacturing program in their curriculum and carry out a research effort pertaining to this field. They do not have adequate staff nor equipment and there does not appear to be significant expansion of government programs to provide these necessary resources.

ROBOTICS

It might be useful to review some basic facts on robotics. Robots are classified as to their power type, degrees of freedom and controllability. Manipulator geometries are illustrated in Figure 4. Drive systems tend to be of a pneumatic, hydraulic or electrical type. Pneumatic drives are inexpensive but difficult to control. Recent


advances in control devices for pneumatic systems may encourage an increased use in this type of system. Pneumatic robots are used in entertainment type situations such as Disney World. Used on most robots, hydraulic drives allow high force levels and power in a compact way. They also permit greater accuracy but are too heavy for light weight assembly applications. Cost considerations favor electrical drives for smaller robotic systems. Interestingly, two of the major industrial companies who are exerting enormous corporate level efforts in this problem area, GE and Westinghouse, have extensive backgrounds on electrical drives. Robots are controlled most frequently by microprocessors.

A wide range of disciplines must be dealt with in the basic and applied aspects of robotic devices and manipulators. Problems pertaining to dynamics of motion, geometric considerations, kinematics, interactive graphics, sensors (tactile, visual, acoustic), and control theory all fall within the purview of this exciting field.

It is also generally agreed that robots in use today have relatively primitive skills; it is anticipated that future robots will be smaller, electrically driven, easy to program, rapid moving, contort through five or more axes with finger control, move very precisely, be process oriented, and use 32 bit microprocessors extensively.

JAPANESE EFFORTS IN ROBOTICS AND AUTOMATED MANUFACTURING

Japanese work has tended to be well planned, pragmatic, and well focused. The Ministry of Interior Trade and Industry (MITI) has played a major national role in the implementation of automated systems in a manufacturing environment. For example they are working on a $140 million program over a 7 year period for the development of intelligent assembly robots. Huge dividends will accrue to any country which will be able to make inroads into the assembly problem. In a manufacturing environment almost half of all tasks by the factory worker are related to assembly. Hitachi has a 500 man technical task force to develop a universal assembly robot with sight and touch. They hope to use it for 60% of their assembly operations within a year. Matsushita is working on modular building block robots. These systems are related to so-called metamorphic type cells which change their fundamental characteristics very rapidly in response to changing manufacturing requirements, Figure 5 [Reference 3]. Such versatility will be extremely helpful and cost effective for production type problems.

Nippon Electric has developed an assembly robot with a remarkable position accuracy capability of 400 microns.

130 N. Perrone / CA D/CAM, robotics and automated manufacturing in FEM

Fujitsu Fanuc has a robot which is even more precise and can recognize and sort parts before assembly.

The Japanese have been using play back robots (which repeat a specific set of motions) and used to cost more than 4 times the annual wage in 1976. They are now approaching the annual income of the factory worker. These robots pay for themselves many times over, obviously. Numbering about 5 times the amount in the U.S., 150 companies in Japan are involved in robot production. Robot manufacturing has been estimated as the number 1 industry of the 1990's. At this point, it appears that Japan will be the primary exporter.

The Japanese have not been leading in research in artificial intelligence but have been monitoring U.S. efforts in the field very closely. They launched a major concerted effort in expanding the knowledge in this field and even have as one of their prime objectives the development of the fifth generation computers before the 1990's. For this time period, the Japanese expect information processing systems to be able to assist in the following roles (JIPDEC [i0]):

a. Increase productivity in low productivity areas L

b. Meet international competition and contribute toward internation cooperation

c. Assist in saving energy and resources

d. Cope with an aged society.

Functional requirements anticipated in this new generation of computers include the following key points:

i. Increase intelligence and ease of use so that they will be able to better assist man

2. Ease the burden of software generation

3. Improve overall functions and performance to meet social needs.

Artificial intelligence will be a key ingredient in this new generation of computers towards which the Japanese are aiming.

COMPUTER-AIDED MANUFACTURING IN WESTERN EUROPE

Robotics research in Western Europe has been at a high level and still increasing (Harrington [3]). West Germany has the largest robotics research program which includes work on automatic assembly, small batch production , multi-arm usage,


and low cost microprocessor controlled handling systems. Some research in Sweden includes the use of special material such as fast curing elastic foams and rubbers for customized grippers. More advanced general purpose six degree of freedom robots are being developed in Switzerland in addition to the use of image processing schemes associated with a moving conveyor belt. Mobile robot studies are underway in France in addition to image processing studies. Research on control languages in software are being carried out in Italy and the U.K. As opposed to the research going on in Japan which is more advanced and forward looking, Western European FMS research is directed towards gradual evolutionary developments in the technology along with efforts to standardize or modularize hardware and software at the earliest opportunity.

U.S. PROGRAMS

Government

Approximately $15 million annually is being expended in the robotics and automated manufacturing areas under programs centered largely within the Department of Defense. In the production engineering research program at the National Science FOundation in the Engineering Directorate a diverse number of tasks are supported, all university based and covering a spectrum of problem areas (Ref. [ii]).

Supported through the Office of Naval Research, the Navy research program includes significant components in artificial intelligence, robotics, and precision engineering. Universities being supported through this program include MIT, Carnegie Melon University, Stanford University, University of Maryland, Purdue University and North Carolina State University. The Air Force set up through the Office of Scientific Research two centers to carry out research in manufacturing science. The University of Michigan and Stanford University were provided approximately one million dollars a year to set up these centers of excellence. The Air Force Material Lab at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base set up the Integrated Computer-aided Manufacturing (ICAM) which is an advanced development effort pertaining to the aircraft industry's use of sheet metal processes in a manufacturing environment. The Army concentrated its robotics and artificial intelligence work on various components of field applications including such activities as ammunition handling, mine detection, and remote vehicle performance.

Considering the potential impact of computer-aided manufacturing, robotics, and computer-aided design on the future economic well being of the country, the magnitude of the government research program is extremely modest. Contrasted with the Japanese effort with respect to its scope,

132 N. Perrone / CA D/CA M, robotics and automated manufacturing in FEM

size and high-level coordinated efforts in a national planning sense, the U.S. program appears less vigorous.

Industry

Much industrial research is being carried out on CAD, CAM, robotics, and other automated manufacturing. This research tends to be pragmatically oriented and only pertaining to a very foreseeable product line in an intermediate term. However, a number of companies are joining in so-called affiliate programs and working cooperatively with universities throughout the country on selected areas in CAD, CAM, or robotics. Significant capabilities are evident at the non-profit groups such as Stanford Research Institute, Battelle Labs, Columbus, Draper Labs near MIT, and the Environmental Research Institute of Michigan (ERIM). At the highest levels of many companies, decisions have been made to launch major programs pertaining to robotics, CAD and CAM. For example, General Electric has expended a few hundred million dollars of corporate funds to acquire companies such as CALMA, Structural Dynamics Research Corporation, Intersil, as well as working agreements with Italian and other overseas robot makers to market systems here and develop further cooperativ~ ventures. GE set up a main facility in Charlottesville for its computer-aided manufacturing operations which will also monitor many of the divisions mentioned above. At the corporate level, R&D programs are vigorously under way and heading towards major product developments in image recognition, artificial intelligence, seam tracking for welding, and automated highly flexible FMS systems.

Westinghouse has also inaugurated a major corporate effort to be competitive in robotics and computer-aided manufacturing. The acquisition of Unimation was aimed at rapidly increasing the companies position in the market. Their productivity and quality control center in Pittsburgh boasts more than 90 robots in place covering many complex manufacturing functions. They have cooperative agreements with many robot manufacturers from Japan as well as within the U.S. and Europe.

Sensor improvements pertaining to vision should have a great impact on robotic systems. Very capable research in these directions are being carried out at SRI, ERIM, and the University of Dayton Research Institute. Battelle is involved with, among other things, automating and developing increased understanding of casting processes. Draper Labs are focusing on problems pertaining to automated assembly.


.It should be note0 that many industrial on- rof't g s are aeveioplng strong ties ana communlcatlon ~ink~ among ~ other as well as with the university community. For example, Westinghous~and CMU have a formal agreement on cooperating in the area of robotics.

With respect to FMS systems, approximately half of those being constructed are manufactured by Kearney and Trecker from Milwaukee (Paprocki [12]). These systems have been set up for manufacturing of cast turbine engine components, agricultural equipment machinery, light aircraft engines, truck transmissions, and weapon system housing components. Typically, the throughput of these K&T FMS systems are of high quality and much lower costs than the manually operated systems they replaced. From a labor viewpoint only 10% of the original employees were sufficient to keep an FMS line operating. In some of the more recent systems in process inspection is going on manually loaded work pieces are sent on rigid pallets via a tow line cart to each machine. FMS computer controllers work in concert with direct numerical controllers on each of the machines stationed within FMS factories.

Japanese machine tool manufacturers such as Yamazaki located just outside of Cincinnati are proceeding to vigorously market FMS systems in the U.S. We are probably at a critical crossroads determining whether American or outside FMS manufacturers (likely Japanese) will be controlling the U.S. market.

Universities

Most of the research being carried out in this field in the university conmLunities are based in computer science groups. The connection with the engineering portion of the college has been tenuous and totalling missing in many cases. Product engineering or manufacturing engineering courses are scattered throughout the U.S. producing but a handful of graduates annually. Despite the surge of interest on the part of many universities to capture research money and to interact with the industrial community in this field, a paucity of capable professorial and technician staff greatly inhibits the educational function which should be performed. Another serious problem is the acquisition of professorial talent by industry groups.

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

While holding much hope for technology utilization, Artificial Intelligence (AI) should be approached with sober cautiousness. Both the business (Business Week [13]) and academic communities (Gevarter [14]) are keenly aware of the tremendous potential in this field.


Some pioneering steps were taken by Melosh, Marcal and Berke in applying these concepts to finite element type systems ([15-17]) but it is clear that much more must be done. As the by line to an article in Science indicated," AI has become a hot property in financial circles; but do the promises have anything to do with reality?" [18].

Interesting Engineering assessments for AI have been made by Fenves and his associates [19], and Dym [20]. However, the utilization of AI in CAD/CAM and/or Finite Element applications is probably 3 to 5 years away at best.

FINITE ELEMENTS AND CAD/CAM

As indicated earlier, CAD or Computer Aided Design does not include a significant level of Computer Aided Engineering (CAE). However, the prospect for using CAE in CAD is greatly enhanced via the significantly increased utilization of the Finite Element Method (FEM). With FEM, complex engineering analyses would be seriously injected into the CAD/CAM process.

What are the characteristics of an FEM program which would have the potential to impact CAD/CAM? The following are important attributes for such a program:

Reliability - The program should have been throughly tested against a variety of standard test cases, i.e., subjected to through quality control.

Interactive Graphics - The FEM package should have superb interactive graphics permitting the engineer to have a productive dialoge with it. Abel has underscored the need and utility of such a capability [21].

User Friendly - Almost a cliche, this capability is critically needed in an FEM. The program should be easily learned (say understanding operations for modeling static problems in a one day workshop) and have features which permit direct acquisition by a diverse cross-section of users.

Good Support - A professional support team should be available to provide assistance as required to the engineering user community.

Consistent Command Language - Whether using the FEM program in a pre-or post-processing mode, full analysis or indeed on a P.C. the commands should be the same.

• Relatively Inexpensive - The cost of the FEM should


not be prohibitive. On minis and superminis annual useage costs should be less then $i0,000.

The GIFTS program is an example of an FEM which has among others, the forementioned fratures. It is widely used by Aerospace activities (General Dynamics on the FI6 NASA for the space shuttle payload) Marine Engineering firms (NKF, Giannotti), Automotive Companies (Mercedes, Eaton), and Government Agencies (Army, Airforce, Navy, Maritime Administration, Coast Guard) to name a few representative groups and users.

Some illustrative graphical output from GIFTS is shown in the following figures:

Figure 6 Applied load and force resultants on a beam element.

Figure 7 Stress distribution (normal and shear) over specified cross section of same element.

Figure 8 Element distribution. For intersecting shells under internal pressure.

Figure 9 Representation of translational freedoms on all modes of shell problem accounting for symmetry.

Figure i0 Use of zoom command to examine intersection elements in shell problem.

What does the future look like for FEM programs and CADICAM? The same data base used to model the system for FEM should be utilized for drawings of the system (if indeed, such drawings are still a necessity) as well as for machining and assembly processes in CAM. The eventual connection to FMS type systems by the FEM analysis and data base will be especially productive. Language independent command systems such as icons will be useful at assisting users to remember input commands, and for foreign users of a given FEM package. Finally, the use of expert systems will impact the FEM CAD/CAM process by about 1990.

CONCLUSION

Computational Engineering will have a major impact on the economic, societal and defense capaDilities of every nation. The related technology is a dynamic one undergoing significant expansion internationally. While the U.S. leads in computer aided design (CAD) and Japan is the unquestioned leader in

136 N. Perrone / CAD~CA 34, robotics and automated manufacturing in FEM

computer aided manufacturing (CAM), activities in both fields are numerous and comprehensive throughout the world, east and west. Within the United States, few engineering colleges have manufacturing, educational or research programs and the staff or equipment, but there is a vigorous interest on the part of many to acquire the same. There is an awareness at high levels of government of the need to improve our industrial base. However, the U.S. does not have a serious national

focused effort in CAD/CAM, robotics or automated production engineering research. Congressional focus is more on the concern for job displacement than with the advent of automation. Government laboratory expertise is virtually nil in this field with the exception being the National Bureau of Standards Automated Manufacturing Research Facility. Artificial intelligence capabilities will not impact the field seriously for the next decade. Flexible manufacturing systems are crucial to successful batch production processes. The use of Finite Element Techniques is closely related to the successful implementation of CAD/CAM.

REFERENCES

I.

.

.

.

.

.

.

P.D. Lax (Chairman), Report of the Panel on Large Scale Computing in Science and Engineering, supported by DOD, NSF with cooperation of DOE and NASA, December, 1982.

R. Smelt (Chairman), The Influence of Computational Fluid Dynamics on Experimental Aerospace Facilities, A Fifteen Year Projection, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 1983.

Joseph Harrington (Chairman), Report of the Committee on Computer- Aided Manufacturing, National Academy of Sciences Report, October 1981.

James Brian Quinn, Overview of Current Status of U.S. Manufacturing: History, Status, Impact on U.S. Economy, Forces at Work, Education National Academy of Engineering Keynote Address on Optimizing U.S. Manufacturing, November 1982.

Washington Post, Supercomputer Center seen as Boon to P.G. County, Page i, December 17, 1984.

Science, Carnegie Lands Federal Software Center, Volume 226, pg. 1059, November 30, 1984.

Business Week, The Speedup in Automation, Special Report, August 3, 1981.


.

.

i0.

ii.

12.

R.C, Doff, Robotics and Automated Manufacturing, Prentice Hall (Reston) 1983.

N. Perrone, Highlights of the U.S.-China Cooperative Program in Basic Sciences and Visits to Selected Automated Factories in Japan, ONR/AFOSR Scientific Bulletin, Volume 9, No. 2, April 1984.

Preliminary Report on Study and Research on Fifth Generation Computers, Japanese Information Processing Development Center (JIPDEC), Fall 1981.

Tenth Conference on Production Research and Technology, (of NSF), SAE Report, P-128, 1983.

J. Paprocki, Flexible Manufacturing Systems-Automating The Factory, ASME Special Pub. PVP. Vol 87, Some Perspectives on CAD/CAM in Mechanical Engineering, Edited by N. Per[one and E. Magrab, 1984

13. Business Week, Cover Story - Artificial Intelligence, It's Here, July 9, 1984.

14. W.B. Gevarter, An Overview of Expert Systems, NASA/NBS Report, NBSIR 82-2505, May 1982.

15. R. Melosh et.al, SACON: A Knowledge Based Consultant for Structural Analysis, Stanford University Report CS-78-699, September 1978.

16. R.J. Melosh, P.V. Marcal, L. Berke, Structural Analysis Consultation Using Artificial Intelligence, NASA Continuing Publication 2059, November 1978.

17. R.J. Melosh, L. Berke, and P.V. Marcal, Knowledge Based Consultation For Selecting A Structural Analysis Strategy, ASCE National Meeting, April 6, 1979.

18. M. Waldron, Artificial Intelligence (I); Into the World, Science, Volume 223, pp. 802-805, 24 February 1984.

19. S.J. Fenves et.al, Expert Systems for Civil Engineering - A Survey, CMU Report R-82-137, July 1982.

20. C.L. Dym, Expert Systems: New Approaches to Computer Aided Engineering Xerox Palo Alto Research Center Report ISL-84-2, April 1984.

21. J.F. Abel, et.al., Interactive Computer Graphics for Finite Element Boundary Elements and Finite Defference Methods, Unification of Finite Element Methods, Edited by H. Karlestuncer, North Holland, 1984.


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142 N. Perrone / CAD/CAM, robotics and automated manufacturing in FEM

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cad/cam, robotics and automated manufacturing and the connection to fem

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