c6ytcr i introduction and conceptual frame...
TRANSCRIPT
c6ytcr I
Introduction
And Conceptual
Frame Work
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
INTRODUCTION
We have entered the twenty first century, the century of the technology.
Thanks to the enormous growth in the field of technology, the world has seen
countless changes in all the aspects of human life. The creative potential of the human
beings has caused the birth of new ideas and inventions in different spheres of life. As
a result, we are witnessing a whirlpool of radical changes in all spheres of life.
Along with the rest of the world, our country is also undergoing socio-
economic changes. These changes affect mainly the youth, in whose hands the future
of our country lies. They are the future pillars of our society and so they have to be
moulded, empowered and facilitated in the most modern resources available. If the
youth of today are to be transformed radically, the education imparted to them has
also to undergo a radical change. A relevant change in the educational system will
involve a lot of things including the educational policy, institutional atmosphere, the
co-operation of the students and parents.
However, a lot of responsibility will lie in the hands of the teachers. How can
teachers impart the knowledge and skills of the latest concepts and ideas, unless they
themselves are not equipped with the latest in the world of innovations? Hence, the
need for constant on goin g formation for the teachers. The teaching community will
do well to be updated in the know-how of the twenty first century.
I c
EDUCATION
The term 'education' can be understood in two different ways. In a limited
sense, it means the formal education imparted in educational institutions like schools
and colleges. But in a broad sense, education refers to the overall development of the
human personality and so education becomes a life-long process.
According to Mahatma Gandhi, education is an all round drawing out of the
best in the child- body, mind and spirit. Education makes a person self-reliant and
selfless in order to serve the society. For Gandhi, "the end of all knowledge must be
building up character. What is education without character and what is character
without elementary personal purity?" (Aggarwal, 1996, p.241). And so, Gandhi
insisted on character development in education.
Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, the visionary of modem India, looked upon
education as a force that could render useful service in the building up of a new social
order. For Nehru, some of the important aims of education are developing self-
reliance, habit of co-operation, fitness of body and keenness of mind, development of
innate abilities, of general approach to life and basic sense of values. (Bhatnagar,
1990)
John Dewey, the renowned American educationist, developed a new concept
of education, emphasizing experience and growth. He defined the educational process
as a process of growth and development by reorganizing or reconstructing of
experiences, which increased an individual's ability to direct subsequent experiences.
(Aggarwal, 1996)
Dewey believed that education is a social task. Its purpose is not to carry on
present societal concepts through future generations, but rather to educate for a better
society, eliminating the undesirable in the environment and stressing the good to
provide a better society.
Modern thinkers tend to believe that education must bring about changes,
including socio-political. Paulo Freire, one of the architects of pragmatic education,
always held that an education that does not auger a change in the existing system is
not worth maintaining (Dandekar, 2002). Guilford (1965) was convinced that
"Creativity is the key to education in its fullest sense and to the solution of mankind's
most serious problems".
EDUCATION IN INDIA
The Indian scenario is, however, far from satisfying. Our country produces
millions of graduates and secondary school students year after year. But they are not
the creative type of citizens who are able to contribute something worthwhile for
themselves, their families or for the society. The current educational system is content
with producing just 'reproducers', not creative thinkers.
The Kothari Commission (1966)(1966) pointed out four reasons for this apathy
towards creativeness, viz. "weakness of the average teacher, lack of research in
developing teaching techniques, rigidity of educational system and failure of
administration in diffusing new methods" (Deshmukh, 1984).
The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) in its
framework of curriculum for the ten-year school has maintained that the students'
"spontaneity, curiosity, creativity and activity in general should not be restricted by
rigid and unattractive methods of teaching and environment for learning" (NCERT,
1975).
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The Review Committee (1977), appointed to review the whole curriculum and
make suitable suggestions for necessary modifications in the Indian educational
system, held that" if the purpose of education is to nurture the child's capacities to
the full and to give our people not only a useful occupation but a full and abundant
life, then the creative urge in the children must in every: possible way be actively
stimulated and cultivated in as many directions as possible" (p.113).
TEACHER EDUCATION: SCOPE AND OBJECTIVES
If education has to be meaningful and relevant, it requires excellent teachers.
Hence, the importance of teacher education. Saxena (1998) says "Teacher education
is the most important and often neglected field of education". Any renewal in the field
of education must start with the teachers.
The Secondary Education Commission (1952) rightly points out "we are
convinced that the most important factor in the contemporary educationhi
reconstruction, is the teacher - his personal qualities, his educational qualifications,
his professional training and the place that he occupies in the school as well in the
community". The teacher occupies a very significant position in the society as he has
the potential to shape the minds and values of the future generation.
The Kothari commission (1964-66) devoted one complete chapter on teacher
education detailing various recommendations for the improvement of its quality.
The commission emphasized that the essence of teacher education is 'quality'.
The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) has
evolved the following specific objectives: development of understanding,
development of skills and development of attitudes
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TEACHER EDUCATION IN INDIA: A HISTORICAL OUTLINE
A glance at the history of educational system in India gives us the right
perspective to move forward, as any future is founded upon the past. The Indian
educational system has had a long history starting from the Vedic period.
In the Vedic period (before 1400 BC), education had an idealistic form.
Teachers (Acharyas) laid stress upon worship of God, religiousness, spirituality,
formation of character, development of personality and development of culture, nation
and society.
In the Brahminic age (1400- 600 BC), the Gurukul system came into
prominence. In the Gurukul system, the students resided with the teachers and
received a wholistic formation by serving the teachers. The student lived in the house
of the Guru, instead of living with his parents. It was the teacher who occupied the
primary place in education, not the system, nor the content.
In the Buddhist period (600 BC- 700 AD), universities like the Nalanda came
into existence. Thousands of students resided and got educated. A teacher's
relationship with the new students was akin to the father - son, or paternal
relationship. They were linked to each other in mutual respect, faith and love. During
this period, equality was the foundation of this relationship in which both students and
teachers fulfilled their respective obligations and duties.
The British period (1835-1947 AD), with Macaulay as the pioneer of modern
Indian education, modernized the educational system. It brought Indians into touch
with Western knowledge and science. Teachers imparted knowledge of western ideas
and the language of English. It also created social and political awareness among the
educated. Teachers motivated students to be creative in arts, science and political
leadership.
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There were no systematic teacher training centers in India in the earlier
periods. The need for such an education came to be felt in the British period. Now we
have many teacher training institutions all over the country.
ROLE OF TEACHERS
Teachers occupy a place of paramount importance in any system of education.
In the words of Dr. Radhakrishnan, "the teacher's place in the society is of vital
importance. The teacher acts as the point of transmission of intellectual tradition and
technical skills from generation to generation and helps to keep the lamp of
civilization burning" (Aggarwal, 1996).
The report of the Education Commission (1964-66) begins with this historic
sentence: "The destiny of India is now being shaped in her class rooms. This, we
believe, is not mere rhetoric". It is not the physical structure of the classrooms that
influences the formation and development of the students, but the towering figure of
the teacher, which has a lasting impression on the life and growth of the learners.
THEORIES OF TEACHING
A theory of teaching explains how teaching for efficient learning takes place.
There are several theories of teaching. Sharma in his book Technological Foundation
of Education (2001) has listed many of them. But the following are the most
prominent.
i. Maieutic Theory of Teaching: Socrates has originated this theory of
teaching. He advocates that teacher cannot teach from outside. All
knowledge is within the child. The teacher's job is to unfold it. This theory
conceives that teaching process helps to recollect or unfold the knowledge
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possessed by the child with questioning technique. The teacher brings his
knowledge at conscious level of this child. The focus of this theory is on
self-realization. The heredity plays an important role in teaching process.
ii. The Communication Theory of Teaching: This theory of teaching is
based upon assumptions that the teacher possesses all knowledge and
information, which students do not possess. The most appropriate way for
the student is to learn this knowledge that the teacher presents, explains,
demonstrates and performs in classroom. This theory further assumes that
the child is like a clean slate, the teacher can imprint upon it anything
through his mode of communication. Therefore, it is designated as the
communication practical theory of teaching.
The Moulding Theory of Teaching: John Dewey is the advocate of this
moulding theory of teaching. The earlier theories of teaching confine to
impart the knowledge to the students. This theory has the focus on shape,
form and mould of the students' behaviour. The basic assumption about
the human nature, which this theory takes into consideration is that human
personality is formed, shaped and moulded by their environment.
iv. The Mutual Enquiry Theory: The main assumption of this theory about
the nature of knowledge is that the whole body of recorded facts as
'information' knowledge is generally substituted for enquiry. True
knowledge is enquiry, used to apply efficient methods and relevant
information for the solution of problems. The teacher must know what he
wants to teach and must know some methods of enquiry. This theory of
teaching is clearly applicable to research and art. It assumes that each
.individual has the capacity to discover new knowledge with mutual
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enquiry. It implies that a teacher has a model in his mind to use in a
specific situation and the student himself selects the model for mutual
enquiry.
TEACHING EFFECTIVENESS
Teaching is both a science as well as an art. Teaching effectiveness depends to
a great extent on such qualities as aptitude, interest, practice, adaptability, initiative
and creativity. These qualities cannot be gained by mere reading or learning about
them.
According to Dandekar (2002),"Teaching effectiveness refers to the effect that
the teacher's performance has on pupils". It is usually assessed in terms of pupil
behaviour and not in terms of behaviour of teachers. Teaching effectiveness is
differentiated from teacher performance and teacher competence. Teacher
performance is related to the behaviour of the teacher while teaching a class, whereas
teacher competence refers to the set of knowledge, abilities and beliefs a teacher
possesses and brings to the teaching situation. An effective teacher is endowed with
suitable traits and behaviour in order to bring out the desired result from the teaching.
In other words, an effective teacher is one who is able to use the existing
competencies fo the achievement of the expected results.
Examination result is one tool with which teaching effectiveness is
determined. However, educationists are of the opinion that examination is not a very
reliable tool to assess the students' performance, or the effectiveness of the teaching.
Another parameter may be the administrator's opinion about the teacher's
effectiveness. Nevertheless, this too may not be very reliable as opinions are much
biased more often than not. Nor can popularity among the pupils be a reliable
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parameter of teaching effectiveness. There are also other determinants of
effectiveness like knowledge, training, participation in school activities and
personality.
Biddle and Ellena in their book Contemporary Research on Teaching
Effectiveness have stated that the problem of teaching effectiveness is so complex that
no one today knows who a competent teacher is. However, it would be possible to
find common characteristics of teaching effectiveness. (Sharma, 2001)
An effective teacher is one who has obtained the following objectives:
i. Knowledge and Understanding. The teacher should have a good
understanding and knowledge not only of the subject matter, but also of
the students with whom he or she should develop a rapport.
ii. Application. The teacher must be able to apply the principles of teaching
and learning to various situations in the school.
iii. Skill. The teacher must be equipped with various teaching skills in order to
communicate his knowledge to the students.
iv. Interest. The teacher must enkindle in the students a keen interest in the
subject that he teaches. Besides, he or she should also have interest in the
subject matter as well in the students.
V. Attitude. The teacher should develop a positive attitude towards the
students as well as his teaching profession.
TEACHER KNOWLEDGE
Though all the five above mentioned objectives are important for a teacher to
be effective, there is a hierarchy of priorities among them. Experts point out to
knowledge as a primary prerequisite of an effective teacher. L.S. Schulman
(1986), Stanford University, California, has laid much importance to knowledge
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to be possessed by the teacher. He has outlined the types of knowledge teachers
need to plan curriculum, transform content for a student audience and represent
subject matter in an authentic way. These categories provide a valuable checklist
for teachers while evaluating on their teaching and their own professional growth.
i. Content Knowledge: This consists of substantive and syntactic
elements. Substantive knowledge is the specific information, ideas,
concepts and topics of a field. Syntactical knowledge consists of the
tools and rules used when determining how and what information can
be incorporated into a field via various modes of inquiry.
ii. General Pedagogical Knowledge: This is knowledge about the
general theories and principles underlying child and adolescent
learning and strategies for classroom organization and management. It
also includes knowledge about how cultural beliefs and personal
characteristics influence learning.
iii. Pedagogical Content Knowledge: This is knowledge about how
young people understand and learn subject-specific information,
concepts and topics and how subject matter is best represented in
instruction.
iv. Curricular Knowledge: This is knowledge about syllabus,
programmes and teaching resources, together with a capacity to
critique, interpret and utilize these tools in line with students' specific
social and cognitive needs.
V. Knowledge of Learners and Learning: This is knowled ge of
students' physical, social and cognitive development, an awareness of
ID]
their socio-cultural backgrounds and a grasp of current research into
how young people think, conceptualize and learn about the past.
vi. Contextual Knowledge: This is knowledge of factors affecting
teaching and learning within and beyond classroom - curriculum
leadership, student and community perceptions of the subject and
local, state and national policies.
vii. Educative Knowledge: This is knowledge about the values and
intended outcomes underlying schooling.
PERSONALITY TRAITS
It is not enough to have good cognitive dimensions in order to be effective
teachers. Cognitive dimensions have to be complemented with personality dimensions
as well. Effective teachers have certain personality traits. They are friendly, fair and
good mannered. They take interest in the students and understand them. They are
impartial and fair in marking. They know the subject matter well and they are
effective in their presentation. In short, effective teachers have the "necessary
intellectual skills, positive self-perception, can manage the class through methodical
approach and can foster class room interaction through various activities" (Dandekar,
2002). Such teachers have a personality pattern characterized by a likin g for children
and interest in what they do, by a patient and kind disposition, by a balanced outlook
on life involving such things as a sense of humour and a conscience not over
burdened with rigorous perfectionism.
Ineffective teachers have a disagreeable personality. They lack good
manners and have no consideration for the feelings of others and are very poor in
teaching.
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CLASSIFICATION OF EFFECTIVE TEACHERS' TRAITS
The frequently mentioned traits are mastery of subject matter, motivation,
dedication, co-operation, sense of humour, creativity, disciplinary ability, academic
standards, promptness with reports, efficient methodology and generosity with
personal time in assisting students.
Sharma (2001) presents a list of fifteen qualities, with the components of each.
They are: Buoyancy, Considerateness, Cooperativeness, Emotional Stability,
Ethicalness, Expressiveness, Forcefulness, Intelligence, Judgement, Objectivity,
Personal Charm, Physical Energy, Reliability, Resourcefulness and Scholastic
Proficiency. -"
APPROACHES TO EFFECTIVE TEACHING
A teacher may use different approaches in trying to be an effective teacher.
Application of the science of human behaviour to the problems of learning and
teaching has given rise to various approaches to effective teaching. Dandekar (2002)
has pointed out to four of the widely used approaches.
i. Discovery Approach: This approach gives the students a feel of how the
scientists proceed. It encourages discussion among students in which
questions, clues and concrete materials are used in such a way that their
curiosity and attention are provoked and this fmallv leads to the discovery
of original and novel ideas. Learners get meanin gful insight into the basic
structure and process of knowledge resulting in real learning.
ii. Reception Approach: Since the discovery approach is considered time
consuming for young learners, reception approach is advocated in order to
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present to the children the same content in a well organized manner so
that the content may be assimilated meaningfully and easily with their
previous learning. This approach usually advocates proceeding from
broad and generally inclusive ideas to more specific information that is
subsumed by the general idea. The main theme of this approach is called
'advance organiser'. It refers to providing some important and general
statements to the students which make clear the broad introductory
overviews for the new learning.
Auto Instruction: This approach emphasizes the automatic and
individualistic instruction for each student. This involves instructional
materials prepared in a graded fashion with the immediate feedback made
available to the learner. This is called programmed instruction. The
presentation of the material by teaching machines permits the learner to
proceed at his or her own speed. Thus it increases the effectiveness of
teaching and thereby making the teachers concentrate on some other
activities and getting a relief from the normal routine. But this approach
requires preparation of graded material for different subject.
iv. Mastery Learning: The basis of this approach is the idea that the learners
can learn well if sufficient time is given and if instruction is optimal for
them. For this purpose, four important conditions must be fulfilled. The
objectives must be clearly understood by the learner, the learner must
have pre-requisites needed for success in the given learning task, the
learner must profit from the instruction and the learner must attend to the
learning task.
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DIMENSIONS OF TEACHING EFFECTIVENESS
Teaching effectiveness comprises of many dimensions, which include the
characteristics of a teacher, his personality, attitudes, the process of teaching and the
production variables like the outcome of teaching and pupil achievement. However,
all those may be narrowed down to the following five dimensions.
i. Preparation and Planning: It refers to the ability of the teacher in
preparing, planning and organizing for teaching in accordance with the
course objectives by using different source material.
ii. Class room Management: This dimension refers to the ability of the
teacher to successfully communicate, motivate the students and evaluate
the teaching- learning process and also to maintain discipline in the class
room within the framework of democratic set up.
iii. Knowledge of Subject: This dimension refers to the ability of the teacher
in acquiring, retaining, interpreting and making use of the contents of the
subject being dealt within the classroom situation. Delivery of contents,
and its presentation including summary constitute essential aspects of the
teaching - learning process.
iv. Teacher Characteristics: This dimension refers to the personality make-
up and its behavioural manifestations that have their own level of
acceptability or unacceptability in the teaching profession. Ability to
arouse interest in the students and seeking active participation of pupils
constitute essential characteristics of an effective teacher.
V. Interpersonal Relationship: The ability of the teacher to adopt himself
herself to maintain cordial relations with his / her colleagues, pupils, their
parents and other persons in the community with whom he / she is to
interact as part and parcel of his/ her profession form the basis of this
dimension.
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ROLE OF CREATIVITY IN TEACHING
IMPORTANCE OF CREATIVITY
There are so many countries on the face of the earth. And many of them are
endowed with plenty of natural and human resources. And yet, we see a great many
differences among the nations. Some are so powerful and dominant and some are
struggling just to survive. What makes a nation or society powerful and self-reliant?
Or to put in another way, what makes super powers like the United States what they
are? Is it wealth, natural resources, military supremacy...? No, not necessarily! There
are many African countries with more natural resources than the USA. Canada and
Saudi Arabia have a lot of wealth but still can hardly be called super powers. India
has the fourth largest military in the world and still rates only as a developing nation.
No. it is something more than all these that make a nation self-reliant and a cut
above the rest. It is the creative ability or divergent thinking that makes all the
difference between ordinary nations and the trend-setters. Any country that has the
intellectual superiority over others in problem solving, originality and creative
thinking will definitely march towards a great future. In fact, "the nation that learns to
actualize the almost infinite creative potential of the human brain will soon be the
master of the world" (Tucker, 1986, p.1). Thus, creativity holds the key to a nation's
progress and growth.
Creativity is important for the individual as well. What makes an individual
successful is not necessarily the wealth he or she possesses, or the community they
are born into or the physical strength, but the intellectual superiority and the creative
acumen. It is the creative minds that have ruled the world one way or other. It is the
creative people who have survived the ages with a lasting impact upon millions of
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people to come. All the masterpieces in painting, sculpture, dance, drama, prose,
poetry, music and architecture are all only the result of creative minds.
But more than that, creativity benefits the individual himself. It develops an
individual's personality. Tucker (1986) asserts that creativity" actualizes his innate
potential and makes him a more complete person. A creative person looks at life
under new aspects, combines diverse ideas into new combinations and pattern,
becomes more aware of and sensitive to the world around him, judges things from
new points of view, and lives more richly and excitingly". A creative person can
easily become self-confident by building up other personality traits like initiative,
originality and leadership.
The education that is being doled out today appears to content itself with
developing mere rote learning. As a result, thousands of graduates come out of the
universities year after year, but without anything original to contribute to the society,
not even to their families. According to Guilford (1974) " Creativity is the ke y to
education in its fullest sense and to the solution of mankind's most serious problems".
Therefore, education, to be more meaningful and relevant than what it is today, needs
to inculcate creativity as a value and way of life to the students. If that is to be done,
the teachers must be creative themselves.
DEFINITION OF CREATIVITY
Creativity is the capacity of producing a result that is new or original (like a
poem, a story, a discovery or invention); is the capacity of solving a problem in a new
way (like a problem in an organization or school); is the capacity of producing
something. which enriches and makes a chan ge in someone's life or in society. When
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we consider creativity we usually deal with four realities intimately connected: the
product, the process; the person and the environment.
Many have attempted to define what creativity is. According to Frank Barron
"Creativity may be defined, quite simply, as the ability to bring something new into
existence" (Tucker, 1986). John Haefele has said, " Two different elements are
combined to produce a third new one". (Ibid)
According to Guilford (1967), "Creativity sometimes refers to creative
potential, sometimes to creative production and sometimes to creative productivity".
This definition establishes creative thinking as its primary characteristic. The creative
process is any process by which something new is produced, an idea, an object
including a new form of arrangement of old elements. The new creation must be the
solution of some problem.
Torrance defines creativity as " a process of becoming sensitive to problems,
deficiencies, gaps of knowledge, missing elements, disharmonies and so on,
identifying the difficulties, searching for solutions, making guesses or formulating
hypotheses about the deficiencies, testing and retesting hypotheses and possibly
modifying and retesting them and finally communicating results." (Tucker, 1986)
Roger says that "Creativity is an emergence in action of novel relational
product, growing out of the uniqueness of the individual on the one hand and the
materials, events, people or circumstances of one's life on the other". (Ibid)
According to Simpson, "Creative thinking involves new forms of thinking,
away from the traditional forms. Thus, creativity comprises of curiosity, imagination,
invention, novelty, originality and research." (Ibid)
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Drevdahl defines creativity as "the capacity of a person to produce
compositions, products or ideas which are essentially new or novel and previously
unknown to the producer". Rid)
Morgan (1953) collected 25 definitions of creativity scattered in literature.
One thing was common in these definitions, that is, uniqueness of response.
All these definitions confirm that creativity exists in many forms and in many
individuals. So a creative person is someone who is very alert, curious and dynamic in
thinking. Creative people are flexible, original and novel. They present new
associations, have divergent thinking, have innovative approaches and show positive
thinking.
THEORIES OF CREATIVITY
Creativity is an important aspect of human development in educational field. It
aims to develop innate and hidden creative qualities of the individual. Bernard. Maker
and Shong (2001) have given a thought on the theories and principles of creativity.
1. Psychoanalytic theory - Freud produced psychoanalytic system to explain
artistic 'creativity. He studied Leonarda Da Vincy and other authors and
developed the concept of sublimation. He was of the opinion that for
adaptation three aspects are necessary i) powerful deviation of interest
which reduces anxiety of the person ii) substitution for satisfaction iii)
intoxicating substances in creative substitution.
Freud had the opinion that the creative person goes away from reality because
he fails in satisfying instinctive behaviours. He satisfies his needs only through
creative activities. The role of unconscious mind has not been accepted by
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sublimation in highest mental stage. Our conscious system is an aspect of creativity.
Unless it is developed, creativity will not be developed.
Schafer (1958) has explained that regression in the service of the ego is
partial, temporary, controlled lowering of the level of psychic functioning to promote
adaptation. It promotes adaptation by maintaining, restoring or improving inner
balance and organization, interpersonal relations and work. It is a process which
increases the individual's access to preconscious and unconscious contents without a
thorough going sexualization or aggression of major ego functions and therefore
without descriptive anxiety and gravity.
Kubie (1958) has also discarded the role of the unconscious for creativit y . He
is of the opinion that if this process comes in to force, it is harmful. He accepted pre-
consciousness as an important aspect of creativity. Preconscious process is influenced
by the conscious, real and unconscious efforts. Both the processes do not accept
imaginary thinking. On this basis, Kubie discards the theory of sublimation because
the existence of sublimation is prior to preconsciousness.
2. Associatjonjsm - Ribot (1960) connected creativity with association.
Association is that process through which mental state is evoked.
Associationism considers the ability of thinking and bonds of productivity.
These bonds are found in individual and creativity is the reorganization of
these bonds.
Mednik (1 962)explained creative thinking and association in these words: We
may proceed to define the creative thinking process as the forming of associative
elements into new combinations which either meet specified requirements or are in
some way useful. The more mutually remote the elements of the combinations, the
more creative the process of solution will become. Mednik thinks that each condition
which converts the associative elements into ideational continuity presents creative
solution.
There are three types of creative associations i) serendipity ii) similarity iii)
and mediation. There are so many aspects where individual differences occur and
search for continuity is needed: item need, hierarchy, number, cognition, style and
creative organization.
This thought is known as the highest expression of trial and error. Campbell
has also accepted that there are two things found in creativity i) blind variation ii)
selective retention. In the first, we find variation not relating to solution and in second
there is inner difference in functional situation. When blind variation moulds on one
thought in to desired criteria creativity comes into existence. (Shong, 2001)
3. Gestalt theory - \Verthiemer (1945) criticized creative thinking, problem
solving, mutual reasoning and associative approaches with reference to both the
approaches of events, ie., psychoanalysis and associationism. That is why he
proposed Gestalt theory for the development of understanding, requisitioning and
search for thinking. He described the process of creative thinking like this-
reasoning point of the field becomes centralized in its meaning. Thus organization
and grouping become clear. The entire process is one consistent line of thinking. It is
not an end-sum is arbitrary, understood in its function. On the contrary, each step is
taken surveying the whole situation.
Gestalt theory defines creativity in new dimension. It is a thought, which
suddenly comes in the mind of the man. Mooney (1958) stated Gestalt's ideals in
these words -dynamism of 'individual, process and environment combination creates
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creativity. A creative person is the symbol of all these three things. He is committed
to the environment, he tries to understand himself and is busy in maintaining his
individuality.
4. Existentialism - Existentialism is very near to insight theory. It does not
divide in to parts. It believes in encounter. Creativity is known as the encounter of
some new thing process of struggle.
May (1959) accepted creativity as an encounter or struggle. An artist
encounters the scenery. He sees it with various angles, understands it and assimilates
it. In this process first element is, encounter. Medium like canvas, colours, brush and
chisel come later on. May said that a creative act is a process, doing specifically a
process interrelating the person and his world.
5. Interpersonalism- This theory studies creativity in reference with the
acceptance of creator or inventor. Adler had coined the term creative power of the
self. Lindzey had used creative self for this purpose. Interpersonalists see the
individual in its social environment. Person-person, person-thing, society-society
possess the whole personality between the social relations. Creativit y is itself a work.
Moreno viewed that cultural elements are the results of creativit y . These are able to
carry on cultural heritage.(Bhatnagar and Saxena, 2001)
Roger explained creativity on this basis- creativity as an emergence in action
of novel relational product, growing out of uniqueness of the individual on the one
hand and the materials, events, people or circumstances of his life on the other.
Unless a person accepts new and original adjustment, the process of creativity does
not proceed. Tumin described the expansion of social forces, which create
hindrances in the way of creativity. Murphy said about the creative era. Mead said
about cultural give and take. In the same way Paul Torrance said that creative
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thinking indicates towards the zero thought process or de-systematized it. Search the
missing elements, create the thoughts, generate the hypothesis and redefine
hypothesis and declare the results. (Bhatnagar and Saxena, 2001)
6. Trait Theory - Guilford (1967) has propounded this theory, which is quite
different from psychoanalysis, association, Gestalt, existentialism and
interpersonalism. Guilford stated the following traits concerning creativity- i)
generalized sensitivity to the problems ii) expressional fluency ill) word fluency iv)
ideational continuity, flexibility, image and its expansion, inner adaptation, symbol
and thought expansion. It can be understood through factor analysis. Guilford has
also stated that content, operation and product are elements of creativity. Content
possesses picturesque, symbol, thought and behaviour, Operation possesses
cognition, memory. convergent thinking, divergent thinking and evaluation and
Product possesses units class system, change in forms and behaviour.
DIMENSIONS OF CREATIVITY
Creativity, which is also called divergent thinking, is in contrast to convergent
thinking. Convergent thinking follows the conventional path to arrive at a conclusion
that leads to one correct answer, an answer similar to that which others would have
reached. In convergent thinking, the person goes step-by-step, sequentially, logically.
analytically, linearly, to find the one correct answer and thus closes one's thinking
operation.
Divergent thinking seeks many alternatives, goes off the beaten track, goes
beyond the obvious, takes leaps, is adventurous and takes risks, is discontinuous, is
provocative, fluent, flexible, original and open-minded.
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Divergent thinking consists of five dimensions: fluency, flexibility, originality,
elaboration and evaluation.
1. FLUENCY refers to the ease with which a quality of ideas of the same class is
generated and expressed within a limited time. The number of ideas expressed is
important. The more ideas expressed often leads to better ideas or solutions.
Quantity leads to quality.
i) ideational fluency refers to the ability to produce a large number of ideas in a
situation requiring few restrictions other than time. What is needed here are a
quantity of ideas, the greater if ideas the better, because quantity leads to quality
of ideas. The ideas presented are of the same class or category.
ii) verbal fluency is the ease and ability with whicha person can quickly use words
that fulfill certain conditions. This ability helps for success in school and college
studies of the humanities and science, and especially in public speaking and
writing, and is extremely useful in public relations by managers and
administrators.
iii) associational fluency is the ability of being aware of relationships and the ease
which a person can provide apt meanings, for instance, by providing synonyms or
similes.
iv) expressional fluency is the ability and ease with which one combines words
according to certain conditions. For instance, in two minutes write down as many
sentences as you can with the letters used at the beginning of each word:
2. FLEXIBILITY is the ability of the mind to shift easily from one train of thought
to another, from one category or class to another in a versatile manner. The ideas
are not of the same class or category, their quality is different.
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i) spontaneous flexibility is the mental ability of a person to find ideas of different
classes, or categories, to change tracks of thought, to get out of conventional
mental ruts and fixed habits of thinking, and to seek versatility of thinking.
ii) adaptive flexibility is the mental ability of departing from traditional methods of
thinking and doing things in favour of some novel approaches, which may require
changing fixed positions or reversing procedures.
3. ORIGINALITY is a quality of the mind that can produce unusual, clever,
uncommon, unexpected, and remote answers which depart from the conventional
and standard ones.
4. ELABORATION is the mental skill to work out the implications and
consequences of an idea, and to produce the detailed steps in working it out. It is
also called Redefinition or the ability to define or perceive in a way different from
the usual. At times a person lacks the skill to elaborate his original idea, and
someone else brings out the practical ways that idea could be implemented.
5. EVALUATION is the mental skill to judge the suitability, aptness or adequacy of
a statement or a solution to a problem proposed, and to determine the
consequences or
results if it were implemented.
CREATIVE TEACHER
A creative teacher will not be satisfied with the students' grasp of facts and
their recall, but the diverse ways of arriving at facts, by deduction, induction,
problem-solvin g, discussion, experimentation and observation. Creative teachers will
not be content with merely telling the facts, but will require of them a judgement on
the facts and the use of these facts can be put to use for the betterment of their own
lives and that of others. They will try to make the pupils not just conformists or
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imitators, but people who think for themselves. They will guide the students' creative
efforts without imposing their will on them.
NOURISHING CREATIVITY
Dandekar (2001) has proposed some useful suggestions for the nourishment of
creativity in the schools. Teachers who are interested in fostering creativity in their
students will do well to follow some of these suggestions.
i. In the educational setting the teacher should strive to supply stimulating
atmosphere, freedom of thought and behaviour, freedom from the threat of
evaluation. It is not a healthy practice to evaluate even. and link
it to the final assessment. Making the children free from this will make
them psychologically and physically comfortable.
ii. Mackinnon (1976) has very well emphasized that teachers should develop
tolerance towards new ideas given by the children. Teachers should
encourage the manipulation of objects and ideas and give scope for
imagination by asking them thought provoking questions like ' what would
you do if you became the principal of your schoolT or ' what would
happen if vegetation were not there?' This will develop a creative and free
atmosphere in the class room.
Teachers should develop skills of constructive criticism, encourage self
evaluation and help children to be more sensitive. The most important
thing is to appreciate and respect new ideas and solutions given by the
children. Normally, divergent thinking and novel solutions are discouraged
by teachers. This should be avoided;
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iv. Teachers must appreciate individual differences. Let the children work in
cooperation in a free atmosphere. Self-initiated learning is most welcome
for creativity.
V. Teachers must use the technique of brain storming as it emphasizes
divergent thinking. A problem is provided and the students must be asked
to suggest points wherein they can suggest any number of ideas without
hesitation and fear of criticism. Finally, main points are noted down and a
meaninful solution is arrived at. Students really enjoy such sessions.
vi. Teachers should try to encourage creativity in various fields through
intellectual activities, scientific projects, leadership opportunities, artistic
talents writing potentials, musical talents, mechanical skills and physical
skills.
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY AND TEACHING
DEFINITION OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
Information is an act of informing and communication of knowledge.
Technology is an application of science, especially to industry, commerce and other
fields. Therefore. Information Technology (IT) refers to the processors and devices
that make creation, gathering, processing, storage and delivery of information
possible. IT consists of computers, computer networks and other pieces of hardware.
IT also consists of software that facilitates the system's abilities to manage the
information in a way that is useful to the users.
UNESCO (1984) considers Information Technology (IT) as "scientific,
technological and engineering disciplines and the management of techniques, used in
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information handling and processing; their applications, computers and their
interaction with men and machines; and associated social, economic and cultural
matters".
In 1617, John Napier devised a set of rods for use in calculations involving
multiplications. These rods were carved from bones and therefore were called
Napier's Bones. Jam (2000) observes that the first mechanical calculating machine
was made in 1642 by the great French mathematician and philosopher Blaise Pascal.
Charles Babbage (1792-1871) made a machine called Differential Engine, which
could evaluate accurately algebraic expressions and mathematical tables correct up to
20 decimal places.
The next major contribution to development of computers came from Dr.
Herman Hollerith of the USA. He invented a machine, which used punched cards to
store and tabulate census data. This machine could sense the punched holes, recognize
the number , and make the required calculations. What is today called the 'first
generation computer' was made by J.P. Eckert and SW Mauchly in 1946 in USA. It
was called ENIAC, which stands for electronic numerical integrator and calculator
machine. The first modern digital computer was produced in 1954. In 1974 another
breed of computers known as microcomputers came into existence and became
popular as the fourth generation computers. Today the Japanese are developing the
new super breed of computers called the fifth generation computers.
The latest in the field of information technolo gy is the development of
artificial intelligence (AT). Al is a science and technolov based on disciplines such as
computer science. biology, psychology, linguistics, mathematics and engineering
(Annaraja, 2001). The goal of artificial intelligence is to develop computers that can
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think as well as see, hear, walk, talk and feel. A major thrust of Al is the development
of computer functions normally associated with human intelligence. Al applications
can be grouped into four major areas of cognitive science, computer science, robotics
and natural interfaces.
SIGNIFICANCE OF COMPUTERS
Computers have become so pervasive that they are widely used in business,
health care, education, archeology, engineering, architecture, manufacturing, weather
forecasting, law enforcement, government, military, music, films and at home.
Virtually no business or organization can function effectively and efficiently without
them. So understanding the computer system, concepts and components and how to
use them is vital both now and in future.
A computer is an electronic device that accepts data, processes them according
to a set of instructions provided to it and produces the required outcome much faster
than human beings with remarkable accuracy and speed.
COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER
L Input Devices are useful to feed information and instruction into the system.
The keyboard and mouse are the most commonly used input devices.
ii. Output Devices indicate the results of processing usually on a visual display
unit called Monitor (computer screen). Monitor and Printer are the main
output devices.
iii. Central Processing Unit (Cpu Or Processor)
The complex procedure that transforms raw data (information) into useful
information is called processin g. To perform this transformation, the computer uses
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two components: the processor and memory. The processor named central processing
unit (CPU) is the brain behind all the operations of a computer, where the actual
processing (ie. mathematical and logical processing ) takes place. It interprets the
instructions that come form either the user or the software by encoding in binary form
and carries them out. It interacts with every part of the computer. The power of CPU
lies in its ability to carry out the instructions (run the program) rapidly and flawlessly.
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY AND EDUCATION
Dr. Anriaraja (2000) holds that five characteristics mark the relationship
between information teclmoloy and education.
First, education is no longer considered somethin g that one acquired during
youth to serve for entire time. Second, since knowledge can become obsolete every
few years, education must focus on creating an environment that facilitates continuous
learning.
Third. education and entertainment are converging. For instance, educational
software is becoming an increasing part of the entertainment and is often called
"edutainment". Edutainment is defined as software, electronic books and interactive
games that have an educational component for children aged three and above. This
new form of education is considered more effective because the user gets totally
immersed in learning experience.
Fourth, the delivery of educational instruction has changed. Institution will be
increasingly conducted electronically and at time in small informal meetings between
faculty and students. The teacher's role will shift from lecturing to advising or
coaching students on tough, messy issues, such as choosing materials, topics and
career paths.
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Finally, electronic access to on-line databases and library catalogues will
eliminate space but probably will increase the need for computer disk space. Clearly,
a new educational paradigm is called for and that is emerging through on-line
applications.
EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS
Information technology has brought in a maelstrom of changes in the field of
education. Among a multitude of possible new ways of learning, the following may
be pointed out:
Internet: The individual can use the Internet for learning. Through the Internet, the
students can find knowledge resources in any discipline. They can also share their
ideas with others in any part of the world through the www, that is, the world wide
web.
The Internet is the largest network of networks. It is also called the
Information Superhighway. The Internet is a rapidly growing global web of thousands
of business, education and research networks connecting millions of computers and
their users in more than 100 countries to each other. The following are the most
popular Internet applications:
E-mail: Electronic mail has changed the way people work and communicate. We can
send E-mail to any one on our network. Within a few minutes of effort, a message to
one or more individuals can be composed, sent and received. E-mail also allows us to
edit and send graphics as well as text.
i. Bulletin Board Systems (BBS): Bulletin Board Systems are a popular
telecommunication service provided by the Internet. They serve as a central
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location to post and pick up messages or up load and down load data files or
programs 24 hours a day. A BBS helps end users ask questions, get advice,
locate and share information, and get in touch with other end users.
ii. Video Text: Video Text is a computer based interactive information service
provided over phone lines or cable TV channels to access and selectively
view text and graphics.
iii. Facsimile (Fax): Facsimile allows us to transmit images of important
documents over telephone or other telecommunication links. Installing a fax
board or a fax modem and using a fax software package allows a personal
computer transmit copies of word processing, spread sheet and other files to
fax machine anywhere.
iv. Electronic Meeting Systems (EMS): Electronic Meeting Systems involve
the use of video and audio communications to allow conferences and
meetings to be held with participants who may be scattered across a room, a
building, a country or the globe. Electronic meeting systems are also being
promoted as a form of group decision support systems (GDSS). Computer
Conferencing, Desktop Video Conferencing, Decision Room Conferencing
and Teleconferencing are the different types of electronic meeting systems.
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY AND THE ROLE OF TEACHERS
Information technology has taken the world by surprise and has brought about
a world of changes. The growing interest in electronic media has forced the educators
to reconsider their traditional methods. On-line education represents incredible
strengths in terms of time and place. The role of the teacher in the neo-education-hi
process is also changing. Students need a coach or guide to maneuver and explain the
wealth of information available on-line. Teacher must become facilitators, helping
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students to discover knowledge on their own. Since information technology provides
access to experts over network, the teachers will have to take the roles of guides and
resource brokers. It is crystal clear that teacher education should recognize these new
roles and skills and start training teachers to develop and welcome a partnership with
the computer.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
At the dawn of the twenty first century, we have witnessed the great
technology boom, especially that of communication. Computer is the key word that
spells growth and development of the society today. The future of current generation
youth will greatly depend on its acquaintance and skill in handling the computer
technology. Consequently, schools, colleges and universities would be doing a major
disservice to their students if they failed to provide appropriate opportunities to
develop and enhance computer technology skills as part of their educational
experience.
There will be greater use of computer assistance in any form of education.
Rather than a distraction, computers are going to be a great boon for the teaching
community. Therefore, teachers must be well equipped with the knowledge and skills
about the information technology.
Teachers who are creative have already an edge over the rest in making their
teaching effective. When that is combined with the awareness of the latest technology,
the idea holds good for the future, of the students, education and the teachers
themselves. Creative and updated teachers are bound to be more effective in teaching
than the rest. Effective teaching involves preparing and planning for teaching,
classroom management, thorough knowledge of the subject matter, positive
personality traits and good interpersonal relationship. All these make a teacher very
successful in transmitting his knowledge, skills and values to the students. But those
who are creative make use of the above mentioned five dimensions in a much more
innovative and effective way than the others. This study intends to find out the
influence of creativity and awareness of information technology on the teaching
effectiveness of the higher secondary school teachers.
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
INFLUENCE OF CREATIVITY AND AWARENESS OF INFORMATION
TECHNOLOGY OF HIGHER SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHERS ON THEIR
TEACHING EFFECTIVENESS.
DEFINITION OF THE TERMS
Influence
It refers to the relationship of creativity and awareness of information
technology with the teaching effectiveness.
Creativity
It refers to the ability for divergent thinking or open-ended thought. Creativity
is the sum total of fluency, flexibility, originality and elaboration. These are further
extended into word fluency, ideational fluency, associational fluency, expressional
fluency, spontaneous flexibility, adaptive flexibility, originality and elaboration.
Information Technology
It refers to the creation, gathering, processing, storage and delivery of
information and the process and devices that make all this possible.
Awareness of Information Technology
It refers to one's knowledge about computer and of computer uses.
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Teaching Effectiveness
It refers to the outcome of the teachers' performance in the class room in terms
of their planning and preparation for teaching, class room management, knowledge of
the subject, personality traits and interpersonal characteristics.
Higher secondary school teachers
It refers to the secondary grade, B.Ed. and P.G. teachers handling IX to XII
classes in higher secondary schools in the three southern districts of Tuticorin,
Tirunelveli and Kanyakumari in Tamilnadu.
GENERAL OBJECTIVES
1. To find out the level of creativity of the higher secondary school teachers.
2. To find out the level of awareness of information technology of the higher
secondary school teachers.
3. To find out the level of teaching effectiveness of the higher secondary school
teachers.
4. To find out the relationship between teaching effectiveness and creativity of
the higher secondary school teachers.
5. To find out the relationship between teaching effectiveness and awareness of
information technology of higher secondary school teachers.
6. To find out the relationship between awareness of information technology and
creativity of the higher secondary school teachers.
7. To find out the influence of creativity and awareness of information
technology on teaching effectiveness of the higher secondary school teachers.
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SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
Creativity of the higher secondary school teachers
1.1 To find out whether there is any significant difference between higher secondary
school teachers - male and female, married and unmarried, graduate and post
graduate, urban area and rural area, with additional certificate and without
additional certificate, with less than ten years of teaching experience and with
ten or more years of teaching experience, and among those teaching art subjects,
science subjects, vocational subjects and languages- in their word fluency,
ideational fluency, spontaneous flexibility, associational fluency, expressional
fluency, adaptive flexibility, originality, elaboration and creativity.
Awareness of information technology of the higher secondary school teachers
2.1 To find out whether there is any significant difference between higher secondary
school teachers - male and female, married and unmarried, graduate and post
graduate, urban area and rural area, with additional certificate and without
additional certificate, with less than ten years of teaching experience and with
ten or more years of teaching experience, and among those teaching art subjects,
science subjects , subjects and languages- in their awareness of
information technology.
Teaching effectiveness of the higher secondary school teachers
3.1 To find out whether there is any significant difference between higher secondary
school teachers - male and female, married and unmarried, graduate and post
graduate, urban area and rural area, with additional certificate and without
additional certificate, with less than ten years of teaching experience and with ten
or more years of teaching experience, and among those teaching art subjects,
science subjects, vocational subjects and languages- in their preparation and
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planning for teaching, class room management, knowledge of subject, teacher
characteristics, interpersonal relationship and teaching effectiveness.
3.2 To find out whether there is any significant difference between low and high
levels of creativity of the higher secondary school teachers on their teaching
effectiveness.
3.3 To find out whether there is any significant difference between low and high
levels of awareness of information technology of the higher secondar y school
teachers on their teaching effectiveness.
Relationship between teaching effectiveness and creativity of the higher
secondary school teachers
4.1 To find out whether there is any significant relationship between teaching
effectiveness and word fluency, ideational fluency, spontaneous flexibility,
associational fluency, expressional fluency, adaptive flexibility, originality,
elaboration and creativity of the hi gher secondary school teachers - male and
female. married and unmarried, graduate and post graduate, teachers NNith less
than ten years of experience and with ten or more years of experience.
Relationship between teaching effectiveness and awareness of information
technology of the higher secondary school teachers
5.1 To find out whether there is any significant relationship between teaching
effectiveness and awareness of information technology of the higher secondary
school teachers - male and female, married and unmarried, graduate and post
graduate, teachers with less than ten years of experience and with ten or more
years of experience.
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Relationship between awareness of information technology and creativity of the
higher secondary school teachers
6.1 To find out whether there is any significant relationship between awareness of
information technology and creativity of the higher secondary school teachers -
male and female, married and unmarried, graduate and post graduate, teachers
with less than ten years of experience and with ten or more years of experience.
Influence of creativity and awareness of information technology of the higher
secondary school teachers on their teaching effectiveness.
7.1 To find out whether there is any significant influence of creativity and
awareness of information technology of the higher secondary school teachers -
male and female, married and unmarried, graduate and post graduate, teachers
with less than ten years of experience and with ten or more years of experience -
on their teaching effectiveness.
LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
1. The study is limited to only Kanyakumari, Tirunelveli and Tuticorin districts in
Tamilnadu state.
2. Creativity is measured in terms of word fluency, ideational fluency, spontaneous
flexibility, associational fluency, expressional fluency, adaptive flexibility,
originality and elaboration only.
3. Awareness of information technology is measured only in terms of total scores
obtained from the scale.
4. Teaching effectiveness , is measured in terms of planning and preparation, class
room management, knowledge of subject matter, personality traits and
interpersonal characteristics only.
5. Teachers handling art subjects, science subjects, vocational subjects and
languages for IX to XII classes only have been included in the study.
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6. For finding the difference between the higher secondary school teachers of low
and high levels of creativity in their teaching effectiveness, the investigator has
taken only the teachers with low level of creativity and high level of creativity.
7. For finding the difference between the higher secondary school teachers of low
and high levels of awareness of information technology in their teaching
effectiveness, the investigator has taken only the teachers with low level of
awareness of information technology and high level of awareness of information
technology.
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