by: shorooq al- masoudi. definition : any stretch of talk, by one person, before and after which...
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By: Shorooq Al-Masoudi
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Definition:
Any stretch of talk, by one person,
before and after which there is silence
on the part of that person.
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Example:
“Hello”, “not much”, and
“utterances may consist of a single
word, a single phrase, or a single
sentence. It’s not unusual to find
utterances that consist of one or more
grammatically incomplete sentence-
fragments. In short, there is no simple
relation of correspondence between
utterances and sentences”. The three
previous examples present utterances.
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Example:
“ pxgotmgt” and “
Schplotzenpflaaaaaaargh!”. These two
examples do not present any utterances
because this string of sounds is not
forming any language.
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A sentenceIs neither a physical event nor a physical object. It is conceived abstractly, a string of words put together by the grammatical rules of a language. It can be thought of as the IDEAL string of words behind various realizations in utterances and inscriptions.
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We need to make a careful distinction between utterances and sentences. Anything written between double quotation marks represents an utterance, e.g. “Help”. Anything italicized represents a sentence, e.g. The cotillions have been struck.
A sentence is a grammatically complete string of words expressing a complete thought.
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PROPOSITION By: Mahasen Hijazi
Baraa Rambo
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is that part of the meaning of the utterance of a declarative sentence which describes some state of affairs . Rule : the notion of truth can be used to decide whether two sentences express different propositions . Thus if there is any conceivable set of circumstances in which one sentence is true , while the other is false , we can be sure that they express different propositions.
A Proposition
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1 -Harry took out the garbage / Harry took the garbage out.
2- John gave Mary a book / Mary was given a book by John.
3-George danced with Ethel / George didn't dance with Ethel. 4- Dr Findlay killed Janet / Dr Findlay caused Janet to die.
Do these pairs of sentences share a description of the same state of affairs, or, in other words,
do they share a common proposition?
The notion of truth
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True propositions correspond to facts while false propositions don’t correspond to facts.
In the present-day world1-is it a fact that there are lions in Africa?
yes
2-is the proposition that there are lions in Africa a true proposition?
yes
3-is it a fact that the state of Arkansas is uninhibited by human beings?
No
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One can entertain propositions in the mind regardless of whether they are true or false by thinking them , or believing them .
But only true propositions can be known .
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1 -if I say to you (( if Marry came to the party , Phyllis must have been upset )) do I thereby put in your mind the proposition that Mary came to the party , without necessarily indicating whether it is true or not?
yes
2 -is there something odd about the following sentence ? If so, what?
Pamela considered the fact that her mother was alive and realized that it could not possibly be true.
Yes, contradiction
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Propositions involved in the meaning of other types of sentences, not only with the declarative sentences, such as interrogatives and imperative.
Example: In saying ((John can go)) a speaker asserts the proposition that John can go.
In saying ((can John go?)) he mentions the same proposition but merely questions its truth .
We say that corresponding declarative and interrogative (imperative) have the same propositional content .
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1 -In the following utterances , is any propositions asserted by the speaker ?
A- Have you seen my toothbrush? No
B- Get out of here this minute. No
C- I'm afraid that I will have to ask you to leave.
Yes
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2 -Would you say that the following sentence pairs have the same propositional content?
A-Go away will you? You will go away.
yes
B-Pigs might fly. I'm a Dutchman.
no
C- I am an idiot Am I an idiot?
yes
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Propositions cannot be said to belong to any particular language , unlike sentences. Sentences in different languages can correspond to the same propositionif the two sentences areperfect translations of each other.
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One may question whether perfect translation between languages is ever possible .
many linguists disagree about this and conclude that absolutely perfect translation of the same proposition from one languageto another is impossible.
However, to simplify matters , perfect translation IS possible in very few cases.
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There is a relationship between a proposition , Sentences and Utterancesas it is shown in the diagram blow.
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For example , a single propositioncould be expressed by using several different sentences and each of these sentences could be uttered an infinite number of times.
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A proposition is an abstraction that can be grasped by the mind of an individual person. so, a proposition is an object of thought.
we must not equate propositions with thoughts for these difference
but,
For one individual person
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Unfortunately ,
the word thought may sometimesbe used in a way which includes the notion of a proposition.For one may say ‘The same thought came into both our heads at the same time’.
In this case, the word thought is being used in a sense quite like a proposition
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The relationship between mental processes (e.g. thoughts), abstract semantic entities (e.g. propositions), linguistic entities
(e.g. sentences ,)and actions(e.g. utterances ) is problematic and
complicated.
Finally ,