business research method-200510_105300

8/8/2019 Business Research Method-200510_105300

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Graduate School of Business Universiti Tun Abdul Razak

BQM5133

BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS

Lecturer:ProfDatoDr Ismail RejabGraduate School ofBusiness

www.unirazak.edu.my


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Prologue Course is simple ifyou workon it

Designed forAcademic Research (Master and Ph D)

as well as practical research

Reading is Key: Please read text and other assignedreadings

Actually doingresearch is difficult unless do it several

times

Pay attention in class, write where appropriate Powerpoint slides are not in complete sentences but

can be used as notes

Clarify with me where necessary and when in doubt


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Article Critique: What to lookfor

Examine the literature review. Determine ifit has been

exhaustive and contributes towards identification ofthe research

to be conducted.

What is the research problem? Is it well-defined and does it have

any linkto the literature review? Is it significant in the chosenfield ofstudy?

Are research objectives in line with the research problem?

Development ofresearch concepts and conceptual framework,

theory or model. Is the conceptual framework, theory or model

consistent with the body ofknowledge ofthe study area? Methodology: Indicate the research design. Is it a right choice of

the design? Why did the researcher choose the research design?

Is the choice right or justified? Explain your comment.


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Methodology: Selection ofrespondents. Explain how the

researcher selected the respondents and the type ofsampling

used. Has the researcher utilized the right sampling technique to

allow generalization offindings? Can you detect any flaw in the

sampling process?

Methodology: Examine the data collection procedure including

the method and the instrument used to collect the data. Was it

done right? Any possible flaw that could introduce bias?

Methodology: Data Processing. How was the data processed and

what statistical package was used to extract relevant statistics.

Analysis: are the statistics selected relevant to the research and

have they contributed towards answering the research problem

and achievement ofresearch objectives?


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Analysis: What statistics are used to test the hypotheses? Are the

statistics correctly selected to test the hypotheses?

Discussion ofFindings: Is the discussion connected to the

objective ofthe study? Is it relevant to the research subject

matter?

Has the researchergeneralized the findings to the defined

population? Is the generalization within the limit ofthe

population been defined? Did the researcherover-generalized?

Research Implications: Are implications drawn correctly? Do

implications have management values?

Conclusion: Is the conclusion correctly drawn and provides the

overall syntheses ofthe research? Any suggestion forfuture

research?


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SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY

Assessment ofrelevant existingknowledge ofa

phenomenon (such as Literature Review) Formulation ofconcepts and propositions

Statement ofhypothesis

Design ofresearch to test the hypothesis

Acquisition ofmeaningful empirical data Analysis and evaluation ofdata

Explanation ofa phenomenon


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What is research then?

From Assessment ofknowledge to

Explanation Phenomena ofinterest

Important for human beings

Contribute towards enhancement of

knowledge

Enlarging the body ofknowledge inparticularfields


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Purpose ofResearch

Togain and contribute to the body of

KnowledgeFNew

FExisting: to expand, replicate, etc.

To explain phenomena

Toreduce uncertainty

To make effective decisions


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RESEARCH DICHOTOMY

Basic orPure RESEARCH

Attempts to expand the limit ofknowledge Are there living things on Mars

To evaluate concepts or theories

Findings cannot be immediately implemented

To verify acceptability ofa given theory Tofind out more about a given concept


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RESEARCH DICHOTOMY

APPLIED RESEARCH

About real-life problem, where decision has to

be made

Concerning a specific problem (can we implement apaperless office?)

Both basic and applied, use scientific method of

inquiry


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WHAT IS RESEARCH THEN?

RESEARCH is:

Learning(gettingnew information, or learningsomethingnew)

Different research methods means different ways

oflearning

It is an evolutionary process

We dont reject previous findings, but we add

values to them


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WHAT IS RESEARCH THEN?

Based on Scientific Inquiry, Research is:

An evolutionary Process A transformation

A change?

An epitome oforganizational transformation

and change As much as the society in which an organization

operates


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RESEARCH LINK TO THE ORGANIZATION

Need toknow: which is inquisitive Application: which is action

Resolving: which is decision

First we have toknow (through research)

Second, we have to put them in action Third, make decisions accordingly


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RESEARCH LINK TO THE ORGANIZATION

Action Research is what we are proposing here(nothing less)

Uncover problems and issues in organizations, such

as:

Job Satisfaction,Absenteeism, Organizational Loyalty,

Productivity Culture, What pushes people to work

harder, etc.


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ACTION RESEARCH

Action Research is linked to management learning,

seeking to answer:

What is the nature ofour management learning?

How do we learn it?

How do we use what we learned

What are the implication for us and for the

organization?


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ACTION RESEARCH

Action Research must have relevance to the

workplace

Research that uncovers organizational

problems

Research that supports decision making It is not research forresearch sake


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RESEARCH TYPES

Three Major Types

(in terms of achieving directions)FExploratory

FDescriptive

FCausal


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RESEARCH TYPES

EXPLORATORY

FTo clarify ambiguous problem

F Togain better understandingofthe existing

problem

F Not conclusive, but requires subsequent research

FTofirst understand what is it?

F What is SARS?


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RESEARCH TYPES

DESCRIPTIVE To describe characteristics ofa phenomena

Seeks answers to questions who, what, when, and

where

Who use what (Sea Cucumber), when and wherethat they use it?


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RESEARCH TYPES

DESCRIPTIVE

Based on some previous understanding

Accuracy is important (or for any research for

that matter) for effective decision

Determine the extent ofdifferences across groups

But nevercause-and-effectrelationships, unlessdesigned to do so


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RESEARCH TYPES

CAUSAL

Cause-and-effectrelationship

Seekevidence to predict relationship, although

difficult to prove

To explain the existence ofcertain phenomena

Concomitant variation: occurrence of two eventsthat vary together


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PROBLEMS ACCORDING TO TYPES OF RESEARCH

Exploratory Descriptive Causal

Absenteeism among Factory

Workers in Malaysia

Who are the Users of SMS in

Malaysia

Which training program is

more effective?

Characteristics and

Acceptance of Telekoms New

Products

Researchers who are Mostly

Absent from Work

Will there by more people using

the LRT if the fare is reduced?

Motivation among

Universitys Researchers

Who are the New Designers of

ICT Products?

What are the Factors that

create loyalty to an

organization?

SARS and its Link to China Who are the Users of Monorail? What cause the productivity to

be high?

The History ofAIDS in

Malaysia

Patrons of the Night Markets


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FLOW CHART OF

RESEARCH PROCESS

Problem

Discovery &

Definition

Selection of

Exploratory

research technique

Secondary

(historical) Data

Pilot

Study

Experience

Survey

Case

Study

Problem definition

(statement ofresearch

objectives)

Selection of

basic research

design

Survey

Interview/Questionnaire

Experiment

LaboratoryField

Secondary

Data Study

Observation

Problem Discovery

And Definition

Planning the

Research Design

Selection of

Sample

Design

Probability

Sampling

Non-Probability

Sampling

Data

Collection

Editing &

Coding

Data

Processing& Analysis

Interpretation

ofFindings

Report

Sampling

Drawing

Conclusion

and

Preparing

Report


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RESEARCH PROCESS

Like a map, it tells you how to get there

There are always alternatives, no one process is alwaysthe best

But some are better than others

Advantageous than others

Choice in terms ofmethod, subject to circumstances

Process means preceding stage influences the next,

and vice versa


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CONCEPTS TO VARIABLES

CONCEPTS (constructs)

Generalized idea about object,

attributes, occurrences, process, etc

Leadership, productivity, morale, GDP,

assets, etc are concepts

Concepts are abstracts ofreality


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CONCEPTS TO VARIABLES

Concepts have to be conceptualized

Given definition that is related toreality

Toform conceptual definition ofa concept

Eg: Productivity:

workachievement?

the level ofproduction?


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VARIABLES

Anything that can assume different numerical

values: gender, ethnicity, education, marital status Measurable or can be given numbers

Can be operationally defined based on the

conceptual definition

Productivity becomes a variable ifand when it isdefined as:

The ratio of output over input


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Variables

Anything that changes in value

Ifwe measure productivity across a numberof

people, the value differs or changes Vary from high to low

In statistics, variables are normally indicated as X

(independent) and Y (dependent)

Some variables can be categorized such as Ethnicity,Gender (Categorical Variables)

But, sales volume may be infinite (continuous

variable)


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Variables

Independent

A variable that is expected to influence the

dependent variable

Dependent

Is a criterion variable or a variable that is to be

predicted or explained


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VARIABLES

Some variables can only be categorical;

gender, ethnicity are the cases in point

But, age, income, sales can be both categorical

and continuous

Categorical variables become dummy

variables in a regression Continuous variables can be regressed directly

to see their effects on the dependent variable


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RESEARCH PROBLEMS

Identify research problem

Before Assessment ofrelevant existingknowledge ofa phenomenon

What is it that needs to be studied

Consumer perception towards our product

Consumer acceptance of our product

What is (are) the problem (s)?


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Research Problems

What is (are) the problem (s)?

Do we just want to explore ifthere is a positiveor negative perception?

Or, do we want to describe the people who

perceive positively and negatively?

Or, do we want to determine what make

people perceive our product negatively?


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Research Problems

Perception is a function ofmany factors

People are not well aware ofthe product, so

instead ofbeing positive about the product,

they act negatively

Or, they have used our product in the past andhad a bad experience


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Research Problems

Lets do an exercise:

A company will implement VSS in 6 months, but the

response was not as expected.

Awareness among managers is low.

Ifyou need to conduct a research what could be:

the possible research problems?

Research Questions?

Research Objectives?


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Research Problems Research Questions Research ObjectivesShould we offer VSS? Are managers aware of VSS? To determine managers

awareness of VSS benefits

Which of the VSS should be

offered?

How concerned are managers

about VSS?

To measure the level of

Acceptance or rejection to VSS

among managers

Last pay x years ofwork

New employment help

Personal counseling

Job Contacts

Which compensation package

mostly acceptable to managers?

To obtain managers

ranking on various

compensation packages

Should the counseling be

offered in-house or by outsideconsultant?

How much would each package

cost?

To identify perceived benefits of

each compensation package

Do employees with 10 or more

years of experience accept

VSS better

Which is more preferred, in-

house counseling or outside

consultant?

To identify the employee

preference for counseling


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Possible Topics for Graduate Projects

Consumer Satisfaction ofa particular product or service.

Job Satisfaction at the shop floor using Hertzbergs.

Designing a Corporate Plan orJust a Business Plan for your

company.

Work culture and change in a factory compared to a

government department.

Planned obsolescence in selected products produced in

Malaysia: Is it an imported innovation? An Industrial Research on a new brand of fruit juice.

A History ofthe evolution ofadvertising copies since the

Second World War: A Content Analysis


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Possible Topics for Graduate Projects

Sex andAdvertising in Malaysia since the first advertisement:An

Historical Perspective

The Structure ofAutomobile Industry: A Value Chain Analysis

Cost-benefitAnalysis of Cigarette Smoking in Malaysia.

Trace the Value-chain ofRubber wood

Attitude towards Works amongst Shop-floor Workers in a Factory

Training Need Analysis for Organizations

Utilization ofTime to Complete a Taskin a GovernmentDepartment

Supply Chain Cost Analysis ofMarketing a Selected Tropical

Fruit


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Variable Definition and Measurement

Variables are measured by their indicators, defined by

values

Take ethnicity: Malays, Chinese & Indians

Are there indicators: can you judge a person by some

indicators and then tell them whether they are

Chinese or Malays? Take age: can you judge them their age?


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Measurement is: deciding which value torecord

Is Ruhanie a Male or Female? Fatimah? Wong Seng

Tong? Yong Kim Seng? Chris Satheesan, Malar,

Malaya? Pat?

Sometimes name may not tell the gender

Must lookat other indicators or evidences


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All variables are Concepts

But Heights and Weights as variables or concepts

that are easier to measure

Lookat these concepts:

Religious tolerance

Political affiliation

Service efficiency

Workabsenteeism


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F Product and brand preference,

FAdvertising awareness

How do you measure the above? Awareness?

Are there concrete indicators?

What values do you give forone level to the other?

Really Aware, Really not Aware? These are issues pertinent to business research than

science or engineeringresearch


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AdvertisingAwareness

How do you measure that? First How do you

define Awareness?

Defined as: knowledge ofadvertisingfrom

hearing(Radio), seeing(TV) or being told

(words of mouth communication), measured by

the level ofmemory

Awareness has two levels in Media Research:

unaided and aided


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Unaided and aided

Which one do you measure first?

Unaided: Are you aware ofany advertisement

on Petronas? Yes orNo

IfAware, which particularAd do you remember(Here we ask the respondent to describe a

particularAd he remembers)


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Ad Awareness Measurement has several

levels:F First, develop conceptual definition

F Second, design the question (measurement) based

on the definition

FThird, record answers (assign numbers to eachcategory of answer)

This is called operational definition


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Conceptual Definition

Abstraction

Articulated in words

That facilitate understanding

Can we conceptually define Beauty?


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Beauty

the uality or aggregate ofqualities in a person or

things that give pleasure to the sense

What are the qualities ofbeauty?

Matanya layu, alisnya tebal, leher jinjang,

pipinya bagai pauh dilayang, rambut ikal

mayang, etc. Softer eyes, thickeyebrows, sleekthroat, soft

cheek, curly hairs, etc


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But those qualities when compared, poses

problems

Especially ifwe want to select a beauty queen

Also, beauty is in the eyes ofthe beholder

Beautiful to someone may be not to another But 20,000 Frenchmen are never wrong


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What we need is an operational definition of

beauty

What do we have to do tomeasure something

that has been defined conceptually

Measure implies the use ofnumbers

Accepted by the majority or experts


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Measuring Beauty is quite straight forward:

1 is given forLeast Beautiful, and 10 is given

for Most Beautiful

Is this a Validmethod ofassigning numbers?

What are the bases used, to come up withthose numbers


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Bases are the qualities that we have

conceptually defined earlier

Softer eyes, thickeyebrows, sleekthroat, soft

cheek, curly hairs, etc

Try to determine bi-polar adjectives: alis

tebal---alis nipis Then, assign numbers (Thick = 5, Thin = 1,

and some numbers in between)


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Accurately Representing Real Life

Accepted by allorthe Majority Has Scientific Justification

Small Value vs Big Value in unimportant to

important continuum

But there are exceptions (as in measuring Price

from Expensive to Cheap or Value for Money)


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Implications:

Concepts are multi-dimensional

Aggregate measures consistingofseveral

attributes

Agreed by experts (beauty queen judges)

Beauty also includes qualities such as:intelligence, skills, eloquence,

photogenic, academic qualification


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LET US DO AN EXERCISE Define: Peoples Lifestyles

Then, measure Lifestyles


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Lifestyles Concept (AIO Inventory)

People Lifestyle is defined through theirActivities, Interests and Opinions

Activities Interests Opinions Demographics and

Media Habits

Work Family Themselves Age

Hobbies Home Social Issues Education

Social Events Job Politics Income

Vacations Community Business Occupation

Entertainment Recreation Economics Family Size

Club Membership Fashion Education Residence: Urban-rural

Community Food Products Geography

Shopping Media Future City SizeSports Achievement Culture Stage in the life Cycle

Recreation & Health Politics Morality Media: what they read,

watch & listen, eg: TV,

Radio, newspapers.

Source: Joseph T. Plummer, Journal of Marketing, January 1974, p.34.


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Levels ofMeasurement

NOMINAL ORDINAL

INTERVAL

RATIO


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NOMINAL MEASUREMENT

NOMINAL: values ofa nominal variable

consists ofa list ofnames:

FMalay, Chinese, Indians, Others

FPoliceman, Fireman, Postman, Superman

FBaby, Toddler, Young, Teenager, Youth, Men, Elderly

FMale, Female

FYes, No, Neutral


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NOMINALMEASUREMENT

NOMINALmeans:

Categorical: placed in several categories

Answers tell nothing about degree or amount

Exhaustive (Gender), sometimes we add

othersto make it exhaustive

Mutually Exclusive, there is no more than one

answer(instruct to check only one answer)


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NOMINAL MEASUREMENT

Giving numbers to nominal variable does not

make it quantitative 1 for Male and 2 for Female does not mean

anything quantitative

No qualities ofnumbers: 2 is not bigger than 1

It is just a manner to classify people into Male

or Female (Male is Group 1, Female is Group 2)


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NOMINAL MEASUREMENT

No mathematical properties

Cannot add or multiply Cannot add and then take average

Except for some nominal variables which have

Absolute Values:

Age, Income, ?

Should use absolute value so that we can regress


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NOMINALMEASUREMENT

Absolute values allow determining averages

(average age, average income, etc) Can regress to see effects on the dependent

variable

Otherwise be happy with Dummy Variables

Present (Yes) Not Present (No), and the effects

Rather incomplete explanation


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NOMINALMEASUREMENT

Assigning numbers to nominal variables allow us to do

certain statistical analyses

Are comparable: significant differences across

categories ofnominal variables

Are the differences in incomes between males and

females for the same job?

Do the Malays or the Non-Malays save more?

Are urban Malays more Politically conscious than rural

Malays?


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ORDINALMeasurement

Mutually Exclusive and Generally Exhaustive

Values can be rankordered

Like high, medium and Low in Socio-economic

Status

Higher economic status is higher than low

economic status But does not tell How much difference or how

much higher it is


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ORDINALMeasurement

Likert Scale measuring agreement is also

ORDINAL scale RangingfromStrongly Disagree toStrongly

Agree

Measures only the AgreementorDisagreement

but not how much people agree or disagree

i.e: Agreement in terms ofless or more


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ORDINALMeasurement

Example ofOrdinal measures: the Likert Scale

The food at Restaurant Sri Melaka is delicious: Strongly Disagree Disagree NeitherA gree StronglyAgree

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

Points are not absolute, but continuous

Delicious is here in a continuum


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INTERVAL& RATIO Measurement

Have all Properties ofOrdinal and Interval

Mutually Exclusive, Generally Exhaustive andcan be rank-ordered

Additional property is that the difference is

meaningful

One is much bigger than the other by a value

True quantitative measurement


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Quantitative Measurement like in measures of

temperature The difference between 30 degrees and 40

degrees is 10

The same as between 10 degrees and 20 degrees


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Ratio Measurement has ZeroProperties

0 means non-existence 0 age? 0 Ringgit? 0 years married? 0

population size?

Can a person be 0 years old?


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Rules ofMeasurement

Always measure at the highest measure

possible

Measure interval orratio ifyou can instead

ofordinal or nominal

i.e: better to measure income in Ringgit

instead ofcategories ofincome

Years ofeducation is better than

qualification


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Rules ofMeasurement

Knowing RM value ofincome can turn into

categories (nominal) High, medium, low

But we cannot turn categories into actual value

ofincome (interval orratio)


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Rules ofMeasurement

Numberingfollows mathematical properties

and rules ofnature Goodor positive values carries higher value

than BadorNegative values

As shown earlier, Food is delicious

StronglyAgree means 5 compared toStrongly

Disagree which carries 1


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Rules ofMeasurement

What happens ifyou accidentally coded the

opposite? Delicious as 1, Not delicious as 5

Reverse Score when input the data

Otherwise your mean values are going to be

funny

You go against nature


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Points toPonder

Why is the best student in class rated as 1, while

the least best, rated as 50 or more?


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MATHEMATICALPROPERTIES OF MEASURING

SCALES: SUMMARY

Type Numerical Operations

Nominal Counting: frequency and percentages, mode or

determine the numberofobservations in each

category cannot add or minus. 20 Males minus

10 Females is meaningless.

Ordinal Rank-ordered from lowest to highest. Positionmay be in a percentile ranksuch as the median,

range, percentile ranking. Can assume nominal

scale operations.


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MATHEMATICALPROPERTIES OF

MEASURING SCALES: SUMMARY

Type Numerical Operations

Interval Equal interval property allows comparison of

differences between scale values (1,2,35).

Permit arithmetic operations such as addition

and subtraction, means and standard deviation.

Ratio Has all the properties ofnominal, ordinal, andinterval scales. Have absolute magnitude as the

scale has absolute zero point. Arithmetic

operations permissible.


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ATTITUDE MEASUREMENT


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ATTITUDE

Defined:

An enduring disposition to respond consistently

in a given manner to various aspects of theworld

Consider this statement:

Fatimah loves working in Petronas. She

believes it is clean, easily accessible, and paysthe best salary amongst GLC. She intends to

workthere until she retires


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Three components in the above statement:

FAffective: feelings oflike, love, etc

FCognitive: beliefor cognition, that it is

good.

FAlso indicates evaluative element

F

Behavioral: containing behavioralintention, likeI will work there until I

retire. Intention is an estimate ofbehavior


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Three-faceted dimensions ofattitude

To be considered in all attitudemeasurement

Using several scale to measure the

dimensions ofattitude

Commonly does in business and

organizational study


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Attitude is an hypothetical construct

To measure attitude, we must inferfrom an

individuals response

Not directly observable

But measured through indirect indicators

such as verbal expressions and overt behavior

Ultimately, we are taking inferences from the

behavior with a certain level ofuncertainty

(error)


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ATTITUDE as an hypothetical construct

Love is a 4-letter word? It is also an hypothetical

construct--that is a term that psychologists use to describe

or explain consistent patterns ofhuman behavior. Love,hate, thirst, intelligence--all ofthese are hypothetical

constructs. They are hypothetical in that they do not exist

as physical entities: therefore they cannot be seen, held

felt or measured directly. There is no love center in the

brain that, ifremoved, would leave a person incapable ofresponding, positively and affectionately, towards other

people and things.


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Techniques for MeasuringAttitude

Ranking: rankorder a small numberofitems based on

overall preference Rating: estimate the magnitude ofa characteristic or

quality that an object has

Sorting Technique: arrange in orderofseveralproduct concepts (for example presented in cards, sorting of

cigarette packs based on certain concepts of quality)

Choice Technique: choosingone or two morealternatives


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ATTITUDE RATING SCALE

Several rating scales used in business research

Simple Attitude Scale involving Self-ratingon

Agree-Disagreecontinuum On a statement specifically designed regarding a

particularobject, thingor people

Eg: UNIRAZAKis a good university to study MBA

SD D N A SA1 2 3 4 5


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Job Description Index

Also a simplified scale

Measures Job Satisfaction

On elements like pay, promotion, co-workers,

supervision, and quality ofwork

Eg: Thinkofyour present work. What is it like

most ofthe time? (Circle either one)

Fascinating YesNo ? Routine YesNo ?

Satisfying YesNo ?

Selected Category Scales


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Excellent Good Fair Poor

Very Good Fairly Good Neither Not Very Good Not Good at All

Well Above Average Above Average Average Below Average Well Below Average

Quality

Very Important Fairly Important Neutral Not So Important Not at all Important

Importance

Very Interested Somewhat Interested Not Very Interested

Interest

Very Satisfied Somewhat Satisfied Neither Somewhat Dissatisfied Very Dissatisfied

Very Satisfied Quite Satisfied Somewhat Satisfied Not at All Satisfied

Satisfaction

All of the Time Very Often Often Sometimes Hardly Ever

Very Often Often Sometimes Rarely Never

All of the Time Most of the Time Some of the Time Just Now and Then

Frequency

Very True Somewhat True Net Very True Not At All True

Definitely True More True than False More False than True Definitely Not True

Truth


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Summated Ratings: Likert Scales

From 3 points to 5 to 7 points

Agreement-disagreement, approve-disapprove,

excellent-bad, etc Measuring attitudes, emotions, orientations

But ofmulti-dimensional nature

Each statement must be in positive form to

score in escalatingorder (1-5)

Negative statement in descendingorder (5-1)


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Example ofLikert Scales

Measuring Items

SD D N A SA

1 2 3 4 5

I always read fashion magazine 1 2 3 4 5

I like to buy clothes of the latest fashion 1 2 3 4 5

I always wear jeans when I go outing 1 2 3 4 5

My hobby is to sew childrens clothes 1 2 3 4 5

A mother should take leave when her child is sick 1 2 3 4 5

I like to put clothes of the latest fashion on my girls 1 2 3 4 5

A housewife should be able to cook well 1 2 3 4 5

I like driving cars 1 2 3 4 5

Washing family clothes becomes my task as a mother 1 2 3 4 5I like to bake cakes and traditional kueh 1 2 3 4 5

Decorating house should be the responsibility of a woman 1 2 3 4 5


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Summated Ratings

Semantic Differentials (Osgoods)

Usually a 7-point scale, bi-polar adjectives

Negative-positive continuum like bad-good

Eg: Parking at MaybankHQ

Insufficient ---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Sufficient

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Parking at Public BankHQ

Insufficient ---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Sufficient

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Scores can also be +3, +2, +1, 0, -1, -2, -3


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Summated Ratings: Constant-Sum Scales

Assumes Semantic Differentials provides interval

data

But Semantic Differentials has only ordinalproperties

Bi-polar adjectives can be replaced with phrasesSavings Account at Maybankgives:

Low interest on savings ---:---:---:---:---:---:---: High interest on saving

1 2 3 4 5 6 7


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Summated Ratings: Constant-Sum Scales

Allocate scores or points among several attributes

to ADD to 100

Respondents may be asked to divide the points to

indicate the relative importance ofeach attribute:eg: rating different courier companies:

DHL UPS TNT POSLAJU

Delivered as

Promised

Accurate Invoicing

LowerPrice

100 100 100 100


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Summated Ratings: Stapel Scales

Measure the direction and attitude

simultaneously

Use a single adjective instead ofbi-polar

Modified version place adjective to be

measured in terms ofdistance or closeness


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Stapel Scales

Supervisors name

+3

+2+1

Supportive

-1-2-3


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Attitude Scales Measuring Behavioral Intentions

Behavioral Intentions as an estimate of

behavior

The propensity or likelihood to behave,judged from the expression ofintention

Using such terms as likely, probably,

certain etc.

Within the context ofattitude study


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Behavioral Intentions

First make up sentences using phrases

like I would or will

To indicate action tendencies havingprobabilities

From 5- to 7- point scale but still ordinal,

assumed interval

Three different ways ofdoing it


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I would write a letter to my memberofparliament in

support ofthis company ifit were in a dispute with

the government?

Extremely Likely

Very Likely

Somewhat Likely

Likely, about 50-50

Somewhat Unlikely

Very Unlikely

Extremely Unlikely


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Still behavioral intention measurement

Subject and intention or likelihood

Quite similar in form to Semantic Differentials

Eg: A teenage school girl

Would ---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Would not

hesitate to smoke in publicCan be a 5-, 7- or 9- point scale


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Ranking: paired comparison

Rankorder in terms ofpreferences

From most preferred to least preferred A set ofobjects or attributes

Comparing two different products or brands

based on selected attributes

Toknow the preference for a particular product

or brand


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Ranking: paired comparison

Example ofRanking

Please rankaccording to you preference the

following two brands oftoilet soap: LUX and

PALMOLIVE

- Lux is better ------

- Palmolive is better ------

- They are the same ------


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SORTING

Used in a variety ofproduct and brand research, to

indicate consumer attitude and beliefs: using cards

Thoroughly shuffle deckofcards

Hand respondent the deck

Askrespondents to sort cards into two piles:

TDefinitely Not Seen or Heard

TDefinitely Seen or Heard

Set AsideDefinitely Not Seen orHeardpile

Hand respondent theDefinitely or Possible Seen or Heard

Have respondent identify the item on each card in the

Definitely or Possible Seen or Heardpile

Record on questionnaire


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SORTING

In cigarette brands study, smokers are asked to sort

boxes ofdifferent brands ofcigarettes into different

piles

After sorting into piles, askthem what are the criteria

ofthem sorting the cigarette boxes

Criteria can be: price, quality, image, taste, etc

Determine where do they place theirown brand

In this way, manufacturers can determined attitude of

smokers towards different brand


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Choice ofMeasurement Scales There is no single best answer but depending

on:

Objective ofthe study

What to achieve from the study

Who are the respondents? Their educational level?

How to administer the questionnaire? Face-face-face?

Mail? Telephone? Web?

How long is the interview? Estimate ofthe analysis techniques. Statistics to be used

will depend on scale: Nominal? Ordinal? Interval?


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Index Behavior is multidimensional, and not

sufficient just by one measure

A concept needs more than one measure to beadequate, to cover many attributes

Index is a measure ofseveral attributes

Alsoknown as composite measures

Index ofSocial Class:place of residence,occupation, wealth and education


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Units ofAnalysis

Must decide whoor what is the unit of

analysis

Units or targets that you want to measure

Ifyou study the household income who do

you talkto?

Ifyou study personal income, who do you talkto?


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Units ofAnalysis

Why bother the difference between personal

and household income?

Who do you target in marketing?

Consumer and Buyer

Who do you talktofor cereals, the mother

or the kid? Dogfood, to the dog?

Why differentiate between them?


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Units ofAnalysis

When studying the organization always talkto

the relevant people

Unit ofAnalysis fororganization like a library

is not the library but the librarian

Always decide who is the most relevant to talk

to as your target respondent To decide, always lookbackat your study

objectives


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Units ofAnalysis

Always decide on the lowest level ofthe unit of

analysis than the highest

Measuring the lowest level allows you toaggregate, but not vice versa

Ifyou measurepersonal income you can

aggregate to become household income

Ifyou measure household income, you haveproblem ofaccuracy to disaggregate topersonal

income


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Validity and Reliability

Measurement, like pounds, grams in

engineering is universally accepted

Valid and Reliable measure ofweights

Not so in Social Science, especially in

measuring behavior

Measuring something intangible

Validity and Reliability will always remain

an issue but must exist in any research


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Validity

Defined as:

accuracy and trustworthiness ofinstruments,

data and findings:

Is CGPA a valid measure ofintelligence?

IfCGPA is strongly linked to intelligence, then

CGPA is a valid measure Sometimes it is, sometimes it is not


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Validity

An instrument is valid ifthe answer is valid

Ifyou askHow old are you?

The answer is always in so many years, and thatprove validity

But ifthe answer is pounds or liter, than the

question is not valid

That is one way to determine the validity ofa

measuring instrument


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Validity

Validity exists when an instrument measures

what it supposes to measure

Like in the case ofthe question,How old are

you?

And ifeveryone agrees that on the face ofit, the

question measures age Then, the question hasface validity


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Validity

There is also Content Validity

Defined as An instrument that has appropriate

content for measuring a complex concept

Complex Concepts such aspolitical affiliation,

unprotestingtolerance, work alienation

There are meanings to these concepts and

usually as a start are determined throughdefinition (dictionary)


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Content Validity

How do we assign values (numbers)to measurement(operationalize)

Politically Active Person by different levels:

Vote at General Election

Attend Political Rally

Contribute to a Political Party

Become a memberofa Political Party

Assume position in Party Structure

How do you assign scores for these?


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Content Validity

How do we measure Socio-economic Status?

Not sufficient with just one variable A proxy ofa few variables

Income, education, occupation, status within

the society and wealth

All these criteria agreed by a panel ofexperts


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Construct Validity

Construct have to be well defined

Have most ifnot all the contents That is:

The construct itselfhas all the properties that it is

supposed to measure

Construct itselfmust be thoroughly investigated


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Validity Test: FactorAnalysis

Items measuring same concept should be the

same orgrouped together FactorAnalysis groups same items together

This is concept validity or construct validity test


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Example ofFactorAnalysis: Womens Lifestyles

Measuring Items

Factor Loadings

I II III IV V

I always read fashion magazine .80 .23 .12 .75 .01

Buying new fashion clothes is my hobby .75 .05 .21 .11 .31I always wear jeans when I go out for recreation .68 .00 .02 .98 .11

My hobby is to sew by childrens clothes .02 .78 .01 .10 .10

A mother should take leave from work when her child is sick .03 .82 .03 .09 .01

I like to dress up my daughter with clothes of the latest fashion .90 .43 .03 .07 .04

A housewife should know how to cook well .12 .82 .11 .11 .07

I love to drive .90 -.1 .10 .88 .17

Washing my family clothes is the responsibility of a mother .17 .78 .01 .07 .03

I like to bake cake than make traditional kueh .12 .65 .78 .05 .01

House cleaning should be the responsibility of a woman .14 .75 .80 .05 .02


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Criterion-related Validity

When one type ofinstrument is identical in

measurement to another valid instrument

Take twofollowing measures ofage:

When (what year) did you start schooling?

(work forward to determine the age, assuming that

children start schooling at the age of 7)

How old are you?


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Criterion-related Validity

When (what year) did you start schooling?

(work back to determine the age, assuming that

children start schooling at the age of 7)

How old are you?

Ifthey produce identical answers, then the first

measure has the criterion validity.

How old are you? Is a valid measure ofage. BothMeasures should correlate well?

Why?


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Reliability ofMeasures

Do you get the same answer by using an

instrument to measure something more than

once? Ifyes, the instrument is reliable

Ifyou dip a thermometer in a pot ofboiling

water, it should read 212 degrees Fahrenheit

Even ifyou repeat, provided it is at sea level


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Reliability ofMeasures

Has something to do with repeated measures

An instrument is reliable, ifmeasured

somethingover and over again, producesidentical results

Questions are reliable ofthey produce

identical answers

How old are you? Will produce the same

answer every time


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Reliability Test

RELIABLE means:

Measures correctly every time and repeatedly

Repeated measure is one test ofreliability

Similarresults are obtained every time and

across different times

Defined as: thedegree to which measures are free oferror andtherefore yieldconsistent results


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Reliability Test

RELIABILITY

Affected when measuring is not stable,

assigning numbers inconsistently

Ifnumbers are reversed, inconsistencyleads to unreliable measures

Strongly

Disagree Disagree Neither Agree

Strongly

Agree

1 2 3 4 5


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TEST OF RELIABILITY

Test-retest method

Administering the same measures twice to thesame respondents at different times

Checkfor stability: Does the response differ?

Unpredictable results every time denotesunreliability due error in measurement


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Reliability Test

Test-retest method reliability may have

problems especially in longitudinal studies

First measures may sensitize respondents,

subsequently influence the second result

But Attitude change may occur when the time

in between measurements is too long This is attitude change, and caution it may not

be unreliability


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Reliability Test

Internal Consistency denotes homogeneity

Measuring a concept (attitude) requires more

than ONEquestions

Do all questions measure the same thing?

Measuring the same thing denotes internal

consistency Ifthey are the same (consistency), the

measures are reliable


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TEST OF RELIABILITY

Equivalent-form Method

Two alternative instruments (questionnaires)

designed as equivalent

Administer to same group ofrespondents

Correlation between the two instruments

denote reliability


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Reliability Test

Cronbachs

Cronbachs can be defined as a function ofthenumberor test items AND the average inter-correlation among the items

Available through SPSS


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Reliability Test

CRONBACHS

= N.rl+ (N l).r

Where: N=Numberofitems

r=average inter-item correlation

business research method-200510_105300

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