GIANTS OF THE CORPS . . .TEMPO HIGH FOR FIELD HISTORIANS . . .GEN RAYMOND G.DAVIS . . .2001 CHRONOLOGY

CROSSING THE LINE OF DEPARTURE . . .HEROES AND THEIR FLYING MACHINES . . .CORPS LEADS WAY IN EQUALITY

KOREAN WAR PAMPHLET SERIES COMPLETE . . .BEIRUT,20 YEARS LATER . . .EXHIBIT HIGHLIGHTS LEJEUNE

BULLETIN OF THE MARINE CORPS HISTORICAL PROGRAMHISTORICAL BULLETIN VOLUME XXX, NUMBER 2 2003

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DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A: Approved for public release; distribution isunlimited.

PCN 10401220100

HISTORYAND MUSEUMSDIVISION

DIRECTOR EMERITUSBGen Edwin H. Simmons, USMC (Ret)

DIRECTORCol John W. Ripley, USMC (Ret)

Secretary to the Director:Mrs. Carol Beaupre

DEPUTY DIRECTORCol Jon T. Hoffman, USMCR

HISTORICAL BRANCHBranch Head/Chief Historian: Mr. Charles D. Melson.History Writing Section: Mr. Charles R. Smith; LtColMichael J. Kibler; Mrs. Wanda F. Renfrow. Oral HistorySection: Dr. Gary D. Solis; Mr. Fred H. Allison.Reference Section: Mr. Danny J. Crawford; Mr. Robert V.Aquilina; Miss Lena M. Kaljot; Ms. Kara Newcomer; Ms.Annette D. Amerman; Mrs. Shelia Boyd. Library: MissEvelyn A. Englander. Archives Section: Mr. Frederick J.Graboske; Miss Christine T. Laba; Mrs. Hung-weiJeffers; Mr. Robert Piehel; Mr. John J. Rhodes.

FIELD HISTORY BRANCHOiC: Col Nicholas E. Reynolds, USMCR. FieldHistorians: Col Reed R. Bonadonna, USMCR; LtColDavid T. Watters, USMCR; LtCol Jeffrey Acosta, USMCR;LtCol Nathan S. Lowrey, USMCR; LtCol Michael D.Visconage, USMCR; Maj Carroll N. Harris, USMCR: MajMelissa D. Kuo, USMCR; Maj Theodore R. McKeldin III,USMCR; Maj Christopher J. Warnke, USMCR; Capt ChrisM. Kennedy, USMCR; CWO3 William E. Hutson,USMCR; SSgt Dennis P. Shannon, USMCR. CombatArtist: SSgt Michael D. Fay, USMCR. Ops Chief: SSgtDennis P. Shannon, USMCR.

MUSEUMS BRANCHBranch Head: Mr. Robert J. Sullivan. AdministrativeAssistant: Mrs. Kathryn R. Trout. Marine Corps CuratorSection: Mr. Charles Anthony Wood; Mrs. Jennifer L.Castro. National Museum Section: Mr. Kenneth L.Smith-Christmas; Mr. Dieter Stenger; Mr. Neil B.Abelsma; Mr. Mark R. Henry; Mr. Michael E. Starn; Mr.William K. Alexander; Mr. Alfred V. Houde, Jr.; Mr. JohnT. Dyer, Jr.; Mr. Charles G. Grow; Mr. James T.D’Angina. Restoration Section: Mr. Mitch Garringer; Mr.Alan M. Berry; Cpl Umar B. Naseer, USMC. ExhibitsSection: Mr. James A. Fairfax; Mr. Gordon Heim; Mr.Ronnie D. Alexander. S-4A/Security: Capt William N.Wright, USMC; Sgt Rakene L. Lee, USMC; Sgt David E.Peterson, USMC; Cpl Lionel F. Smith, USMC; Cpl JustinR. Simonitsch, USMC.

SUPPORT STAFFS-1: Lt Joel P. Branieki; GySgt Mario Fields, USMC; CplGregory D. Miller, USMC; PFC Terry J. Turner, USMC.S-3: LtCol Paul J.Weber, USMC; Ms. Elizabeth Saunier.S-4: Maj David A. Runyan, USMC; Capt William N.Wright, USMC; Sgt Michelle J. Hill, USMC; LCpl CesarM. Telles, USMC; Mrs. Linda Clark; Mrs. JoAnn Navarro.

FORTITUDINE STAFFEditor-in-Chief, Col Jon T. Hoffman, USMCR. SeniorEditor, Mr. Scott N. Summerill. Graphic Design: Mr.William S. Hill; Mrs. Catherine A. Kerns. Webmaster:Sgt David G. Smith, USMC.

Marine Corps Historical CenterBuilding 58, Washington Navy Yard1254 Charles Morris Street, Southeast

Washington Navy Yard, D.C. 20374-5040Telephone (202) 433-7607

Motto of the United States Marine Corps in the 1812 era.Historical Bulletin Vol. XXX, No.2 2003

This quarterly bulletin of the Marine Corps historical program is published for Marines,at the rate of one copy for every nine on active duty, to provide education and train-ing in the uses of military and Marine Corps history. Other interested readers may pur-chase single copies or four-issue subscriptions from the Superintendent of Documents,U.S. Government Printing Office. The appropriate order form appears in this issue.

Fortitudine is produced in the Editing and DesignSection of the History and Museums Division. Thetext for Fortitudine is set in 10-point and 8-pointGaramond typeface. Headlines are in 18-point or 24-point Garamond. The bulletin is printed on 70-pound, matte-coated paper by offset lithographyFor sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S.Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABOUT THE COVERA black and white reproduction of this oil painting of MajAddison Garland, which was painted in 1836 whenGarland was a second lieutenant stationed inPhiladelphia, was used on the cover of Fortitudine, Vol.IV, No. 2, published in 1974. The Digges family, modernrelatives of Garland, recently donated the original colorportrait to the History and Museums Division ArtCollection.

2 Fortitudine,Vol. XXX, No.2, 2003

GIANTS OF THE CORPS . . .TEMPO HIGH FOR FIELD HISTORIANS . . .GEN RAYMOND G.DAVIS . . .2001 CHRONOLOGY

CROSSING THE LINE OF DEPARTURE . . .HEROES AND THEIR FLYING MACHINES . . .CORPS LEADS WAY IN EQUALITY

KOREAN WAR PAMPHLET SERIES COMPLETE . . .BEIRUT,20 YEARS LATER . . .EXHIBIT HIGHLIGHTS LEJEUNE

BULLETIN OF THE MARINE CORPS HISTORICAL PROGRAMHISTORICAL BULLETIN VOLUME XXX, NUMBER 2 2003

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Memorandum from the Director: Giants of the CorpsCol John W. Ripley, USMC (Ret) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3

Field History: Tempo High for Field HistoriansCol Nicholas E. Reynolds, USMCR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4

In Appreciation: Gen Raymond Gilbert DavisRobert V. Aquilina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5

Marine Corps Chronology: 2001 Annual Chronology (Part I)Ann A. Ferrante . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6

Ordnance Collection: We Christen Thee, EFV!Dieter Stenger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8

Uniform and Heraldry Collection: Pruitt Collection Finds Home in QuanticoNeil Abelsma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9

Heritage Center News: Crossing the Line of DepartureCol Jon T. Hoffman, USMCR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10

Combat Art: All Things New ...Jack T. Dyer Jr. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12

Aviation Collection: Heroes and Their Flying MachinesMichael E. Starn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14

Archives: Beirut, 20 Years LaterFrederick J. Graboske . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15

History Writing: Series Honoring Korean War Heroes CompleteCharles R. Smith . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16

In Memoriam: LtGen Alpha L. Bowser, Jr. PassesRobert V. Aquilina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17

Historical Quiz: Marines in Lebanon, 1982-1984Lena M. Kaljot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18

Books in Review: The Battle for EqualityCanute Malcolm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19

Oral History: Women Marines Association: 60 Years of ServiceFred H. Allison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20

Exhibit News: Exhibit Highlights Gen. John A. LejeuneJames A. Fairfax, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21

Book Notes: Books by MarinesEvelyn A. Englander . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22

Answers to the Historical Quiz: Marines in Lebanon, 1982-1984Lena M. Kaljot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23

Fortitudine, Vol. XXX, No.2, 2003 3

Memorandum from the Director

Col John W. Ripley, USMC

We often hear the term “Giants ofthe Corps” in unit Professional

Military Education events, MarineCorps publications and even on anational level. Anyone who frequentsthe History Channel will easily comeacross one of these memorableMarines. Styled for public consump-tion, the stories are somewhat generaland not overly burdened with detail,nor are the facts always correct. Still, itmatters little when the subject hasrenown beyond the Marine Corps forhis actions on a distant battlefield.Such a Marine and great American hasjust left us; Gen Raymond GilbertDavis, USMC (Ret). His accomplish-ments, his career and his renown andreputation, which will amaze the aver-age Marine, are covered in greaterdetail on page 5. In all our 20thCentury wars, save WWI and the firstGulf War, Gen Davis is linked withsome of our toughest, most storiedbattles—Guadalcanal, Peleliu, Chosinand Vietnam. In the latter, the com-manding general of U.S. MilitaryAssistance Command, Vietnam, GenCreighton W. Abrams, Jr., USA, pub-licly singled Davis out as “my bestdivision commander;” very high praiseconsidering the number of divisionsoperating there and the fact that onlytwo were Marine divisions.

In addition to his remarkable mili-tary career, he was lionized in hisnative state of Georgia, where his pub-lic service never stopped. MostAmericans, however, and certainly allMarines, will remember Davis as themotivation for and guiding personalityof the Korean War Memorial. As withall memorials, it is a tough road fromconcept to ribbon cutting.Nevertheless, in the person and repu-tation of Ray Davis, the antagonistshad a formidable, if not impossible,obstacle to overcome. Of course, thevery stunning and unique memorial to

our Korea veterans added luster toGen Davis, who would become “Mr.Korea” in the minds of mostAmericans from that point on.

Throughout the entirety of our 50thanniversary commemoration of theKorean War over the past three years,Ray Davis became understandablyprominent, attending ceremoniesacross the nation, making several tripsto Korea and being spontaneouslycheered by veterans whenever heappeared. These appearances nodoubt took their toll, but he continuedto show up. He attended the nationalcommemoration of the KoreanArmistice here in Washington in July,after which he returned to Georgiawith a feeling of duty done. Still, heplanned to attend one last commemo-rative event sponsored by the MarineCorps in San Francisco this month. Hewould not make it.

One day there will perhaps be aUSS Davis, a Davis Hall or even aCamp Davis. Nothing could be moreappropriate. Before this happens,however, the monument to GenRaymond Davis is in the minds andthe performance of every Marine whoserved with him or had the pleasure ofknowing him. To be able to say “Iknew this man,” or he was “ my bat-talion commander at Peleliu,” or “ mydivision commander in Vietnam,” orperhaps the highest accolade of all,“He led us out of Chosin,” is enoughto satisfy the pride of any Marine. Ijust hope there is room in his outfitwhen I report to Marine Barracks,Pearly Gates.

October marked another milestonein the Division, and not an altogetherpleasant one. We gathered on thequarterdeck and saluted the departureof a great Marine and Combat Artist,Jack T. Dyer, Jr., whose service here ascurator of the combat art programstretches back 30 years. He essentially

created it. With 8,500 works of art pro-duced by 340 artists, all cared for andaccounted for by Dyer in less thanideal conditions, he has faced formi-dable tasks. Considering accountabili-ty alone, within 20 minutes of learningwhich offices had suffered damagefrom the terrorist attack on thePentagon, Jack was in my office witha complete list of the combat art there.We would later learn that our losseswere minimal considering the overalldamage, but Jack was on top of it.While many of us can’t remember ourzip code, Jack can name the exactlocation of every piece of original artin our collection, as well as the nameof the responsible officer. His name issynonymous with combat art, whichhe has produced from Vietnamthrough most recently Turkey,Norway and Beirut. We say farewell toa friend and a professional whoseinfluence will keep our combat artprogram preeminent for many years.❑ 1775❑

Giants of the Corps

A Marine from Echo Company enjoysthe unit Christmas tree in Beirut,Lebanon in 1983. The small tree isdecorated with expended brass car-tridges carefully linked back togetherand draped around the branches. Asmall American flag tops the tree.

Jack T. Dyer, Jr., USMCR (Ret)

After the end of major combatoperations in the Persian Gulf, the

History and Museum Division’s FieldHistory unit faced a dilemma ofsorts—where to focus its efforts in thecoming months? Like Marines every-where, the unit had to perform a set ofpost-deployment tasks, though the his-torian’s tasks were a little morefocused on the printed and spokenword. There weren’t a lot of weaponsto clean or equipment to run throughthe wash racks, but there were oralhistories to summarize, thousands ofdocuments to catalog and hundreds ofpictures to sort through. At the sametime, Marines still were deployed inIraq and Afghanistan and the 26thMarine Expeditionary Unit (MEU) wassailing for the coast of Liberia.

The first order of business was toinsure the most important “perishable”event-based histories, those of theoccupation of Iraq, were captured andsecured since it appears such security

and stability operations are likely tobecome a mainstay of Marine opera-tions in the 21st Century. To supportthis continuation of traditional Marineparticipation in small wars, the unitestablished in late July an historical“fire team” led by Col Jon T. Hoffman,who is both Deputy Director of theHistory and Museums Division and afield historian in the IndividualMobilization Augmentee Detachment.Hoffman traveled to Kuwait and Iraqwith two other field historians, MajTheodore R. McKeldin III and CaptChris M. Kennedy. Their mission wasto document operations that hadoccurred in the Marine Corps’ area ofoperation since the end of major com-bat operations was declared in lateApril.

The historians recorded the Marines’challenges and accomplishmentsthroughout southern Iraq. The situa-tion in the Shiite holy center of AnNajaf, Iraq, which was returning to a

semblance of order under the aegis of1st Battalion, 7th Marines, was inmany ways typical of the Marineexperience as a whole. Historians areencouraged to record their impres-sions of events, and Kennedy’saccount of the situation in Najaf wasparticularly striking. He wrote abouthow Marines had succeeded in stabi-lizing the city beyond anyone’s expec-tations. The Shiites are often associat-ed with anti-American Islamic funda-mentalism, but grassroots work by theMarines had gone a long way towardbuilding a constructive relationshipbetween the Marines and the local cit-izenry, which was quite different fromthe situation in other parts of thecountry.

Field historians then faced the issueof how best to cover the history of26th MEU, which was putting Marinesashore in Africa. The significance ofthe operation in Liberia had to beweighed against that of the historicalmain effort—Operation IraqiFreedom. The unit had to determine ifenough manpower was available tocover operations in Liberia and stillexploit the material from the war.There also was the question ofwhether a field historian could beinserted into that country. In the end,the unit opted to join forces with theEnduring Freedom CombatAssessment Team and the NavalHistorical Center and send a field his-torian, Maj Carroll N. Harris, to Rota,Spain. There, Harris joined the MEUon its transatlantic trip back to thecontinental United States. Past experi-ence has shown this approach pre-sents an excellent opportunity forconducting oral history interviews.Memories are still relatively fresh, andonce the ship sails, there are few com-peting priorities for the Marines on theinterview list.

In short, the operational tempo ofthe Field History branch remains ashigh as that of the Fleet Marine Forceas a whole. ❑ 1775❑

Field History

Tempo High for Field Historiansby Col Nicholas E. Reynolds, USMCR

Field History Branch OIC

Photo by USMC Historical Center

Capt Chris Kennedy (left), an unidentified armed escort, Col Jon Hoffman andMaj Ted McKeldin, members of the History and Museum Division’s “historical fireteam,” met with local law enforcement officers at police headquarters outsideKarbala, Iraq, during a recent fact gathering missiom. The team visited nearly adozen locations in Kuwait and Iraq and conducted more than 100 interviewsthat will provide important historical accounts of recent operations in the Gulfregion. Those interviews, along with information compiled by Marine Corps his-torians, will become part of the resources available through the Historical Center.

4 Fortitudine, Vol. XXX, No.2, 2003

ments following the war, includingtours of duty at Quantico, Guam andChicago, Illinois, where he was theInspector-Instructor of the 9th MarineCorps Reserve Infantry Battalion. Hewas ordered to Korea in August 1950.

In Korea, LtCol Davis commandedthe 1st Battalion, 7th Marines fromAugust to December 1950. He earnedthe Nation’s highest decoration forheroism, the Medal of Honor, duringthe 1st Marine Division’s historic fightto break out of the Chosin Reservoirarea. Against overwhelming odds, heled his battalion in a heroic four-daybattle, which saved a rifle companyfrom annihilation and opened a criti-cal mountain pass to enable twotrapped Marine regiments to escapethe enemy. In addition to the Medal ofHonor, Davis also was awarded twoSilver Stars, a Legion of Merit and aBronze Star with Combat “V.” Hereturned from Korea in June 1951.President Harry S. Truman personallypresented the Medal of Honor to LtColDavis during a 24 November 1952 cer-emony at the White House.

Following his return to the UnitedStates, Davis served at Quantico,Virginia, and at Headquarters, MarineCorps in Washington, D.C. He alsoserved as Chief, Analysis Branch, on

Fortitudine,Vol. XXX, No.2, 2003 5

In Appreciation

Gen Raymond Gilbert Davisby Robert V. Aquilina

Reference Section Assistant Head

General Raymond Gilbert Davis,USMC (Ret), a highly decorated

combat veteran of three wars, whoearned the Medal of Honor during thebitter fighting at the Chosin Reservoirin Korea, died 3 September 2003 inConyers, Georgia, at the age of 88. Hewas buried at Forestlawn MemorialGardens in College Park, Georgia.

The Fitzgerald, Georgia, native helda B.S. degree in chemical engineeringfrom the Georgia School ofTechnology, and after graduation in1938, was commissioned a Marine sec-ond lieutenant. He completed theMarine Officers’ Basic School in May1939 at the Philadelphia Navy Yardand began a year of service with theMarine detachment on board the USSPortland in the Pacific. At the out-break of World War II, he was servingwith the 1st Antiaircraft Machine GunBattery at Marine Barracks, New River(later Camp Lejeune), North Carolina.Upon his promotion to captain inFebruary 1942, he was assigned asbattery commander. During WWII, heparticipated in the Guadalcanal,Western New Guinea, CapeGloucester and Peleliu campaigns.

In February 1943, he was promotedto major and appointed CommandingOfficer, 1st Battalion, 1st Marines, 1stMarine Division in April 1944 whilestationed on Cape Gloucester.

Maj Davis’ heroism while command-ing the 1st Battalion at Peleliu inSeptember 1944 earned him a NavyCross and the Purple Heart. Althoughwounded during the first hour of thePeleliu landing, he refused evacuationto remain with his men, and on oneoccasion, when heavy Marine casual-ties and the enemy’s point-blank can-non fire had enabled Japanese forcesto break through the Marine lines, hepersonally rallied and led his Marinesin fighting to re-establish defensivepositions. In October 1944, hereturned to Pavuvu and was promotedto lieutenant colonel.

Davis served in a variety of assign-

Gen Raymond G. Davis

the Staff of the Commander in Chief,Europe. In July 1963, he was promot-ed to brigadier general while enroutefrom Europe to the United States. GenDavis served as Assistant DivisionCommander of the 3d MarineDivision. from October 1963 toNovember 1964. He was promoted tomajor general in November 1966.

During the Vietnam War, Davisserved as Commanding General, 3dMarine Division from 1968 to 1969. Hewas awarded the DistinguishedService Medal and three personal dec-orations by the South VietnameseGovernment for his service there.

Following his return to the UnitedStates in May 1969, Davis wasassigned as Deputy for Education withadditional Duty as Director, EducationCenter, Marine Corps Developmentand Education Command, Quantico.After his promotion to lieutenant gen-eral in July 1970, he was appointedCommanding General at Marine CorpsDevelopment and EducationCommand, Quantico.

On 23 February 1971, PresidentRichard M. Nixon nominated Davis tothe grade of general and to the posi-tion of Assistant Commandant of theMarine Corps. He served as AssistantCommandant until his retirement fromactive duty on 31 March 1972, follow-ing more than 33 years of service withthe Marine Corps.

In retirement, Davis was a tirelessadvocate for veterans and a movingforce in the successful effort to buildthe National Korean War Veterans’Memorial. He served as ExecutiveVice President of the GeorgiaChamber of Commerce and Presidentof the Marine Corps CoordinatingCouncil of Greater Atlanta. In recentyears, he was among a small group ofKorean War veterans who visited thewestern side of the Chosin Reservoir.The trip was the first occasion sincethe Korean War in which North Koreahad allowed Americans to visit thesite. ❑ 1775❑

9-11 April – The 11th MarineExpeditionary Unit (Special OperationsCapable) and Boxer Amphibious ReadyGroup provided civic and humanitarianaid to the fledgling country of EastTimor, an island nation besieged by civilstrife and violence since declaring inde-pendence from Indonesia two years ear-lier. The Marines and sailors providedmedical and dental care, transportedsupplies and resources and helped inconstruction projects.

24 May – Gordon R. England was swornin as the 72d Secretary of the Navy.England had served as vice president ofGeneral Dynamics since 1997, andbrought with him more than 30 years ofexperience in the defense and technolo-gy industries. As Secretary of the Navy,England’s vision was to “substantiallyimprove our combat capability, enrichthe lives of our people, swiftly incorpo-rate technology across our total opera-tion and dramatically improve our busi-ness practices.”

6 June – A new, more practical MarineCorps uniform was given final approvalby the Commandant of the MarineCorps. The new “cammies,” aside frombeing wash-and-wear, featured a uniquecomputer generated pixel camouflage

Marine Corps Chronology

2001 Annual Chronology (Part I)by Ann A. FerranteReference Historian

The “Current Chronology of theMarine Corps” serves as a valuable

source of information on significantevents and dates in contemporaryMarine Corps history. Since 1982, theMarine Corps Historical Center’sReference Section has compiled theyearly chronology by researchingnumerous primary and secondarysources each week. The followingexcerpts highlight events listed in thefirst eight months of the full 2001Chronology.

16 January – A decade earlier, the airwar against Iraq began, transformingOperation Desert Shield into OperationDesert Storm. Of the 400,000 Americansparticipating in Operations Desert Shieldand Desert Storm, 93,000 were Marines,making it the largest contingency ofMarines ever to participate in a singleoperation. The war began after IraqiPresident Saddam Hussein invaded thesmall neighboring country of Kuwaitand threatened to invade Saudi Arabia.

19 January – The Secretary of the Navyapproved the awarding of the Prisonerof War Medal to eligible members of theMarine Security Guard Detachment,United States Embassy, Teheran, Iran,for the period 4 November 1979 through20 January 1981. On 4 November 1979,65 Americans were taken hostage,including 13 Marines. While four of theMarines were released two weeks later,the remaining nine were not releaseduntil the inauguration of PresidentRonald Reagan on 20 January 1981, suf-fering 444 days in captivity.

20 January – The Marine Corps partici-pated in the inauguration of the 43rdPresident of the United States, GeorgeW. Bush. Participants included theUnited States Marine Corps Color Guard,officers representing the Marine Corpsstaff and a group of Marine reservists.The Marine Band, known as “ThePresident’s Own,” also was on hand, asthey have been for every inaugurationsince President Thomas Jefferson’s inau-gural in 1801.

28 February – Approximately 1,200Marines who served as a peacekeepingforce in Kosovo following the air war

there in 1999 were the first to rate andreceive the Combat Action Ribbon fol-lowing an amendment of the qualifica-tions for the ribbon. Formerly, award ofthe Combat Action Ribbon was reservedfor troops who fell under hostile fire andreturned fire. Those requirements wererelaxed in recognition of the danger inpeacekeeping missions.

20 March – Gen James L. Jones,Commandant of the Marine Corps,handed out tan utility belts to the firstcompany of Marine lieutenants to com-plete martial arts training in The BasicSchool. The Marine Corps martial artsprogram has five belts. Tan delineatesthe first level of training. Gen Joneswanted every Marine to receive somelevel of martial arts training by mid-2002.

30 March – The “8th and I” MarineBarracks in Washington, D.C. com-menced the celebration of its bicenten-nial year with a ceremony attended byGen James L. Jones, other general offi-cers and former barracks Marines.Founded in 1801, the location of theoldest post of the Corps was decided byPresident Thomas Jefferson and LtColWilliam Ward Burrows, Commandant ofthe Marine Corps, based on its proximi-ty to the Capitol and the Navy Yard.

Photo by: Sgt M. V. Tindade, USMC

Poll bearers from 8th and I Marine Barracks Washington raise above their headsthe casket containing the group remains of the Makin Raiders before laying it torest at Arlington Cemetery.

6 Fortitudine,Vol. XXX, No.2, 2003

design. The boots were made of rough-textured, non-reflective leather that didnot require polishing.

14 June – While on tour in Europe,President George W. Bush announcedthe Navy would be pulling out ofVieques, a Puerto Rican island thatserved as the Atlantic Fleet’s prime war-fare training range. This decision camein light of the intense Puerto Ricanopposition to the military’s presence onVieques. With a departure deadline ofMay 2003, the Center for Naval Analysescompiled a report that cited ranges inNorth Carolina and Florida as beingjointly capable of replacing the Viequestraining ground.

29 June – Five legendary Marine athleteswere the first to be inducted into thenew Marine Corps Sports Hall of Famein a ceremony held at Marine BarracksWashington. The inductees were CaptGene Tunney, boxing legend famous fordefeating Jack Dempsey in 1927 for theworld heavyweight title; Col FrankGoettge, a Marine football player killedon Guadalcanal during World War II;Capt Ted Williams, Boston Red Soxright-fielder and World War II andKorean War fighter pilot; Cpl LeeTrevino, an outstanding golfer still com-peting on the Senior PGA Tour; andCapt Billy Mills, Olympic gold medallistin the 10,000 meter run.

30 June – The amphibious assault shipUSS Iwo Jima was commissioned by theNavy in Pensacola, Florida. The ceremo-ny included a keynote address by Gen

Michael Williams, AssistantCommandant of the Marine Corps.Zandra Krulak, wife of formerCommandant Gen Charles Krulak andsponsor of the LHD-7, officially namedthe ship by breaking a bottle of cham-pagne across the bow. The Iwo Jimawas commissioned as a multipurposetransport ship with capabilities of serv-ing as the command ship for anyamphibious operations.

27 July – President George W. Bushawarded the 29 original Navajo “codetalkers” of World War II CongressionalGold Medals. Four of the five livingencoders attended the ceremony, heldat the U.S. Capitol. The unique code,based on the Navajo language, wasnever deciphered by the Japanese and,because of its success, remained classi-fied until 1968. Between 1942 and 1945,the code talkers were involved in everyMarine assault in the Pacific, duringwhich time 13 were killed in action.

was discovered. Upon identification bythe Army’s Central IdentificationLaboratory in Hawaii, the men werereturned home for proper burial. Six ofthe families opted for a private burial.

24 August – President George W. Bushnominated Gen Peter Pace to succeedAir Force Gen Richard Myers as the vicechairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff.Currently serving as the chief of the U.S.Southern Command overseeing U.S. mil-itary interests in Central and SouthAmerica, Gen Pace became the firstMarine to serve in this capacity.

31 August – Secretary of the NavyGordon R. England formally added theKosovo Campaign Streamer to the offi-cial Battle Colors of the Marine Corps ina ceremony during the summer’s finalEvening Parade at Marine BarracksWashington. Former President BillClinton approved the Kosovo CampaignMedal and streamer in recognition of therole U.S. troops played in the Balkans

Photo by: PHAN Robert Stratchko

Marines attached to NAS Pensacola joined sailors from USS Iwo Jima in the tra-ditional manning of the rails ceremony when the ship joined the fleet as the sev-enth WASP class amphibious assault ship.

Fortitudine, Vol. XXX, No.2, 2003 7

Photo courtesy: Stars and Stripes

A Marine models the pixel camouflageutility uniform. The uniform hit themilitary clothing stores 6 June.

17 August – On this 59th anniversary ofthe famous World War II raid on MakinAtoll, the remains of 13 Raiders wereburied at Arlington National Cemetery ina ceremony that drew more than 1,000surviving friends, family members,Raiders and other Marines and war vet-erans who came to honor the dead. Thebodies of 19 of the Raiders remainedmissing until 1999, when their location

against the oppressive Yugoslavian gov-ernment, headed by then-PresidentSlobodan Milosevic. In 1999, Marinesparticipated in the air campaign againstYugoslavia and later served as peace-keeping forces in Kosovo.

(Part II of the 2001 Chronology will bepublished in Fortitudine, Vol. XXX,No 3, 2003.) ❑ 1775❑

Ordnance Collection

We Christen Thee, EFV!by Dieter Stenger

Curator of Ordnance

On 10 September 2003, theGeneral Dynamics’ Advanced

Amphibious Assault Vehicle (AAAV)was renamed and christened “EFV”(Expeditionary Fighting Vehicle) at theDirect Reporting Program Managerfacility in Woodbridge, VA. “AlligatorMarines” from World War II and thepresent smashed vials of water fromthe Atlantic and Pacific Oceans againstthe vehicle while crying out the semi-nal words, “We christen thee, EFV!”

Truly revolutionary, with anunprecedented waterborne speed ofup to 25 knots, the EFV will allownaval expeditionary forces to eliminatethe mobility gap and, for the first timein naval warfare history, maneuverashore in a single, seamless stroke togive both ships and landing forces suf-ficient sea space for maneuver, sur-prise and protection. The EFVs combi-nation of firepower, armor, protectionagainst nuclear, biological and chemi-cal weapons, integrated and interoper-able command and control systems,survivability characteristics unparal-leled in the U.S. combat vehicle inven-tory, and high speed mobility on landand sea represent major break-throughs in the ability of naval expe-ditionary forces to avoid an enemy’sstrengths and exploit their weakness-es. Moreover, the EFV will provide theMarine Corps with the capability toexecute the full spectrum of militarymissions from humanitarian to con-ventional combat operations.

These concepts were outlined byLtGen Emil R. Bedard, Deputy

Commandant for Plans, Policies andOperations, flanked by a World War II-era tracked landing vehicle (LVT-4),provided by the History and MuseumsDivision’s branch activity in Quantico,and the current EFV. A full exhibit forthe planned Heritage Center andNational Museum of the Marine Corps(NMMC) also was on display that out-lined how the story of AlligatorMarines, their vehicles and amphibi-

ous warfare would be incorporated inthe new museum.

The NMMC will showcase four dif-ferent amphibian tractors. The originalRoebling Alligator, designed in 1937,will be on displayed to mark thebeginning of what revolutionizedamphibious warfare. The tableaux andsuspended aircraft in the centralgallery speak to the major contribu-tions of the Marine Corps to Americanmilitary history. The LVT-1, its logisti-cal role transformed into a combatrole on Tarawa, is depicted on RedBeach 3, alongside Major Henry “Jim”P. Crowe, leading his Marines over theseawall. In the Iwo Jima immersionexhibit, museum visitors will first learnof the proposed landings in the brief-ing room. By way of audio and visualsimulation, the visitor shall embarkonto an LVT-4 and experience a “run”to the enemy-held beaches on IwoJima. The Marine Life display in the

Korean War exhibit will incorporate anLVT-3 to illustrate the flexibility of theamphibian tractor. In this scenario,sandbags have been used to entrenchan LVT-3 armed with a .50-caliberBrowning machine gun in a fire sup-port role. Outside the landings atInchon and Wonson, and the HanRiver crossings, LVTs were used infire-support missions.

The successful renaming ceremonyof the EFV could be measured by

the atmosphere and rhetoric that waspredominately historical. Both the oldand the new, represented by the vehi-cles themselves and Alligator Marinesfrom yesterday and today, set the stagefor a truly historic event. For moreinformation about the EFV, visitwww.efv.usmc.mil. For more informa-tion about the NMMC, visitwww.marineheritage.org.

❑ 1775❑

Photo: DRPM EFV

The EFV has a land speed of 45 mph and is armed with a 30 mm Mk 44 Mod 1main automatic gun, a 7.62 mm coax machine gun and a fully stabilized bal-listic solution laser range finder. The EFV has a planned carrying capacity of 17Marines.

8 Fortitudine, Vol. XXX, No.2, 2003

Uniform and Heraldry Collection

Pruitt Collection Finds Home in Quanticoby Neil Abelsma

Curator of Textiles and Heraldry

Out gunned and vastly out num-bered, Cpl John Henry Pruitt

demonstrated the kind of courage andheroism for which Marines are reveredwhen he single-handedly attacked andoverwhelmed an enemy stronghold atBlanc Mont Ridge, France, duringWorld War I. He was later woundedand died the next day, on his birthday.For his actions, Pruitt was awarded theMedal of Honor. His official citationstates: “For extraordinary gallantry andintrepidity above and beyond the callof duty in action with the enemy atBlanc Mont Ridge, France, October 3,1918. Cpl Pruitt, single-handed,attacked two machine guns, capturingthem and killing two of the enemy. Hethen captured 40 prisoners in a dugoutnearby. This gallant soldier was killedsoon afterward by shell fire whilesniping at the enemy.”

In all, eight Marines were awardedthe Medal of Honor during WWI. Ofthose, Pruitt and four others receivedboth the Navy and Army versions forthe same action. Pruitt was returned tothe United States following his deathand was buried in Arlington NationalCemetery.

In a ceremony on 22 April 2003 atthe Arizona Capitol Museum, the Pruittfamily generously donated the medalsand other items associated withPruitt’s life to the Marine CorpsMuseum. Pruitt family members hadvisited Quantico a year earlier to par-ticipate in the dedication ceremony ofPruitt Hall, a bachelor enlisted quar-ters.

The donation was a coming homeevent since it was from Quantico

that Pruitt departed for France with the78th Company, 6th Regiment ofMarines to join the Second Division ofthe American Expeditionary Force. Heparticipated in engagements atChateau-Thierry, Bouresches andBelleau Wood. On 14 June 1918, Pruittsuffered injuries from a gas attack andwas sent to a base hospital. Once

recovered, he returned to the frontand fought in the Marbache sector, St.Mihiel and Thiacourt, where he wascited for bravery in action for aiding inthe capture of an enemy machine gun.

The Pruitt family donation was pre-sented in Phoenix and hand-carriedback to Quantico. Present during thedonation ceremony were numerousmembers of the Pruitt family, ArizonaCapitol Museum staff and the media.The medals are destined for the WWIand Medal of Honor exhibits in thenew National Museum of the MarineCorps, where they will be preservedfor future generations to appreciate.

Pruitt’s Navy Medal of Honor is anexample of the rare “Tiffany Cross”

designed by the New York City jewel-ry firm, Tiffany & Company. In 1919,the Navy adopted two differentMedals of Honor to distinguishbetween combat and non-combataction. The Tiffany design was award-ed for combat actions. In 1942, how-ever, the Medal of Honor became

solely for combat action and theTiffany design was dropped. Theinscription on Pruitt’s medal reads:“Awarded to Corporal John HenryPruitt United States Marine CorpsBlanc Mont Ridge, France October 3,1918.”

In a 1922 letter to Pruitt’s mother, theCommandant of the Marine Corps,

then MajGen John A. Lejeune, wrote:“Please accept my congratulations, asthe Commandant of the Corps whosetraditions your late son so noblyupheld, upon being the mother of soworthy a son who unselfishly laiddown his life for the love of his coun-try, and may these simple tokens ofrecognition of his gallant conduct inthe face of the enemy, in their ownpeculiar way perpetuate his memoryin the hearts of those who mourn hisloss.”

The Pruitt family donation will beon display in the new NationalMuseum of the Marine Corps upon itscompletion. ❑ 1775❑

Photo: Air-Ground Museum

Among the items donated by the Pruitt family were a scrapbook, medals and anarray of award documents. The items will become integral parts of exhibits in thenew National Museum of the Marine Corps.

Fortitudine, Vol. XXX, No.2, 2003 9

Heritage Center News

Crossing the Line of Departureby Col Jon T. Hoffman, USMCR

Deputy Director

All Marines know when you crossthe line of departure you shift

from the realm of planning and prepa-ration and actually begin to executeyour mission. After years of prelimi-nary thought and effort, the project tobuild a state-of-the-art NationalMuseum of the Marine Corps has final-ly stepped off in tangible fashiontoward its objective. The most visiblemanifestation of that event are thebulldozers, dump trucks and workersswarming over the museum site justoutside the front gate of Marine CorpsBase Quantico.

Under a contract funded by theMarine Corps, a construction firm isclearing away stumps and brush, cut-ting an access road and grading theland to conform to the master plan forthe museum and its environs. Thisportion of the project will continue forseveral more weeks. At the same time,work is underway to bring water,sewer, electric and gas utilities to thesite. When these efforts are complete,the site will be ready for a prime con-tractor to begin erecting the museumitself.

The project has achieved severalother critical milestones in recentmonths. Fentress Bradburn Architectsof Denver submitted the final plans forthe site and building to the MarineCorps in July 2003. The History andMuseums Division, Marine Corps BaseQuantico and the Marine CorpsHeritage Foundation have nowapproved these documents. Thedetailed drawings and schedules willserve as the basis for competitive bidsby prime contractors. The process of

the media component of the exhibits.The History and Museums Divisionhas reviewed the 60 percent plans andprovided feedback to the designers,who are now engaged in fleshing outthe remaining details to bring theplans to the 95 percent level. Thosedocuments will be submitted forreview in December 2003. The exhib-it design process is on track for com-pletion by February 2004.

The Marine Corps HeritageFoundation continues its

Herculean effort to raise the moneyneeded to construct the NationalMuseum building. On the evening of25 September, the Foundation hosteda gala dinner to launch a more publicphase of its capital campaign. Theannounced goal is $36.5 million,which will entirely fund constructionof Phase 1 of the project. TheFoundation already has in hand dona-

Photo by: LCpl Christopher Roberts

Ground Breaking for the National Museum of the Marine Corps, the first phaseof a campus of facilities planned for the Marine Corps Heritage Center, took placein front of Lejeune Hall on 26 Sept. Gen Michael W. Hagee, Commandant of theMarine Corps; former U.S. Sen. Charles Robb, Prince William County Board ofSupervisors Chairman Sean Connaughton and retired LtGen Ronald Christmasdig into soil which had to be transported from the actual construction sitebecause of Hurricane Isabel.

10 Fortitudine,Vol. XXX, No.2, 2003

winnowing the field of potential bid-ders is already under way.

The exhibit design process contin-ues to move forward at a steady

clip. Christopher Chadbourne andAssociates submitted its 60 percentdesign package in July 2003. Thesedocuments encompass plans for eachindividual exhibit in every gallery, alist of artifacts that will be displayed,draft text for a representative sampleof the exhibits and a thorough outlineof audio and visual productions for

A new proposed logo design by Christopher Chadbourne and Associates for theNational Museum of the Marine Corps.

muskets and medals. As an assist tothe division’s small restorations sec-tion, private contractors are refurbish-ing many of the items. All planes andhelicopters destined for overhead dis-play have been inspected for structur-al integrity and unique suspensionmounts will be designed and fabricat-ed for each.

The road to the National Museum ofthe Marine Corps has been long and

tions and pledges totaling half thatamount. The money has come frommore than 50,000 donors, whichincludes corporations, other founda-tions and a wide range of individualMarines, Marine veterans and friendsof the Corps.

On the morning of 26 September,Marine Corps Base Quantico and theFoundation co-hosted a formalgroundbreaking for the new museum.Due to soggy conditions created byHurricane Isabel, the ceremony tookplace in front of Lejeune Hall onboard the base rather than at the actu-al museum site. It was a fitting loca-tion nonetheless, since a statue of GenJohn Archer Lejeune—a leading pro-ponent of professional military educa-tion and historical study in theCorps—stood watch over the proceed-ings. The Commandant of the MarineCorps, Gen Michael Hagee; the presi-dent of the Foundation, LtGen RonChristmas; Marine veteran and formerU.S. senator Charles S. Robb; andchairman of the Prince William CountyBoard of Supervisors, Sean T.Connaughton wielded ceremonialshovels and turned the first dirt, whichwas brought from the site for the occa-sion.

The History and Museums Divisioncontinues its efforts to prepare thou-sands of artifacts for display, rangingfrom aircraft and armored vehicles to

challenging so far, but the pace ofactivity will only increase for the fore-seeable future. The History andMuseums Division and its partners are“locked and loaded” as we cross theline of departure and march towardour objective—the opening of a facili-ty that will showcase the sterlingrecord of the Corps and set the stan-dard for military museums around theworld. ❑ 1775❑

A model of the exterior of the new National Museum of the Marine Corps showshow planners envision the building and surrounding grounds. The nearby road-way is Interstate 95. This view of the building’s central mast and surroundingglass atrium clearly shows how the Marine flag raising at Iwo Jima influencedthe design of the facility.

Photo courtesy: Marine Corps Heritage Foundation

Fortitudine, Vol. XXX, No.2, 2003 11

Photo courtesy: Marine Corps Heritage Foundation

Models of the new National Museum of the Marine Corps give a bird’s eye view ofwhat visitors can expect when they visit the new state-of-the-art facility inQuantico, Virginia. The museum will feature a full array of exhibits, includingaircraft suspended above the museum floor.

Commandant Gen Michael W. Hageeand Marine Corp Heritage Founda-tion member David H. Hugel enjoy thefestivities at a recent gala event to sup-port the new National Museum of theMarine Corps.Photo courtesy: Marine Corps Heritage Foundation

12 Fortitudine,Vol. XXX, No.2, 2003

This year saw several new acquisi-tions at the Historical Center’s art

collection, more than can be shown ina single issue of Fortitudine. In thissection, we have chosen to highlightone of the combat artists who recentlysubmitted new work upon his returnfrom Iraq.

Sgt Jack Carrillo, USMC, wasdeployed to Iraq from March to May ofthis year. He went to the field withDelta Company of the 1st TankBattalion. Upon his return to theUnited States, he finished a number ofpaintings depicting his experience inIraq. In addition, Carrillo, who hasrejoined his parent unit, continues towork on other pieces based on themany sketches he made in the field.

A combat artist is seldom able to setup an easel and paint a picture whileworking in an active theater of opera-tion—they have neither the luxury oftime nor are they able to carry the nec-essary materials for such a task withthem in that environment. The sketch-book, therefore, becomes the film thatenables the artist to capture the detailsof the moment. Some of the sketchesmay later be used as a guide for creat-ing color paintings.

Combat Art Collection

All Things New ...Compiled by Jack T. Dyer Jr.

Curator of Art

Delta Company M-1A1 Abrams tanks fire south of Al Basarah, Iraq, on 5 April2003. The artist later made a watercolor from this pencil drawing.Sgt Jack Carrillo, USMC Tanks Firing

While combat artists carry a sketch-book into the field, they are not con-strained to its pages as their only medi-um. Carrillo demonstrates this with his“Marine Standing” sketch, which wasdrawn on a piece of cardboard froman MRE (Meal, Ready to Eat) box.

Of course, this “cardboard canvas”may not have been altogether a matterof choice. Carrillo may have impro-vised while his sketchbook was dryingafter being dunked in an Iraqi wetlandwhen his Humvee overturned.Fortunately, no one was injured in theaccident, but Carrillo’s sketchbook gota good soaking. Although the artistwas able to use the sketchbook againafter it had dried for about a week, themusty odor of waterlogged paper hasonly recently dissipated.

Another challenge for artists in Iraqwere the frequent sand storms,

depicted in Carrillo’s “Sand Storm”sketch of a Marine desperately tryingto protect himself and his equipmentfrom the swirling sand. Aside from theproblem of holding pages in placewhile the wind was blowing, Carrillosaid the sketchbook pages turned tosandpaper from the storm’s fine gran-

ules, allowing only three to fourstrokes of a pencil before the lead wasworn down.

Long-time Fortitudine readers mayrecognize another of the Center’srecent acquisitions, which appears onthis month’s cover. A black and whitereproduction of this original was usedon the cover of Vol. IV, No. 2, pub-lished in 1974. This issue’s full colorversion shows the technical progressmade in the 29 years since AddisonGarland, our 19th Century Marine sec-ond lieutenant, last graced the cover ofFortitudine.

As explained in the original articleby Richard A. Long, the hunter

green uniform blouse worn byGarland in the portrait was short-lived,used for only six years from 1834 to1840 after President Andrew Jacksondecreed that military uniforms wouldreflect the same colors used during theRevolutionary War. For a Marine, that

Sgt Jack Carrillo, USMC Marine Standing

This drawing of a Marine was done onthe back of an MRE ration cartonusing brown, black and blue pencilwith white highlights.

Fortitudine,Vol. XXX, No.2, 2003 13

meant hunter green. The blouse wassoon pulled from service because thevibrant green color faded rapidly to adull gray when exposed to ultra-violetlight.

The original oil on canvas portraitwas painted in 1836 and was recentlydonated to the Museums’ ArtCollection by the Digges family, themodern relatives of Garland whoaffectionately refer to the painting as“Uncle Add.” Maryland residentsDeborah of Towson and Sally ofBaltimore, and Massachusetts residentsDiana of Jamaica Plain and Mallory ofMilton, donated the painting in honorof their grandfather, Dudley M. Diggs(Mr. Diggs spelled his last name differ-ently) and their father, Dudley P.Digges.

It is unclear who painted the Garlandportrait, but indications are it may

have been J. Barincou, a French artistwho worked in Philadelphia from1830 to 1839. Garland was stationed inPhiladelphia when the portrait waspainted. Unfortunately, little is knownabout Barincou, but he may also haveused the name F. Barinsou, a lithogra-pher who worked in Philadelphia dur-ing the same period.

Staff members are greeted byGarland daily, as the piece hasbecome a favorite fixture in theMuseum’s office space at theWashington Navy Yard. Those interest-ed may view the piece by appoint-ment. ❑ 1775❑

Sgt Jack Carrillo, USMC Bad Mofo

A Delta Company M-1A1 tank aims its turret toward an open area dur-ing a patrol in Iraq. The crew christened the steel beast “BAD MOFO,”which they had lettered on the tank’s barrel.

Carrillo shows a marine resting in this quick pencil drawing. The sketchbookincludes notes about details the artist observed.Sgt Jack Carrillo, USMC Marine Resting

Sgt Jack Carrillo, USMC Sand Storm

An irritating swirl of sand engulfs aMarine as he tries to keep himself andhis equipment serviceable.

14 Fortitudine, Vol. XXX, No.2, 2003

Aviation Collection

Heroes and Their Flying Machinesby Michael E. Starn

Curator of Aeronautics

inclusion in its historical aircraft col-lection. After being on loan to theLiberal Aviation Museum in Liberal,Kansas, for several years, the heli-copter was returned to Quantico wereit has been in storage awaiting a com-plete restoration before going on dis-play in the National Museum of theMarine Corps. For several months, theMuseums Branch has been waitingapproval from the Secretary of theNavy to allow Black Shadow Aviation,Inc., owned by former Marine RoyStafford, to perform a completerestoration of Pless’ Huey. Upon itsreturn, UH-1E BuNo: 154760 willappear just as it did on 19 August1967.

On 13 August 2003, almost 37 yearslater to the day, the Museums Branchhad the honor and pleasure of a visitby Mrs. Nancy Pless, Maj Pless’ moth-er. After viewing her son’s duplicateMedal of Honor, which she requestedbe transferred to this office from theNational Naval Aviation Museum inPensacola, Florida, Mrs. Pless wasescorted by members of the MarineCorps Vietnam pilots Pop-A-SmokeAssociation and myself to LarsonGymnasium where the helicopter is

Since 1948, Marines have looked tothe skies with hope, joy and even

reverence as the sound of helicopterblades beat through the air in placessuch as Inchon, Saigon, Beirut andnow Tikrit, signaling incoming sup-plies, reinforcements, wounded beingflown out for emergency medicalattention, or fallen Marines headinghome to final resting places.

Since its inception, the helicopterhas played a vital role in combat. On19 August 1967, the importance ofhelicopters was put to the test whenMaj Stephen W. Pless, then a captain,flew his UH-1E (nicknamed Huey) tothe rescue of a downed Army heli-copter crew that was being overrun byViet Cong. After making several pass-es over the crash site and driving 40 to50 Viet Cong back to the tree line, MajPless landed and his crew, consistingof Capt Rupert Fairfield (co-pilot),GySgt Leroy Poulson (gunner) andLCpl John Phelps (crewchief), rescuedthree of the four crewmen of thedowned craft. Fairfield and Poulsonthen placed the fourth soldier, whohad been killed by enemy fire, in anArmy UH-1B.

Pless’ fully armed UH-1E wasseverely overloaded, carrying himself,his three crewmen, and three of thefour Army crewmen. To reduce theweight of the aircraft, Pless orderedhis crew to jettison the craft’s emptyrocket pods and armor plating.Without the additional weight, Plessmanaged to coax his aircraft off theground and he flew the wounded mento the hospital in Chu Lai.

For their actions in this rescue mis-sion, Fairfield, Poulson and Phelps allreceived the Navy Cross. On 16January 1969, Pless was summoned tothe White House where he was pre-sented the Medal of Honor byPresident Lyndon B. Johnson.Tragically, Pless was killed six monthslater in a motorcycle accident.

On 3 May 1983, the helicopter wastransferred to the Museums Branch for

currently being stored. After severalemotional moments, Mrs. Pless saidshe only had seen her son’s aircraft inphotographs and never in person.Mrs. Pless and her entourage weregiven a complete briefing on theNational Museum of the Marine Corpsand the role that her son’s helicopterwould play in the exhibits represent-ing Vietnam.

Personal stories such as this arecommon with many of the artifacts

being held in the historic collections atthe Museums Branch, which is con-stantly working to identify and locatehistoric objects still in service or in thehands of former Marines or their fam-ilies. For example, the branch recentlyidentified CH-46E BuNo: 153389 asanother aircraft involved in a rescueoperation in Vietnam. During thatoperation, PFC Michael Clausenearned the Medal of Honor. This air-craft will be stricken from service andconveyed to this office as soon as it isavailable. The aircraft is currently serv-ing overseas with HMM-161 and hasserved in every major operation sinceits history-making event in Vietnam.

❑ 1775❑

Photo: Department of Defense (USMC) 48604

Mrs. Nancy Pless reflects on times past sitting in the Huey her son flew during theVietnam War. This was the first time Mrs. Pless had seen the actual aircraft herson used to rescue the crew of a downed Army helicopter and it provided anadditional connection to her deceased son, Maj Stephen Pless, who earned theMedal of Honor during that rescue.

Recent military operations inAfghanistan (Operation Enduring

Freedom) and in Iraq (Operation IraqiFreedom) are included under therubric “global war on terror.” PresidentGeorge W. Bush proclaimed theseconflicts in response to the Al-Qaedaattacks in the United States on 11September 2001. However, the terror-ists’ war against the United Statesbegan much earlier. Their war beganbefore the explosions in East Africaand Saudi Arabia, or the attack on theUSS Cole. It began before the 1993bombing of the World Trade Center,or the 1989 hanging of Marine LtColWilliam Higgins, who hadbeen taken hostage by ter-rorists.

Although it was not theopening salvo in the war,the suicide bombing of the1st Battalion, 8th MarinesHeadquarters Building inBeirut, Lebanon, on 23October 1983 was one of themost successful attacksagainst American interests.In that attack, 241 Americansdied; 220 were Marines andthe remainder were soldiersand Navy medical personnelassigned to the 24th MarineAmphibious Unit (MAU), ofwhich the 1st Battalion, 8thMarines, was a component.For the Marines, this was thehighest loss of life in a sin-gle day since the landing onIwo Jima in 1945.

Earlier in 1983, on 21 April, terror-ists had bombed the American

embassy in Beirut. That attack killed63 people, including 17 Americans.One of those killed was a member ofthe Marine Security Guard detachmentwho was on duty in the main lobby.On 19 October, four Marines in a sup-ply convoy were wounded by aremote controlled car bomb.Presumably, Palestinian terrorists were

responsible for these attacks. Therewas never an overt response byAmerican forces against any terroristorganization.

The Archives Section is the custodi-an of the records of the 1982 to

1984 Marine deployment to Beirut.There are no command chronologiesfor the 1st Battalion or the 8th Marinesfor the period July to December 1983.There are, however, commandchronologies from the 24th MAU forthe entire period. In addition, Archiveshouses extensive message traffic relat-ed to the bombing. These records pri-

marily show researchers how the mil-itary emergency medical evacuationsystem quickly began moving thewounded to hospitals in Europe.While some of the material is pendingreview by other agencies, most hasbeen declassified. The ArchivesSection is currently imaging thedeclassified records and copying themto CD-ROM. The project should becompleted by the end of 2003.

Benis M. Frank, the History and

Archives

Beirut, 20 Years Laterby Frederick J. GraboskeArchives Section Head

Museums Division’s oral historian dur-ing that period, conducted many inter-views with survivors. The interviewswere recorded on audiocassettes.There are more than 50 items listedunder the search topic “Beirut” in theoral history collection alone. A jointproject with the Navy Historical Centeris currently underway to convert alloral histories to digital format. So far,approximately 35 percent of the col-lection has been converted. Interviewsrelated to the Lebanon deploymentare among those now available in dig-ital format. Not all interviews havebeen transcribed, nor are there associ-

ated data sheets. In fact,approximately 30 percent of thecollection lacks data sheets. Avolunteer is currently listeningto the tapes and recordinginformation about the contents,which is then entered into asearchable database. There isan entry for every interview inthe database. While not alwayscomplete, the entries contain atleast a name and sometimes adate or unit.

In addition, the section’s mapcollection is being invento-

ried. To date, there are sevenmap entries for Beirut.Inasmuch as the section lacksthe ability to make large formatcopies, the collection is current-ly closed to the public.However, plans are in theworks to begin digitizing the

collect sometime this year, with theultimate goal of having it available onthe Internet.

The History and Museums Divisionproduced a history of the Lebanondeployment: U.S. Marines in Lebanon1982-1984. Written by Benis M. Frank,it is a detailed account of Marine activ-ities during this period and containsnumerous photographs. A few copiesstill are available through theDivision’s S-4. ❑ 1775❑

Photo: Department of Defense (USMC) 20031088146

A Marine patrol from BLT 2/6, the ground combat elementof the 22d Marine Amphibious Unit, takes cover afterreceiving fire in the Ouzai district of Beirut in March 1983.Behind the Marines is a French soldier in sunglasses.

Fortitudine, Vol. XXX, No.2, 2003 15

16 Fortitudine, Vol. XXX, No.2, 2003

History Writing

Series Honoring Korean War Heroes Completeby Charles R. Smith

History Writing Head

The official commemoration of the50th anniversary of the Korean

War ended this year with theDepartment of the Navy’s Sea ServicesOctober capstone event in SanFrancisco, California, honoring allKorean War veterans, and the Nation’sfinal commemorative event onVeteran’s Day in November in NewYork City. During the commemorativeperiod, which began on 25 June 2000,the History and Museums Division notonly created a large Korean Warexhibit with appropriate contempo-rary artifacts and photographs, butalso completed the publication of aseries of 50th anniversary pamphlets.

The Division had planned to pub-lish 12 titles, but completed the serieswith 11, the last of which appeared inNovember. The series, as published,covers every Marine Corps landingand campaign in Korea, as well asadditional topics related to aviation,helicopters and the contributions ofthe British Royal Marines and theKorean Marines.

The series of Korean War pamphletsmirrored the purposes of theDivision’s previous commemorativepamphlets: express appreciation tothe Korean War generation of Marines;reacquaint the American people withthe Marine Corps’ Korean War accom-plishments; and most importantly, telltoday’s Marines what their predeces-sors did 50 years before.

The first pamphlet to be published,Fire Brigade: U.S. Marines in thePusan Perimeter, by Capt John C.Chapin, USMCR (Ret), looked at theformation, employment and ultimatedissolution of the 1st ProvisionalMarine Brigade and the support ren-dered by Marine Aircraft Group 33during the fateful summer of 1950.Over the Seawall: U.S. Marines atInchon, by BGen Edwin H. Simmons,USMC (Ret), followed. A veteran ofthe landing, Simmons covered theevents leading up to Gen DouglasMacArthur’s bold stroke to cut off theNorth Korean’s thrust to the south, as

well as the landing and movementinland as Marines carried the attacktoward the South Korean capital. ColJoseph H. Alexander, USMC (Ret),takes the Marines 20 miles inlandthrough Yongdungpo, across the HanRiver and into Seoul. There, in Battleof the Barricades: U.S. Marines in theRecapture of Seoul, he takes the read-er from house to house, from barri-cade to barricade, through the fight forthe South Korean capital to the land-ing at Wonsan. Simmons completedthe campaigns of 1950 with FrozenChosin: U.S. Marines at the ChangjinReservoir. The pamphlet is the day-by-day, at times hour-by-hour, account of

individual heroism and perseveranceby Marines of the 1st Marines Divisionin the snow-covered mountains ofNorth Korea, which proved to be oneof the most remarkable feats in thestoried history of the Marine Corps.

LtCol Ronald J. Brown, USMCR(Ret), in Counteroffensive: U.S.

Marines from Pohang to No NameLine, describes the skirmishes and bat-tles involving the 1st Marine Divisionduring the first United Nations counteroffensive from late January to lateApril 1951, following the fight out ofthe Chosin Reservoir. Noted historian,Col Allan R. Millett, USMCR (Ret), fol-lowed with Drive North: U.S. Marines

at the Punchbowl, which tells the storyof fighting northeast of the HwachonReservoir during the summer and fallof 1951—some of the fiercest theMarine Corps has faced in its history.

Against the backdrop of ongoingpeace negotiations, Stalemate: U.S.Marines from Bunker Hill to the Hook,by Bernard C. Nalty, traces the effortsof the 1st Marine Division, followingits move across the Korean peninsulato hold the Jamestown Line during1952. Nalty followed up with OutpostWar: U.S. Marines from the NevadaBattles to the Armistice, which tells ofthe frequent and hard fight to defendthe main line of resistance at suchfamous outposts as Carson, Reno andVegas, north of the Imjin River alongthe trace of the 38th Parallel, thereturn of Marine prisoners of war fol-lowing the ceasefire and the with-drawal of the 1st Marine Division in1955.

The last three pamphlets, Corsairsto Panthers: U.S. Marine Aviation

in Korea, by MajGen John P. Condon,USMC (Ret), and Cdr Peter B. Mersky,USNR (Ret), Whirlybirds: U.S. MarineHelicopters in Korea, by LtCol RonaldJ. Brown, USMCR (Ret) and TrainWreckers and Ghost Killers: AlliedMarines in the Korean War, by Leo J.Daugherty III, tell the stories of Marineairmen, the first use by the MarineCorps of the helicopter in combat andthe contributions of our allied Marinesforces—the British Royal Marines andthe Marines of the South KoreanMarine Corps.

Now that the Korean War commem-orative period is over and the pam-phlet series is completed, the Divisioncan look back at the effort with plea-sure and pride. We have receivedpraise ranging from delight to findingthe pamphlets “informative and essen-tial.” We hope we have accomplishedwhat we set out to do: honor theMarine veteran and educate today’syoung Marines about the history andtraditions of their Corps. ❑ 1775❑

Logo design by W. Stephen Hill

LtGen Alpha L.Bowser, Jr.

LtGen AlphaL. Bowser, Jr.USMC (Ret),died 13 July2003 in Kailu,Hawaii, at theage of 92. Bornin Crafton,Pennsylvania,he was commissioned a Marine sec-ond lieutenant upon graduation fromthe U.S. Naval Academy in June 1932.

During World War II, Bowser partic-ipated in Marine operations on NewGeorgia, Bougainville, Guam and IwoJima. He was awarded a Legion ofMerit with Combat “V” and twoBronze Stars for heroism and out-standing service.

Following World War II, he servedin several assignments at Quanticoand later on the Staff of Fleet MarineForce Pacific, in Honolulu, Hawaii. InJuly 1950, he was ordered to Korea,where he served as Assistant Chief ofStaff, G-3, 1st Marine Division. Foroutstanding service during the Inchon-Seoul and Chosin Reservoir cam-paigns, he was awarded a second andthird Legion of Merit with Combat “V.”

After his return from Korea, Bowserserved in a variety of assignments,including duty at Camp Pendleton,California, and later as Staff Officer,Plans Branch, and Senior MarineOfficer, Supreme Headquarters, AlliedPowers, Europe (SHAPE). In August1956, he assumed command of theRecruit Training Command, MarineCorps Recruit Depot, San Diego, andwas promoted to brigadier general inSeptember 1956.

In June 1958, he became AssistantDivision Commander, 1st MarineDivision, at Camp Pendleton, and inJanuary 1959, he was assigned duty asCommanding General, Marine CorpsBase Twentynine Palms, California.He was promoted to major general inJuly 1960. From 1963 to 1965, he

Fortitudine, Vol. XXX, No.2, 2003 17

served as the Commanding General atMarine Corps Base Camp Lejeune.

Nominated for three-star rank inMarch 1965, LtGen Bowser began hislast active duty assignment asCommanding General, Fleet MarineForce, Atlantic, in July 1965. He retiredfrom active duty on 30 June 1967, andwas awarded the DistinguishedService Medal.

LtGen Louis B.Robertshaw

LtGen LouisB. Robertshaw,USMC (Ret),died 14 July2003 in Chester-town, Maryland,at the age of 90.The Philadel-phia, Pennsylvania native was com-missioned a Marine second lieutenantupon graduation from the U.S. NavalAcademy in 1936.

Prior to the outbreak of World WarII, Robertshaw served several tours ofduty with the 2d Marine Brigade inChina. Following his return to theUnited States in 1940, he was assignedto the Naval Academy as ExecutiveOfficer of the Marine Detachment, andalso coached the football and basket-ball teams. He entered flight school atthe Naval Air Station, Pensacola,Florida in February 1942, and upongraduation in August 1942, was desig-nated a Naval Aviator.

During World War II, Robertshawearned two awards of theDistinguished Flying Cross, along withsix air medals, for heroism in combatoperations in the Solomons area. Healso served during the war at MarineCorps Air Station El Toro, California,Fleet Marine Force, Pacific, Hawaii,and later, as Marine Aviation Officeron the staff of the Commander, NavalActivities, Japan.

During the Korean War, Robertshawserved as Commanding Officer ofMarine Aircraft Group 33, 1st Marine

Aircraft Wing, and was awarded theLegion of Merit with Combat “V,” athird Distinguished Flying Cross andhis seventh through eleventh AirMedals.

Following his return to the UnitedStates, Robertshaw served in a numberof assignments, including tours of dutyat Quantico; Cherry Point, NorthCarolina; Iwakuni, Japan; andGlenview, Illinois.

Robertshaw assumed command ofthe 1st Marine Aircraft Wing in May1966. He received a Gold Star in lieuof his twelfth Air Medal for meritori-ous achievement in aerial flights inVietnam during the period 27 Januaryto 25 May 1967. He also was awardedthe Distinguished Service Medal alongwith several Vietnamese decorations.

Upon his return to the United Statesin July 1967, he assumed duties as theMarine Corps Liaison Officer on thestaff of the Chief of Naval Operations,and for service in this capacity wasawarded the Gold Star in lieu of a sec-ond Legion of Merit. In July 1968, hewas appointed Inspector General ofthe Marine Corps.

Upon assuming duties as DeputyChief of Staff (Manpower) andDirector of Personnel at HeadquartersMarine Corps in April 1969,Robertshaw received his third star. Forhis service in this assignment, he wasawarded a Gold Star in lieu of a thirdLegion of Merit. Robertshaw retiredfrom active duty on 1 July 1971, after35 years of Marine Corps service.

Felix W. deWeldon

Felix W. deWeldon, thesculptor of theinspiring MarineCorps WarMemorial inA r l i n g t o n ,Virginia, died 2June 2003 in Woodstock, Virginia, atthe age of 96. The native of Vienna,

In Memoriam

LtGen Alpha L. Bowser, Jr. Passesby Robert V. Aquilina

Reference Section Assistant Head

LtGen Alpha L. Bowser, Jr.

LtGen Louis B. Robertshaw

Felix W. de Weldon

tions, specifically New Georgia,Bouganville, Guam and Okinawa. Atthe war’s end, he returned to theMarine Corps Reserve and was amember of the 5th Infantry Battalionin Washington, D.C. Regan was pro-moted to major in 1943 and to lieu-tenant colonel in 1951. He retired fromthe Marine Corps Reserve in 1957.Regan was a member of the MarineCorps Heritage Foundation.

Leon Uris

Leon Uris, a former Marine and best-selling author of such novels as Exodusand Battle Cry, died 21 June 2003 at theage of 78. A native of Baltimore,Maryland, Uris quit high school to jointhe Marine Corps in 1941. He partici-pated in combat operations onGuadalcanal and Tarawa. Followingthe war, he began work on Battle Cry,which was based on his Marine Corpsexperiences in the Pacific. Uris wenton to author several more popularnovels and screenplays, includingTopaz, an espionage thriller, Trinity, anepic best seller about Ireland, and hiscelebrated portrayal of the founding ofIsrael, Exodus. His last book, O’Hara’sChoice, was released in October anddeals with the Marine Corps followingthe Civil War. ❑ 1775❑

18 Fortitudine,Vol. XXX, No.2, 2003

Washington, D.C. area, the MarineCorps War Memorial arguably remainshis most famous work.

Donald T. Regan

Donald T. Regan, a former Marinewho served as Secretary of theTreasury and later as Chief of Staffunder President Ronald Reagan, diedin Williamsburg, Virginia, at the age of84.

Regan left Harvard Law School in1940 to enlist in the Marine CorpsOfficer Candidate program. He subse-quently served as an enlisted Marinefrom October 1940 until February1941. He was commissioned a secondlieutenant in the Marine Corps Reserveon 20 February 1941 at Quantico, andwas assigned to the Fourth ReserveOfficers Course. On 3 August 1941, heresigned his Reserve commission toaccept a Regular commission. InOctober 1941, he was assigned to the5th Defense Battalion and went withthe unit to Iceland. The battalionreturned to the United States in March1942. In July, he was transferred to the11th Defense Battalion and sailed withthe unit in December to EspirituSanto, New Hebrides. By this time, hewas a captain. As an artillery officer,Regan served in four Pacific opera-

Austria, obtained his bachelor degreeat Marchetti College in 1925, andreceived M.A. and M.S. degrees in1927 from the University of Vienna’sAcademy of Creative Arts and Schoolof Architecture. He was awarded aPh.D. degree at the same institution in1929. He also studied in Paris, Rome,Florence and Oxford before settling inthe United States in 1938. By that time,he was an acknowledged sculptor andhad received commissions to createbusts of members of the British royal-ty.

During World War II, de Weldonserved in the United States Navy andwas a combat artist stationed atPatuxent River Naval Air Station inMaryland. His admiration of thefamous 28 February 1945 JoeRosenthal photograph, which depictsthe second flag raising atop MountSuribachi on Iwo Jima, inspired him tocreate the sculpture that wouldreceive international acclaim. Theresulting Marine Corps War Memorialtook hundreds of assistants and nearlya decade to complete. The memorialwas dedicated on 10 November 1954,and continues to this day to drawthousands of visitors annually.Although de Weldon sculpted morethan 30 monuments for the

1. Which Commandants of the Marine Corps led theCorps during the period of Marine deployments toLebanon?

2. Which Marine Amphibious Unit was the first to land inLebanon in August 1982 to supervise the evacuation ofthe Palestinian Liberation Organization from Beirut?

3. In late February 1983, Marines conducted relief opera-tions in the town of Quartaba and the Syrian-held ter-ritory in Lebanon’s central mountains, during what nat-ural disaster?

4. As members of the Multinational Force, units fromwhich three countries worked with U.S. Marines towardending factional fighting and establishing stability inLebanon?

5. Having left Lebanon in June 1983, Marines of the 22dMarine Amphibious Unit participated in the 25 Octoberto 2 November 1983 operation on this Caribbean islandnation before returning to Lebanon in November.

6. Which venerable Navy battleship participating in the

Lebanon operation was a veteran of World War II,Korea and Vietnam?

7. A suicide truck loaded with explosives destroyed theheadquarters building of the 1st Battalion, 8th Marines,in Beirut, Lebanon, killing 242 U.S. servicemen, onwhat date?

8. In November 1983, as a result of the Commandant’srequest for an investigation of the bombing incident,the Department of Defense established the Commissionon the Beirut International Airport Terrorist Attack.Who was appointed head of this commission?

9. In his first series of Christmas shows to U.S. troopsoverseas since the Vietnam War, what well-knowncomedian and his troupe spent the 1983 holidays per-forming and visiting Marines?

10. In his December 1983 welcoming remarks to the 24thMarine Amphibious Unit returning to Camp Lejeunefrom Lebanon, who said, “Where do we get such men?”

(Answers on page 23)

Historical Quiz

Marines in Lebanon, 1982-1984by Lena M. Kaljot

Reference Historian

was black. Also, when the USS Maineblew up in the harbor in Havana, Cuba,22 of the 260 American sailors killedwere black.

At the onset of World War I, blackswere turned away at many recruitingstations. However, the new SelectiveService Act of June 1917 mandated theenlistment of all able-bodied menbetween the ages of 22 and 31. By 5July 1917, more than 70,000 blackswere registered. But of the 367,710black draftees who ultimately served inWWI, 89 percent were assigned tolabor, supply and service units. Only ahandful, primarily in the NationalGuard and a few Southern drafteeunits, ever saw combat. Still, the blacksoldiers served with distinction, with 14black officers and 43 enlisted menreceiving Distinguished ServiceCrosses. Some examples Buckleypoints out were men such as SergeantHenry Johnson and Private NeedhamRoberts, whose heroic exploits during aGerman ambush in 1918 made themthe first Americans to earn the Croix deGuerre, a French award presented forgallantry in action. In fact, the entire369th Infantry, a primarily black regi-ment known as the HarlemHellfighters, proved themselves during

Books in Review

The Battle for Equalityby Canute Malcolm

Historical Center Library Intern

WWI and retuned as one of the U.S.Army’s most decorated regiments.

World War II was even more segre-gated than WWI. It was a war of enor-mous firsts, with blacks serving as fight-er pilots, female soldiers, armored com-bat personnel, paratroopers, naval offi-cers and Marines. Buckley tells how thefirst black Marines underwent segregat-ed training at the Montford Point Camp,North Carolina. It was here suchfamous black Marines as Sergeant MajorGibert H. “Hashmark” and SergeantMajor Edgar R. Huff were trained.

The Korean War became the first offi-cially integrated war since theRevolution. Among the black Marineheroes was Lieutenant General Frank E.Petersen, who in his 38-year careerbecame the first black Marine aviator.While the Marine Corps was the lastservice to integrate, it was the first toeliminate overt segregation from itsranks.

The Vietnam War drastically changedthe face of the military. With OperationDesert Storm, racial equality in the mil-itary was in full bloom. Buckley claimsthe military has made more progress interms of racial equality than has societyat large, and says society could learnfrom today’s military in ensuring equal-ity.

American Patriots is not only a valu-able scholarly tome, it reveals the basichuman qualities of the men andwomen who have served this country.Buckley interviewed several WWII vet-erans who fought on foreign soilagainst an enemy whose ideology waswhite supremacy and Nazism. But insome cases, their return home broughtthem face-to-face with ideas similar tothose they had fought against.

There have been great strides madein the military, and according toBuckley it is one of the greatest institu-tions in recognizing and promotingmen and women regardless of race orcolor. Today’s military, and especiallytoday’s Marine Corps, is truly a mixedmultitude fighting to make Americaproud. ❑ 1775❑

American Patriots: The Story ofBlacks in the Military from the

Revolution to Desert Storm. By GailBuckley. Random House, New York,NY, 2001, 534 Pp.

The history of blacks in the U.S. mil-itary is long and distinguished, and GailBuckley’s insightful book, AmericanPatriots, is a celebration of the roleblack Americans have played in allmajor U.S. wars from the RevolutionaryWar to Desert Storm. In her book,Buckley illustrates how the story ofblacks in the military is not just blackhistory, but American history thatshould be part of the consciousness ofthe nation in general.

In going to war, black men andwomen believed they could better theirsocioeconomic situation and maketheir country true to its best promisethat “all men are created equal.” Noneof the wars America has fought havebeen fought without black Americans,whether in an integrated or segregatedsetting. According to GeorgeWashington, his army was a “mixedmultitude.” Unfortunately, that wouldbe the last such mix the U.S. militarywould see until the Korean War, 175years later.

During the Civil War, even moreblacks filled the rank and file despitethe Union Army’s hesitancy aboutblacks fighting. But with theEmancipation Proclamation in January1863, the first black division, the UnitedStates Colored Troops, was broughtinto the Civil War and took part in thebattles for Vicksburg and Richmond. Bythe end of the Civil War, blacksaccounted for nearly 12 percent of theentire Union Army.

Reconstruction brought prosperity. Itwas a time intellectuals such as WilliamEdward Burghardt DuBois referred toas “the mystic years.” Between 1870and 1877, eight blacks were admitted toWest Point.

The role of blacks in the Indian Warsand in the Spanish American War islegendary. Buckley says one in everyfive soldiers involved in these conflicts

Fortitudine,Vol. XXX, No.2, 2003 19

20 Fortitudine,Vol. XXX, No.2, 2003

Oral History

Women Marines Association: 60 Years of Serviceby Fred H. Allison

Oral Historian

This year marks 60 years of contin-uous service by women in the

Marine Corps. Although womenserved as Marines in World War I (theNavy and Marines were the only ser-vices that enlisted women), the“Marinettes,” as they were known,were disbanded after the war. Whenthe nation mobilized in World War II,all the services added women to theirranks—the Marines did so in 1943.Serving under the motto, “Free aMarine to Fight,” there were about19,000 women Marines on active dutyduring World War II, roughly thenumerical strength of a Marine divi-sion. One World War II Commandant,LtGen Alexander A. Vandegrift, notingthis similarity and reflecting on thewomen Marines’ motto, commentedthat they “could feel responsible forputting the 6th Marine Division in thefield.” Interestingly, only the MarineCorps welcomed women into its ranksas full-fledged members rather than asan auxiliary, as was the case in theother services. They even carried thename Marine, instead of some catchyacronym such as WAVES, WACs,WASPS or WAAFs. Since their begin-nings in World War II, women havebeen increasingly prominent in theMarine Corps and their duties havemoved them ever closer to the mainline of resistance.

In 1960, a group of Marines orga-nized the Women Marines Association(WMA). Like most Marine veterans’organizations, one of the prime objec-tives of the WMA is to collect and pre-serve their history. Under the leader-ship of the current president, LtGenCarol A. Mutter, USMC (Ret), the WMAis indeed accomplishing this missionby tapping into the wealth of historicalinformation among its members. Thisis being done through a collaborativeoral history project with the Historyand Museums Division’s Oral Historyunit. Col Eleanor Wilson, USMCR(Ret), long involved in interviewingveteran women Marines, has the lead

country understand what is required.Individuals then step forward to con-duct interviews and associated paper-work for their local chapters. As aresult, 70 oral histories have beenadded to the oral history collection.

This project benefits a number ofparties. Most obviously, the

Marine Corps Historical Program,which has acquired quality oral histo-ries that document an importantaspect of Marine Corps history. TheWMA also benefits by having its col-lective memory retained in the officialMarine Corps Oral History Collection.Finally, since the Marine CorpsHistory Division is an official partnerwith the comprehensive VeteransProject of the Library of Congress,these interviews support that institu-tion’s efforts to document and pre-serve America’s overall military expe-rience. ❑ 1775❑

for the WMA in this project. But there is much more to the WMA

project than doing interviews—that isthe easy part. The Marine Corps OralHistory Program has established stan-dards and procedures that must bemet before oral histories become partof the collection. These proceduresapply to anyone who submits oral his-tories to the oral history collection,including the full time oral historians,the USMC Reserve field historians andvolunteer efforts like those of theWMA.

Col Wilson and the women whohave participated in the WMA pro-

ject have overcome the logistical chal-lenge of collecting interviews from anationwide membership. By outliningthe program’s goals and procedures,and including copies of the neededforms in their newsletter,Nouncements, members across the

Photo donated by Lucille Teixeira of the WMA

LtCol Eleanor Hill (center, facing camera) inspects PFC Lucille Teixeira during auniform inspection of the 13th Infantry Battalion’s Reserve Disbursing Platoonin 1958 at the Landing Force Training Unit in Norfolk, Virginia. Assisting in theinspection is MSgt Ellen Murphy (left) and Maj Frances Tayor.

Fortitudine, Vol. XXX, No.2, 2003 21

In August 2003, an exiting and com-pelling new historical exhibit illumi-

nating the life and times of LtGen JohnArcher Lejuene was dedicated andopened to the public in Lejeune Hall,Camp Lejeune, North Carolina. Prior tothe unveiling of the exhibit, MajGenDavid M. Mize, the 51st CommandingGeneral of Marine Corps Base CampLejeune, presided over a formal cere-mony that included his openingremarks and a ribbon cutting.

This Lejeune exhibit introduces arich amalgamation of photographs,posters, letters, documents, medals,uniforms and an interesting infusion ofselect and unique military objects. Thepresentation of these artifacts andobjects bring to life Gen Lejeune’sextensive contributions to the nationand our United States Marine Corps.The foyer and corridors of LejeuneHall have been effectively transformedinto a tasteful history and museum set-ting.

Plans for the expansion of theLejeune exhibit are ongoing. The ulti-mate goal is to make the exhibit andits future additions a permanent fea-ture for the appreciation of all whopass through the corridors of LejeuneHall. Young Marines and history buffswill forever be enriched by the knowl-

edge and enlightenment provided bythe segments on the institutional her-itage of the Marine Corps. The realvalue of this exhibit is centered in theeducational context.

“The intent of the exhibit is to edu-cate base personnel and visitors onthe life and legacy of the base’s name-sake, as well as to educate our visitorson an important aspect of our richMarine Corps history—the life andcontributions of General John A.Lejeune,” Gen Mize said during theceremony.

Much of the success of this newexhibit is due to budget, support,desire, efforts, diverse talents, skillsand focus of staff members fromHeadquarters, Marine Corps BaseCamp Lejeune; the Gray ResearchCenter; the Marine Corps UniversityFoundation; and the History andMuseums Division of Marine CorpsUniversity.

The Museums Branch, ExhibitSection, provided the lead with designconcepts, ideas, exhibit planning, fab-rication and installation. The MuseumsBranch and its curators provided atasteful selection of artifacts, as well as

expertise and assistance with storylinedevelopment. The efforts put forth bysuch a team of talented and dedicatedMarines and civilian employees hasbeen the hallmark of producing thisexciting and compelling historicalexhibit. ❑ 1775❑

Exhibit News

Exhibit Highlights Gen John A. Lejeuneby James A. Fairfax

Exhibits Section Head

A portrait of Gen John A. Lejeune,painted by John Joseph Capolina in the1930s, is diplayed above a set ofLejeune’s glass-encased medals anddecorations.

Col James E. Schleining was one of thespeakers during the dedication cere-mony of the new exhibit in LejeuneHall.

Highlighting the new exhibit in Lejeune Hall is a plaster bust of Gen John A.Lejeune augmented on either side by cased displays of his uniforms, artifacts andother pertiment military objects.

22 Fortitudine,Vol. XXX, No.2, 2003

former Commandant Gen James L.Jones (currently commander of theEuropean Command). The authorfocuses on the battle through recollec-tions from members of the company.The narrative is organized to followthe geographic locations of the actionsinterspersed with the personal narra-tives of Marines who fought there. Thebook includes photographs, a listingof members of the company and thecommand chronologies for 2dBattalion, 3d Marine Regiment, May1968.

Hawaii’s World War II Military Sites;a Comprehensive Guide Focusing onOahu. Col Charles A. Jones, USMCR.Honolulu, HI: Mutual Publishing,2002. 250 Pp.

This guidebook looks at the sites onthe island of Oahu that were affectedby December 7, 1941 and the sites thatwere involved in the entire war in thePacific. The book also offers historicalsketches for each of the sites.Included are personal perspectives onthe war, narratives of Medal of Honorwinners and a description of the codebreakers who contributed to the Battle

of Midway in 1942. There are descrip-tions of the Marine Corps Air StationEwa, the home of Marine AircraftGroup 21 (MAG-21), and MarineCorps Base Kaneohe Bay. Col Jones iscurrently attached to U.S. MarineForces, Atlantic. The book includesphotographs, maps and a forward byDaniel Martinez, Nation Park Servicehistorian of the USS Arizona. The Website is www.pearlharborguide.com.

West Dickens Avenue; a Marine atKhe Sanh. John Corbett. New York,NY: Ballantine Books, 2003. 205 Pp.

In January 1968, the 26th Marineswere ordered to Khe Sanh in thenorthwest corner of Vietnam over-looking the Ho Chi Minh trail. Nearly20,000 North Vietnamese surroundedthe base days after John Corbett andhis unit arrived, outnumbering theMarines 7 to 1. Over the next 27 days,the battle for Khe Sanh became one ofthe deadliest fights of the VietnamWar. This is the author’s personalaccount of the siege of Khe Sanh andincludes photographs by the author.

13-Cent Killers; the 5th Marine

Present and former Marinesauthored many of the following

books about the Marine Corps. Mostof the books listed here are availablethrough brick-and-mortar or onlinebookstores, or from local libraries andthe interlibrary loan program.

The United States Marines, a History.Fourth Edition. BGen Edwin HowardSimmons, USMC (Ret), Annapolis, MD:Naval Institute Press, 2003. 403 Pp.

This Fourth Edition of GenSimmons’ history brings the story ofthe Marine Corps up to 2001. Thisupdated edition includes Lebanon,Grenada, Panama, the Persian GulfWar, Bangladesh, Somalia and Haiti.There is a forward written by formerCommandant Gen James L. Jones,USMC. (Gen Simmons is DirectorEmeritus of the History and MuseumsDivision.)

Foxtrot Ridge: A Battle Remembered.Mark W. Woodruff. Clearwater FL:Vandamere Press, 2002. 216 Pp.

This is a detailed view of a battlefought 25 to 28 May 1968 by theMarines of Foxtrot Company, 2dBattalion, 3d Marines, commanded by

Book Notes

Books by Marinesby Evelyn A. Englander

Historical Center Librarian

Fortitudine, Vol. XXX, No.2, 2003 23

Snipers in Vietnam. John J.Culbertson. New York, NY: BallantineBooks, 2003. 272 Pp.

John Culberston, author ofOperation Tuscaloosa; 2d Battalion,5th Marines at An Hoa, 1967 and ASniper in the Arizona: 2d Battalion,5th Marines in the Arizona Territory,1967, tells the stories of members ofthe 5th Marine Regiment SniperPlatoon, marksman so lethal and sofeared the Viet Cong offered hugerewards for killing them. Theirs wasthe most decorated regimental sniperplatoon of the war. The book featuresa forward by LtCol Ron Brown (authorof A Few Good Men.)

Baghdad Express; a Gulf WarMemoir. Joel Turnipseed. St. Paul, MN:Borealis Books, 2003. 203 Pp.

The author was a reservist whoserved on active duty during thePersian Gulf War with the 6th MotorTransport Battalion, nicknamed the“Baghdad Express.” The battalionhauled truckloads of explosive ammu-nition across hundreds of miles ofdesert. Turnipseed was a philosophystudent when his unit was activated.He later became a Bread Loaf Scholar.This background served him well inthe writing of his memoir of the GulfWar. The Web site is www.baghdad-express.com.

The March Up; Taking Baghdadwith the 1st Marine Division. BingWest and MajGen Ray L. Smith, USMC(Ret). New York: Bantam Dell, 2003.289 Pp.

In writing their book aboutOperation Iraqi Freedom, the authors,both Marine Corps combat veterans,traveled with the 1st Marine Divisionin 18 separate units using a NissanPathfinder that formerly belonged toan Iraqi general. They describe the 1stMarine Division’s march on Baghdadfrom its beginnings in the south, to thecapture of prisoners, through theaggressive assault that led to victory.

With an introduction by John Keegan,the book also includes color pho-tographs, maps, organizational tablesand a glossary of terms.

O’Hara’s Choice. Leon Uris. NewYork, NY: HarperCollins Publishers,October 2003, 400 Pp.

Leon Uris’ long writing career hasbeen framed with his very first novel,Battle Cry, and this, his last novel,focusing on the Marine Corps. AMarine in WWII, he had a lifetime lovefor the Corps. Covering the last yearsof the 19th Century, O’Hara’s Choicetells the story of Zachary O’Hara, sonof Civil War Marine legend PaddyO’Hara. The book details Zach’scareer, his dedication to the Corps andhis willingness to fight for its very sur-vival. Woven into the narrative is thestory of Zach’s love for Amanda Kerrand the very stormy path of their rela-tionship. In the end, Zach is facedwith a difficult choice: Amanda or theCorps. ❑ 1775❑

Answers to theHistorical Quiz

1. Gen Robert H. Barrow (1 July 1979to 30 June 1983) and Gen Paul X.Kelley (1 July 1983 to 30 June 1987)

2. 32d Marine Amphibious Unit

3. A blizzard

4. France, Italy and Great Britain

5. Grenada

6. USS New Jersey

7. 23 October 1983

8. Adm Robert L. G. Long, USN (Ret)(nicknamed the Long Commission)

9. Bob Hope

10. Gen Paul X. Kelley

Marines in Lebanon,1982-1984

(Questions on page 18)

Library Needs Back IssuesThe Marine Corps History and Museums

Division library needs the January, February,May and June 1943 issues for Leatherneck mag-azine. Also, the library needs the 1950 volumeof the Marine Corps Gazette or January-December 1950 issues, and any issues of theSea Tiger newspaper, especially for 1970. Todonate copies to the library collection, pleasemail them to: MCHF Library Donation, P.O. Box998, Quantico, VA 22134-0998.

24 Fortitudine,Vol. XXX, No.2, 2003

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