Building Theory in the Social Sciences

Alan Dennisardennis@indiana.edu

November 13, 2009

Agenda• What is Theory• What is Interesting Theory• Variance Theory versus Process Theory• Theory Building is Research• Testing and Generalizing Theory

You say tomato, I say tomato

What is Theory

Theory is1. the explanation of a relationship between two

entities: why A influences B– Why do people adopt new technologies?

2. the explanation of factors underlying a specific phenomenon– Why was Windows Vista not widely adopted?

3. the explanation of a phenomenon– What does it mean to adopt a technology?

From: Abend, 2008

Theory is4. the explanation of theoretical meaning

– What is Marxist theory?5. an overall perspective of understanding

– Technology can be thought of as a system of people and tools

6. and so on

From: Abend, 2008

For the purpose of this Workshop, I’ll use definition 1:the explanation of a relationship between two entities: why A influences B

Components of a Theory• What

• the entities that comprise the relationship• How

• the relationship(s) among the entities• Why

• the underlying dynamics that link the entities• Who, Where, When

• the boundary conditions to the relationship

From: Whetten, 1989

ToulminClaim

ReasonsEvidence

ContextQualifiersReservations

Components of a Theory

From: Whetten, 1989

Entity A Entity B

Because …….

Boundary Conditions

What

How

Why Who, Where, When

Big T Theory versus small t theory• Big T Theories are given a name and usually

have an acronym, written in capital letters• Little t theories explain a phenomenon within a

smaller domain, often an empirical paper

Dennis and Valacich, 2001

What Theory is Not• References• Data• Variables and Constructs• Boxes and Arrows• Hypotheses

Sutton and Staw, 1995

Theory is a story with a plot that explains how and why the characters (entities) interact with each other

Is This Theory? Why or Why Not? The intention to adopt a new technology has often been

influenced by the perceived usefulness of that technology – the extent to which the technology can enable the user to accomplish a needed task. Venkatesh et al. (2003) conducted several experiments with undergraduate students and found that perceived usefulness had a significant positive impact on the intention to adopt. As perceived usefulness increased, so did the intention to adopt. This relationship has been observed in many other studies in a variety of experimental and organization settings (Morris, et al., 2000; Taylor and Todd, 2005; Venkatesh, et al. 2000). Therefore:

H1: The perceived usefulness of a technology has a direct positive relationship with the intention to adopt that technology

Don’t write to get published, Write to get read (and cited)

What is Interesting Theory

Upending Conventional Wisdom is Interesting• Organization

• Something that appears to be organized/chaotic isn’t• Stability

• Something that appears to be stable/changing isn’t• Evaluation

• Something that appears to be good/bad isn’t• Correlation

• Two things that appear to be independent/related aren’t• Causation

• The independent variable is the dependent variable

From: Davis, 1971

Finding the Essence is Interesting• Starting a New Research Stream

• Studying the uncommon, but not the unnecessary• Formal Models

• Translating behavior into math• Simplifying the Complex

• The definition of a Nobel prize in physics is“Oh #$@!, why didn’t I think of that.”

From: Tesser, 2000

Extending Implicationsis Interesting• Surprising Implications of the Obvious

• When obvious truths leads to unexpected predictions• Implications of the Bizarre

• When “impossible” beliefs are true• Look for paradox

• Scientific discovery does not start with the word “Eureka”; it starts with the words “That’s funny.”

From: Tesser, 2000

What is Interesting?1. As the perceived ease of use of a

technology increases, so does the intention to adopt.

2. As Web sites get slower, Internet users search for more data before making a decision.

3. Novice Internet users are more likely than experienced users to believe that Web sites presented first in a Google search are “better” than others in the list.

Every good variance theory has a good process theory at its core

Variance Theory versus Process Theory

• Variance theory strives to understand “What” • What entities explain the behavior of another entity?• What explains the variance in an entity’s behavior?• Variables with different attributes affect other variables• Often tested with quantitative data

Variance Theory

From: Van de Ven, 2007

Technology Acceptance Model is a Variance Theory

Perceived Ease of Use

Intention to AdoptPerceived

Usefulness

• Process theory strives to understand “How” • How do entities explain the behavior of another entity?• How do events explain the behavior of an entity?• Entities move through different stages at different times• Often tested with qualitative data

Process Theory

From: Van de Ven, 2007

Roger’s Theory of Adoption is a Process Theory

Knowledge

Persuasion

Decision

Implementation

Confirmation

Accept

Reject

Use qualitative and quantitative research techniques to build theory, where the

data are the components of theory

Theory Building is Research

The Rational Model of Science

From: Martin, 1982

Theory

Method

Data

Analysis

Conclusions

is a waterfall model

Get “The Idea”

The IdeaA B

Mine your Garbage Can

The Garbage Can Model of Science

From: Martin, 1982

Prior Theory

Prior Theory in Other Disciplines

Methods

Resources

Personal Experiences

The IdeaA B

Prior Empirical Results

Define “The Idea” The IdeaA B

What – Define the entitiesHow – Define how the entities are related (hypothesis)Why – Tell the story why the entities are relatedWho, When, Where – Explain the boundary conditions

Who, When, WhereWhatWhyHow

We often write the theoryin a different order than we think about it

How do I know what I think until I hear what I say?

Refine “The Idea”

The IdeaA B

Targeted Literature Search

Thought Experiments

Like Qualitative Research• Search for evidence to support or refute your idea

• One hypothesis at a time• Code articles (at the paragraph level) that offer evidence about your idea

• Both theoretical processes and data• Review the codings, change the categories, iterate• Multiple raters (authors) debate the evidence and

change the idea

Targeted Literature Search

The IdeaA B

Like Quantitative Research• Set up tests of your idea like experiments• Think about the manipulations • Run the experiment in your mind• Multiple raters (authors) debate the evidence and change the idea

Thought Experiments

The IdeaA B

The literature search and thought experiments guide your thinking, not dominate it.

If you don’t like what the literature tells you can change your “data.”

You Can Change Your “Data”

Assess “The Idea”• What’s New?

• Value-added contribution to current thinking• So What?

• Will this change research or practice?• Why So?

• Is the underlying logic solid?• Well Done?

• Is it complete and thorough?• Done Well?

• Is it well written and understandable?

From: Whetten, 1989

The IdeaA B

What’s in Your Garbage Can?

From: Martin, 1982

Prior Theory

Prior Theory in Other Disciplines

Methods

Resources

Personal Experiences

The IdeaA B

Prior Empirical Results

Every research method is critically flawed

Testing and Generalizing Theory

The 3-Horned Dilemma

Adapted : McGrath, 1982

Lab Experiments

Field Studies

Surveys

Maximum Precision

Maximum Generalizability

Maximum Realism

Field Experiments

Math Models

Generalization

Lee and Baskerville, 2003

Theory

Data

Generalize

Draw Conclusions

Instantiate Theory

Data Draw Conclusions

Instantiate

Setting 1 Setting 2

• Publishing a theory is like marketing a new product• Find the message of the theory

• Its unique selling proposition • Know the attributes that help sell a theory

• Who developed it (halo effect) • Its origins (borrowed theory is easier to sell)• Simplicity sells faster than the complex• Consistency with current Zeitgeist

• Test market the theory• With colleagues• At conferences

Is Science Marketing?

Peter and Olson, 1993

Questions

I’m teaching BUS S798 on Theory Building and Dissertation Proposal Writing in the Spring Semester

If you would like the slides, send me an email at: ardennis@indiana.edu

Activities

1. How can you upend conventional wisdom, find the essence, or draw implications in your research?

2. Is yours a variance theory or a process theory?3. How can you mine your garbage can for ideas?4. What thought experiments can you do?5. Assess your idea: what’s new, so what, why so,

well done, done well?6. How can you market your idea?

ReferencesAbend, G. “The Meaning of They, Sociological Theory, 26:2, 2008, 173-199.

Davis, M. S. “That's Interesting: Toward a Phenomenology of Sociology and a Sociology of Phenomenonology,” Philosophy of Social Science,1, 1971, 309-344.

Dennis, A. R., and Valacich, J. S. “Conducting Experimental Research in Information Systems, Communications of the AIS, 2001, 7:5

Lee, Allen S.; Baskerville, Richard L., “Generalizing Generalizability in Information Systems Research,” Information Systems Research, 14:3, 2003, 221-243.

Martin, J. (1982) "A Garbage Can Model of the Research Process," in J.E.McGrath (ed.) Judgment Calls in Research, Beverly Hills: Sage, pp. 17-39

McGrath, J.E. (1982) "Dilemmatics: The Study of Research Choices and Dilemmas," in J.E. McGrath (ed.) Judgment Calls in Research, Beverly Hills: Sage, pp. 69-80

Peter, J. P. and J. C. Olson, (1983) "Is Science Marketing?" Journal of Marketing, (47) pp. 111-125.

Sutton, R. I. And Staw, B. M. (1995) "What Theory is Not," Administrative Science Quarterly, (40), pp. 371-384.

Tesser, A. “Theories and Hypotheses,” in Sternberg, R. J. (ed) Guide to Publishing in the Psychology Journals, Cambridge University Press, 2000, 58-80.

Van de Ven, A. Engaged Scholarship, Oxford, 2007

Whetten, D.A. (1989) “What Constitutes a Theoretical Contribution?” Academy of Management Review, (14), pp.490-495