building a high-quality teaching professionbuilding a high-quality teaching profession: lessons from...
TRANSCRIPT
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Building a High-Quality Teaching Profession Lessons from around THe worLd
Background Report for the International Summit on the Teaching Profession
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Building a High-Quality Teaching Profession
Lessons from around the worLd
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Table of contents
3© OECD 2011âBuildingâaâHigH-QualityâteacHingâProfession:âlessonsâfromâaroundâtHeâWorld
IntroductIonâ.......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5
chapter 1 RecRuitment and initial pRepaRation of teacheRsâ.............................................................................. 7â âąâmakingâteachingâanâattractiveâcareerâchoiceâ............................................................................................................................... 8â âąâensuringâhigh-qualityâinitialâteacherâeducationâ....................................................................................................................... 14
chapter 2 teacheR development, suppoRt, caReeRs and employment conditionsâ........................... 17 â âąâmeetingâtheâneedâforâprofessionalâdevelopmentâ.................................................................................................................... 18 âąâfosteringâanâenvironmentâforâeffectiveâteacherâcollaborationâ....................................................................................... 23
âąâestablishingâeffectiveâemploymentâconditionsâ......................................................................................................................... 26â âąâProvidingâforâattractiveâcareersâ........................................................................................................................................................... 30
chapter 3 teacheR evaluation and compensationâ..................................................................................................... 33ââ âąâinâsearchâofâanâeffectiveâteacherâappraisalâsystemâ................................................................................................................. 34
âąâmaximizingâtheâimpactâofâteacherâappraisalâ............................................................................................................................. 36â âąâdesigningâeffectiveâcompensationâsystemsâ................................................................................................................................ 40
chapter 4 teacheR engagement in education RefoRmâ............................................................................................ 51ââ âąâachievingâeducationalâreformâthatâworksâ.................................................................................................................................... 52
âąâsecuringâaâstrategicârelationshipâbetweenâgovernmentâandâteachersââunionsâ.................................................... 56
conclusIonâ............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 61
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Introduction
5© OECD 2011âBuildingâaâHigH-QualityâteacHingâProfession:âlessonsâfromâaroundâtHeâWorld
teachersâandâschoolâleadersâareâbeingâchallengedâtoâtransformâeducationalâoutcomes,âoftenâunderâdifficultâconditions.âtheyâareâbeingâaskedâ toâequipâstudentsâwithâ theâcompetenciesâ theyâneedâ toâbecomeâactiveâcitizensâandâworkersâinâtheâ21stâcentury.âtheyâneedâtoâpersonalizeâlearningâexperiencesâtoâensureâthatâeveryâstudentâhasâaâchanceâ toâ succeedâandâ toâdealâwithâ increasingâculturalâdiversityâ inâ theirâclassroomsâandâdifferencesâinâlearningâstyles.âtheyâalsoâneedâtoâkeepâupâwithâinnovationsâinâcurricula,âpedagogyâandâtheâdevelopmentâofâdigitalâresources.â
theâchallengeâisâtoâequipâallâteachers,âandânotâjustâsome,âforâeffectiveâlearningâinâtheâ21stâcentury.âthisâwillârequireârethinkingâofâmanyâaspects,âincluding:âhowâtoâoptimizeâtheâpoolâofâindividualsâfromâwhichâteacherâcandidatesâareâdrawn;â recruitingâ systemsâandâ theâwaysâ inâwhichâ staffâ areâ selected;â theâkindâofâinitialâeducationârecruitsâobtainâbeforeâtheyâstartâtheirâjobâandâhowâtheyâareâmonitoredâandâinductedâintoâtheirâserviceâandâtheâcontinuingâeducationâandâsupportâ theyâget;âhowâtheirâcompensationâisâstructured;âandâhowâtheâperformanceâofâstrugglingâteachersâisâimprovedâandâtheâbestâperformingâteachersâareâgivenâopportunitiesâtoâacquireâmoreâstatusâandâresponsibility.
inâmanyâhigh-performingâeducationâsystemsâteachersâdoânotâonlyâhaveâaâcentralâroleâtoâplayâinâimprovingâeducationalâoutcomes,âtheyâareâalsoâatâtheâcentreâofâtheâimprovementâeffortsâthemselves.âinâtheseâsystemsâitâisânotâthatâtop-downâreformsâareâorderingâteachersâtoâchange,âbutâthatâteachersâembraceâandâleadâreform,âtakingâ responsibilityâ asâprofessionals.âalso,â inâ almostâ everyâ countryâ surveyedâbyâoecdâsâteachingâandâlearningâinternationalâsurveyâ(talis)1,âtheâlargeâmajorityâofâteachersâreportâthatâtheyâareâsatisfiedâwithâtheirâjobsâandâconsiderâthatâtheyâmakeâaârealâdifferenceâinâeducation.âtheyâalsoâmakeâsignificantâinvestmentsâinâtheirâprofessionalâdevelopment,âbothâinâtermsâofâtheirâtimeâandâoftenâalsoâinâtermsâofâmoney,âanâinvestmentâthatâgoesâhand-in-handâwithâteachersââreportingâthatâtheyâuseâaâwiderârepertoireâofâpedagogicâstrategiesâinâtheâclassroom.â
theâInternational Summit on the Teaching Professionâbringsâtogetherâeducationâministers,âunionâleadersâandâotherâteacherâleadersâfromâhigh-performingâandârapidlyâimprovingâeducationâsystems2âtoâreviewâhowâbestâtoâimproveâteacherâqualityâandâtheâqualityâofâteachingâandâlearning.âthisâbackgroundâreport,âtakingâupâtheâfourâthemesâofâtheâsummitâinâturn,âpresentsâavailableâevidenceâaboutâwhatâcanâmakeâteacher-orientedâreformsâeffective,âandâhighlightsâselectedâexamplesâofâreformsâthatâhaveâproducedâspecificâresults,âshowâpromiseâorâ illustrateâ imaginativeâwaysâofâ implementingâchange.âofâ theâ fourâ themesâofâ theâ summit,â theâfirstâthreeâlookâatâsystemâfeaturesâthatâshapeâparticularâaspectsâofâteachersââprofessionalâcareers.âtheâfourthâthemeâlooksâatâprocess,âandâconsidersâwhatâcanâmakeâreformâeffective.âspecifically,âtheâreportâconsiders:
âą How teachers are recruited into the profession and trained initially.âinâfaceâofâwidespreadâshortagesâthat,âinâmanyâcountries,âwillâsoonâgrowâasâlargeâcohortsâretire,âintelligentâincentiveâstructuresâareâneededâtoâattractâqualifiedâgraduatesâintoâtheâteachingâforce.âPayâlevelsâcanâbeâpartâofâthisâequation.âHowever,âcountriesâthatâhaveâsucceededâinâmakingâteachingâanâattractiveâprofessionâhaveâoftenâdoneâsoânotâjustâthroughâpay,âbutâbyâraisingâ theâstatusâofâ teaching, offeringârealâcareerâprospects,âand givingâ teachersâresponsibilityâasâprofessionalsâandâleadersâofâreform.âthisârequiresâteacherâeducationâthatâhelpsâteachersâtoâbecomeâinnovatorsâandâresearchersâinâeducation,ânotâjustâdeliverersâofâtheâcurriculum.
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6© OECD 2011âBuildingâaâHigH-QualityâteacHingâProfession:âlessonsâfromâaroundâtHeâWorld
Introduction
âą How teachers are developed in service and supported.âsurveysâshowâlargeâvariationsâacrossâandâwithinâcountriesâinâtheâextentâofâprofessionalâdevelopment.ânotâonlyâtheâquantityâbutâalsoâtheânatureâofâthisâactivityâisâcritical.âoften,âtheâprofessionalâdevelopmentâofâteachersâisâdisjointedâinâone-offâcourses,âwhileâteachersâinâtalisâreportedâthatâtheâmostâeffectiveâdevelopmentâisâthroughâlongerâprogramsâthatâupgradeâtheirâqualificationsâorâinvolveâcollaborativeâresearchâintoâimprovingâteachingâeffectiveness.âtalisâalsoâshowsâthatâinâexpandingâopportunities,âteachersâhaveâoftenâplayedâaâsignificantâroleâinâsharingâtheâcostâofâdevelopment:âthoseâwhoâdidâhaveâtendedâtoâgetâmoreâoutâofâit,âasâdidâthoseâwhoâmakeâdevelopmentâaâcollaborativeâactivity,âworkingâtogetherâwithâcolleaguesâtoâimproveâpractices.âaâfurtherâissueârelatedâtoâsupportingâteachersâinâserviceâisâtheâextentâtoâwhichâtheirâconditionsâofâemploymentâandâtheirâcareerâprospectsâcanâbeâadaptedâtoâmeetâtheirâneedsâandâaspirations.
âą How teachers are evaluated and compensated.âresultsâfromâtalisâshowâthat,âatâitsâbest,âappraisalâandâfeedbackâisâsupportiveâinâaâwayâthatâisâwelcomedâbyâteachers.âitâcanâalsoâhelpâleadâtoâself-improvementâandâbeâpartâofâeffortsâtoâinvolveâteachersâinâimprovingâschools.âatâpresent,âmostâteachersâdoânotâfeelâthatâschoolâleadersâuseâappraisalâtoârecognizeâgoodâperformance,âwhichâsuggestsâthatâaâkeyâcomponentâofâappraisalâisâappropriateâtrainingâforâthoseâconductingâtheâappraisals.âaâconnectedâissue,âwhichâalsoârequiresâ sensitiveâ handling,â isâ theâ criteriaâ usedâ toâ linkâ rewardsâ withâ performance.âWhateverâ systemâisâusedâmustâbeâfair,âbasedâonâmultipleâmeasures,âandâtransparentlyâappliedâinâwaysâthatâinvolveâtheâteachingâprofession.
âą How teachers are engaged in reform.âfundamentalâchangesâtoâtheâstatusâquoâcanâcauseâuncertaintiesâthatâtriggerâresistanceâfromâstakeholders;âandâwithoutâtheâactiveâandâwillingâengagementâofâteachers,âmostâeducationalâreformsâfail.âtheâchancesâforâsuccessâinâreformâcanâimproveâthroughâeffectiveâconsultation,âaâwillingnessâ toâcompromiseâand,âaboveâall,â throughâ theâ involvementâofâ teachersâ inâ theâplanningâandâimplementationâofâreform.âinâmovingâbeyondâconsultationâtoâinvolvement,âtheâreformâprocessâbecomesâorientedâtowardsâtransformingâschoolsâintoâlearningâorganizations,âwithâteachingâprofessionalsâinâtheâlead.
Whileâitâisâmeaningfulâforâtheâsummitâtoâstructureâtheâdiscussionâintoâtheâaboveâfourâthemes,âtheâchaptersâinâ thisâ backgroundâ reportâ shouldâ notâ beâ consideredâ inâ isolation.â inâ fact,â theirâ interdependenceâ isâ keyâtoâunderstandingâ theânatureâofâ theâpolicyâ andâ implementationâ challenges.â forâ example,â simplyâ raisingâentranceâstandardsâforâ teachersâwillâchokeâoffâ theâsupplyâofâ teachersâunlessâcompensationâandâworkingâconditionsâ areâ aligned.â raisingâ payâ andâ changingâ workingâ conditionsâ aloneâ willâ notâ automaticallyâtranslateâ intoâ improvementsâ inâ teacherâ qualityâ unlessâ standardsâ areâ raised.âteacherâ evaluationâ systemsâwillâhaveâlimitedâimpactâifâtheyâonlyârelateâtoâcompensationâbutânotâprofessionalâdevelopmentâandâcareerâadvancement.âgivingâteachersâmoreâautonomyâcanâbeâcounterproductiveâifâtheâqualityâandâeducationâofâtheâteachersâareâinadequate.â
theâbackgroundâreportâwasâdraftedâbyâandreasâschleicher,âinâconsultationâwithâtheâsummitâco-sponsors,âbasedâonâreportsâofâtheâOECD Program for International Student Assessmentâ(Pisa)3âandâtheâOECD Teaching and Learning International Surveyâ(talis);4âoecdâsâcomparativeâpolicyâreviewâTeachers Matter;5âtheâreportsâofâtheâilo/unescoâcommitteeâofâexpertsâonâtheâapplicationâofâtheârecommendationsâconcerningâteachingâPersonnel;âoecdâsâannualâdataâcollectionâEducation at a Glance;âoecdâsâreportâStrong Performers and Successful Reformers;6âoecdâsâ reviewâofâEvaluation and Assessment Frameworks for Improving School Outcomes;7âoecdâsâ studyâEvaluating and Rewarding the Quality of Teachers - International Practices;8âoecdâsâreportâMaking Reform Happen9âandâtheâoutcomesâfromâtheârecentâmeetingâofâoecdâeducationâministersâinânovemberâ2010.
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Chapter 1
RecRuitment and initial pRepaRation of teacheRs
7© OECD 2011âBuildingâaâHigH-QualityâteacHingâProfession:âlessonsâfromâaroundâtHeâWorld
Education systems face a demanding challenge in recruiting high-quality graduates
as teachers, particularly in shortage areas. Various countries have employed a range
of strategies to help them do so. Competitive compensation, career prospects, career
diversity, and giving teachers responsibility as professionals are important aspects of
this. Active recruitment campaigns can emphasize the fulfilling nature of teaching as
a profession, and seek to draw in groups who might not otherwise have considered
teaching. Where teaching is seen as an attractive profession, its status can further
be enhanced through selective recruitment that makes teachers feel that they
will be going into a career sought after by high-fliers. All this also requires initial
education to prepare new teachers to play an active role in the design and running
of education, rather than just following standardized practices.
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r e c r u i t m e n t â a n d â i n i t i a l â P r e p a r a t i o n â o f âte a ch e r s
© OECD 2011âBuildingâaâHigH-QualityâteacHingâProfession:âlessonsâfromâaroundâtHeâWorld
Chapter 1
Making teaChing an attraCtive Career ChoiCe
Education systems can recruit high-quality teachers not just through adequate pay but also by providing an environment in which teachers work as professionalsâŠ
Pisaâshowsâthatâtheâbest-performingâeducationâsystemsâprovideâmostâofâtheirâstudentsâwithâtheâkindâandâqualityâofâeducationâthatâaverageâperformersâprovideâonlyâforâaâsmallâelite.âthatârequiresâthemâtoâprovideâexcellentâteachingâforâallâstudents.âinâorderâtoâachieveâthis,ânationalâpolicyâreviewsâshowâthatâtheyâoftenâaimâ toâ recruitâ theirâ teachersâ fromâ theâ sameâ poolâ fromâ whichâ allâ theirâ topâ professionalsâ areâ recruited.âButâpeopleâwhoâseeâ themselvesâasâcandidatesâ forâ theâprofessions,âandâ theâworkingâconditionsâenjoyedâbyâprofessionals,âmayânotâbeâattractedâ toâschoolsâorganizedâ inâprescriptiveâworkâenvironmentsâ thatâuseâbureaucraticâmanagementâtoâdirectâtheirâwork.â
manyâeducationâsystemsâhaveâthereforeâtransformedâtheâworkâorganizationâinâtheirâschoolsâbyâreplacingâadministrativeâ formsâ ofâ managementâ withâ professionalâ normsâ thatâ provideâ theâ status,â pay,â professionalâautonomy,âandâtheâhigh-qualityâprofessionalâeducationâandâresponsibilityâthatâgoâwithâprofessionalâwork.âtheyâalsoâ tendâ toâprovideâeffectiveâ systemsâofâ socialâdialogue.â finally,â theyâprovideâattractiveâ formsâofâemploymentâthatâbalanceâflexibilityâwithâjobâsecurityâandâgrantâsufficientâauthorityâforâschoolsâtoâmanageâandâ deployâ theirâ humanâ resources.â inâ manyâ educationâ systems,â theseâ aspectsâ tendâ toâ beâ theâ focusâ ofâexplicitânationalâorâregionalâpolicies.â
âŠand in doing so, must look carefully at the state of labor supply and demand, and consider strategies both to bring people into teaching generally and to address specific shortages.
evenâwhereâ theâ recruitmentâofâ theâmostâhighlyâqualifiedâgraduatesâ remainsâaâchallenge,âpolicyâmakersâtendâtoâacknowledgeâthatâteachingâqualityâisâstronglyâaffectedâbyâtheâpoolâofâtalentâfromâwhichâteachersâareârecruited.âtheâpoolâfromâwhichâanâindustryâselectsâitsâprofessionalsâisâinfluencedâbyâsomeâcombinationâofâ theâoccupationalâstatus,âworkâenvironment,âsenseâofâpersonalâcontributionâandâtheâfinancialârewardsâassociatedâwithâaâgivenâprofession.âteacherâpolicyâneedsâ toâexamineâ theseâaspectsâ closely,âparticularlyâinâlightâofâteacherâshortagesâthatâmanyâadvancedâeconomiesâalreadyâfaceâandâthatâwillâgrowâinâtheânearâfutureâasâlargeânumbersâofâteachersâreachâretirementâage.10âevenâwhereâgeneralâteacherâsupplyâandâdemandâareâ inâ balance,â manyâ countriesâ faceâ shortagesâ ofâ specialistâ teachersâ andâ shortagesâ inâ schoolsâ servingâdisadvantagedâorâisolatedâcommunities.â
Policyâresponsesâareâneededâatâtwoâlevels.âtheâfirstâconcernsâtheânatureâofâtheâteachingâprofessionâitselfâandâ teachersââ workâ environment.â theseâ policiesâ seekâ toâ improveâ theâ professionâsâ generalâ statusâ andâcompetitiveâpositionâinâtheâjobâmarket.âtheâsecondâinvolvesâmoreâtargetedâresponsesâtoâparticularâtypesâofâteacherâshortage.âitârecognizesâthatâthatâthereâisânotâaâsingleâlaborâmarketâforâteachers,âbutâaâsetâofâthem,âdistinguishedâbyâschoolâtypeâandâcharacteristicsâsuchâasâsubjectâspecialization.11âsurveysâofâwhatâteachersâthemselvesâ valueâ aboutâ theirâ workâ alsoâ provideâ importantâ insightsâ intoâ whatâ needsâ toâ beâ emphasizedâinârecruitment:â theâsocialâ relevanceâofâ teaching;âworkingâwithâyoungâpeople;âcreativity;âautonomy;âandâworkingâwithâcolleagues.
Various countries have shown that policy can have a significant impact on the attractiveness of teaching.
itâisâimportantâtoânoteâthatâtheâstatusâofâtheâteachingâprofessionâisânotâjustâaâstaticâattributeâofâcultureâbutâhas,âinâsomeâcountries,âchangedâsignificantly.âasâshownâinâtheâboxesâonâsingaporeâ(Boxâ1.1),âenglandâ(Boxâ1.2)âandâfinlandâ(Boxâ1.3),âvigorousâinterventionâthatâdirectlyâaddressesâtheâattractivenessâofâteachingâcomparedâ
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9© OECD 2011âBuildingâaâHigH-QualityâteacHingâProfession:âlessonsâfromâaroundâtHeâWorld
r e c r u i t m e n t â a n d â i n i t i a l â P r e p a r a t i o n â o f âte a ch e r s
Chapter 1
toâotherâgraduateâprofessionsâcanâmakeâaâbigâdifference.âinterestingâapproachesâtowardsârecruitmentâpursuedâbyâsomeâcountriesâinclude:
âąâ Promotionalâprogramsâtargetedâatâgroupsâwhoâareâânon-traditionalââentrantsâtoâteaching.â
âąâ Broadeningâselectionâcriteriaâforânewâteachers,âwithâtheâaimâofâidentifyingâapplicantsâwithâtheâgreatestâpotential,âincludingâinterviews,âpreparingâlessonâplans,âandâdemonstratingâteachingâskills.
âąâ changingâ theâ roleâ ofâ seniorityâ inâ determiningâ teacherâ assignments,â toâ avoidâ situationsâ whereâ newâteachersâareâassignedâtoâtheâmoreâdifficultâandâunpopularâschools,âfurtherâdisadvantagingâstudentsâthereâasâwellâasâpotentiallyâdamagingâteachersââcareerâdevelopment.â
âąâ forâ desirableâ teachingâ jobs,â sometimesâ qualitiesâ thatâ areâ harderâ toâ measure,â suchâ asâ enthusiasm,âcommitmentâandâsensitivityâtoâstudentsââneeds,âareâgivenâgreaterâweightâinâapplications,âwhereâtheseâareâseenâtoâbeâmoreâdirectlyârelatedâtoâtheâqualityâofâteachingâandâlearningâthanâtheâtraditionalâemphasesâonâqualificationsâandâyearsâofâexperience.â
Box 1.1. Throughout Singapore, teaching talent is identified and nurtured rather than being left to chance
Singapore is notable for its comprehensive approach to identifying and nurturing teaching talent.âsingaporeâcarefullyâselectsâyoungâpeopleâfromâtheâtopâone-thirdâofâtheâsecondaryâschoolâgraduatingâclassâwhomâtheâgovernmentâisâespeciallyâinterestedâinâattractingâtoâteachingâandâoffersâthemâaâmonthlyâstipend,âwhileâstillâinâschool,âthatâisâcompetitiveâwithâtheâmonthlyâsalaryâforâfreshâgraduatesâinâotherâfields.âinâexchange,âtheseâteachersâmustâcommitâtoâteachingâforâatâleastâthreeâyears.âstrongâacademicâabilityâisâviewedâasâessential,âasâisâcommitmentâtoâtheâprofessionâandâtoâservingâdiverseâstudentâbodies.âinterestâinâteachingâisâseededâearlyâthroughâteachingâinternshipsâforâ highâ schoolâ students;â thereâ isâ alsoâ aâ systemâ forâ mid-careerâ entry,â whichâ isâ seenâ asâ aâ wayâofâbringingâreal-worldâexperienceâtoâstudents.âsingaporeâkeepsâaâcloseâwatchâonâoccupationalâstartingâsalariesâandâadjustsâtheâsalariesâforânewâteachersâaccordingly.âinâeffect,âtheâcountryâwantsâitsâ mostâ qualifiedâ candidatesâ toâ regardâ teachingâ asâ justâ asâ attractivelyâ compensatedâ asâ otherâprofessions.â
afterâthreeâyearsâofâteaching,âteachersâareâassessedâannuallyâtoâseeâwhichâofâthreeâcareerâpathsâwouldâ bestâ suitâ themâ ââ masterâ teacher,â specialistâ inâ curriculumâ orâ researchâ orâ schoolâ leader.âeachâpathâhasâsalaryâincrements.âteachersâwithâpotentialâasâschoolâleadersâareâmovedâtoâmiddleâmanagementâteamsâandâreceiveâtrainingâtoâprepareâthemâforâtheirânewâroles.âmiddleâmanagersââperformanceâisâassessedâforâtheirâpotentialâtoâbecomeâviceâprincipals,âandâlater,âprincipals.âeachâstageâinvolvesâaârangeâofâexperienceâandâtrainingâtoâprepareâcandidatesâforâschoolâleadershipâandâinnovation.âinâsingapore,âyoungâteachersâareâcontinuouslyâassessedâforâtheirâleadershipâpotentialâandâgivenâopportunitiesâtoâdemonstrateâandâlearn,âforâexample,âbyâservingâonâcommittees,âthenâbeingâpromotedâ toâheadâofâ departmentâ atâ aâ relativelyâ youngâage.â someâareâ transferredâ toâ theâministryâforâaâperiod.âPotentialâprincipalsâareâselectedâforâinterviewsâandâgoâthroughâleadershipâsituationalâexercises.
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10
r e c r u i t m e n t â a n d â i n i t i a l â P r e p a r a t i o n â o f âte a ch e r s
© OECD 2011âBuildingâaâHigH-QualityâteacHingâProfession:âlessonsâfromâaroundâtHeâWorld
Chapter 1
lastâbutânotâleast,âresearchâshowsâthatâpeopleâwhoâhaveâcloseâcontactâwithâschoolsâââsuchâasâparentsâwhoâassistâinâclassrooms,âorâemployersâwhoâhaveâstudentsâinâworkplaceâlearningâprogramsâââoftenâhaveâmuchâmoreâpositiveâattitudesâtowardsâteachersâthanâpeopleâwithâlittleâdirectâcontact.âthisâsuggestsâthatâbuildingâstrongerâlinksâbetweenâtheâschoolsâandâtheâcommunityâcanâhelpâtoâenhanceâtheâstatusâofâteaching.âteachersâandâschoolâ leadersâcanâplayâaâkeyâroleâ inâstrengtheningâconnectionsâwithâ familiesâandâcommunitiesâasâpartâ ofâ effectiveâ learning.âthisâ canâ involveâ elicitingâ greaterâ supportâ fromâ stakeholdersâ withâ traditionalâexpectationsâaboutâteachingâbyâcommunicatingâcurrentâknowledgeâaboutâwhatâmakesâlearningâeffective.âPersonalizedârelationshipsâwithâlearnersâandâtheirâfamiliesâcanâbeâpartâofâthisâprocess,âasâcanâafter-schoolâandâextra-curricularâprograms,âsupportâforâfamiliesâasâlearningâenvironments,âandâmakingâmoreâexplicitâtheâlinksâbetweenâformalâlearningâandâlifeâafterâschooling.
Box 1.2. Reversing teacher shortages in the United Kingdom
The education authorities tackled a severe teacher shortage in England by addressing pay and work environment and launching a powerful recruitment campaign.
Whenâ itâ tookâ office,â theâ Blairâ administrationâ facedâ oneâ ofâ theâ worstâ shortagesâ ofâ teachersâ inâhistory.âfiveâyearsâlater,âthereâwereâeightâapplicantsâforâeveryâopening.âtoâsomeâextentâthisâhadâtoâdoâwithâraisingâcompensationâsignificantly,âasâwellâasâwithâimportantâchangesâinâteachersââworkâenvironment;âbutâaâsophisticatedâandâpowerfulârecruitingâprogramâplayedâaâveryâimportantâpartâinâtheâturnaround.
theâ recruitmentâ campaignâ wasâ launchedâ withâ strongâ politicalâ andâ financialâ backingâ byâ theâtrainingâ andâdevelopmentâagencyâ (tda)â inâ 2000.âanâ extraâgBPâ150âmillionâwasâ allocatedâtoâ employâ leadingâ internationalâ advertisingâ andâ recruitmentâ agenciesâ toâundertakeâ extensiveâmarketâresearchâonâtheâmotivationsâandâbarriersâtoâbecomingâaâteacherâandâtoâdevelopâaward-winningâmarketingâstrategies.âinâaddition,âaânewâgBPâ6â000âeducationâbursaryâwasâofferedâtoâallâtraineesâasâaâone-off,âtax-freeâpaymentâtoâsupportâthemâthroughâtheirâeducation.âaââgoldenâhelloââofâupâtoâgBPâ4â000âwasâalsoâintroduced,âwithâtheâfullâamountâpaidâinâshortageâsubjectsâsuchâasâmathâandâphysics.
Byâfocusingâonâtheâideaâofâteachingââmakingâaâdifferenceâ,âtheânewâcampaignâaimedâtoâimproveâtheâstatusâofâteachingâasâaâprofession.âitâalsoâemphasizedâtheâflexibilityâandâdiversityâofâtheâskillsâteachersâ acquire,â theâ varietyâ ofâ routesâ intoâ teaching,â andâ theâ possibilityâ ofâ doingâ itâ asâ aâ âfirstâcareerââ beforeâ movingâ onâ toâ otherâ things.âtheâ advertisingâ approachâ wasâ direct,â encouragingâpeopleâtoâcallâaânationalâinformationâline,âwhichâalsoâallowedâtheâtdaâtoâcollectâdataâonâpeopleâwhoâwereâconsideringâteachingâandâtoâtargetâthoseâwithâskillsâinâshortageâsubjects,âsuchâasâmathsâandâphysicsâstudents.â
Withinâthreeâmonthsâofâtheâlaunchâofâtheâadvertisingâcampaign,âtheânumberâofâpeopleâcallingâtheânationalâ teachingâ recruitmentâ helplineâ tripled.â Byâ 2003/2004â theâ vacancy-to-employmentâ rateâhalvedâtoâlessâthanâ1%âforâallâsubjects,âwithâmajorâgainsâinâshortageâsubjects,âsuchâasâmathematics,âwhereâtheânumberâofânewârecruitsâhadâalmostâdoubledâbyâ2005.
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11© OECD 2011âBuildingâaâHigH-QualityâteacHingâProfession:âlessonsâfromâaroundâtHeâWorld
r e c r u i t m e n t â a n d â i n i t i a l â P r e p a r a t i o n â o f âte a ch e r s
Chapter 1
Attractive conditions can improve morale, lower turnover and widen the teacher pool.
employersâ increasinglyâ recognizeâ theâ needâ toâ provideâ workersâ withâ aâ goodâ work-lifeâ balanceâ andâopportunitiesâ toâ combineâ workâ withâ familyâ responsibilitiesâ andâ otherâ activities.â someâ countriesâ allowâpart-timeâ teachingâ orâ opportunitiesâ throughoutâ theâ careerâ toâ gainâ experienceâ outsideâ schoolsâ throughâsabbaticalâleave,âextendedâleaveâwithoutâpay,âandâjobâexchangesâwithâindustry.âalthoughâallâsuchâinitiativesâinvolveâcosts,âthoseâcostsâneedâtoâbeâsetâagainstâtheâbenefitsâofâlowerâstaffâturnover,âimprovedâmorale,âandâintroducingânewâknowledgeâandâskillsâintoâschools.â
Teachersâ jobs can be more rewarding when teachers are genuinely engaged in improvement.
theâessenceâofâprofessionalâworkâcanâbeâseenâasâtheâacknowledgementâthatâitâisâtheâprofessional,âandânotâtheâsupervisor,âwhoâhasâtheâknowledgeâneededâtoâmakeâtheâimportantâdecisionsâasâtoâwhatâservicesâareâneededâandâhowâtheyâareâtoâbeâprovided.âorganizationsâdominatedâbyâprofessionalsâareâthoseâinâwhichâthereâareâfewerâlayersâofâmanagement,âworkersâareâconsultedâonâallâmattersâofâconsequence,âandâworkersâhaveâ considerableâ discretionâ withâ respectâ toâ diagnosingâ clientâ needsâ andâ decidingâ whichâ servicesâ areâappropriateâtoâaddressâthoseâneeds.âindeed,âinâmanyâprofessions,âandâforâmanyâprofessionals,âtheâworkerâisâalsoâtheâmanagerâand,âinâmanyâcases,âtheâownerâasâwell.â
Box 1.3. Teachers and schools take on responsibility for reform in Finland
Finland has made teaching a sought-after occupation by raising entry standards and giving teachers a high degree of responsibility, including as âaction researchersâ to find effective educational solutions.
finlandâhasâraisedâtheâsocialâstatusâofâitsâteachersâtoâaâlevelâwhereâthereâareâfewâoccupationsâwithâhigherâ status.â universityâ professorsâ areâ amongâ theâ mostâ highlyâ regardedâ ofâ allâ professionals,â andâevenâtheâwordâforâteacherâisâtheâsameâforâschoolâteachersâasâforâuniversityâprofessors.âinâ2010,âoverâ6â600âapplicantsâcompetedâ forâ660âavailableâ slotsâ inâprimaryâschoolâpreparationâprogramsâ inâ theâeightâuniversitiesâthatâeducateâteachers,âmakingâteachingâoneâofâtheâmostâsought-afterâprofessions.14âasâaâresultâofâthisâcompetitiveâclimate,âteachingâisânowâaâhighlyâselectiveâoccupationâinâfinland,âwithâhighlyâskilled,âwell-trainedâteachersâspreadâthroughoutâtheâcountry.
Whileâteachersâinâfinlandâhaveâalwaysâenjoyedârespectâinâsociety,âaâcombinationâofâraisingâtheâbarâforâentryâandâgrantingâteachersâgreaterâautonomyâoverâtheirâclassroomsâandâworkingâconditionsâthanâtheirâpeersâenjoyâelsewhereâhasâhelpedâtoâraiseâtheâstatusâofâtheâprofession.âfinnishâteachersâhaveâearnedâtheâtrustâofâparentsâandâtheâwiderâsocietyâbyâtheirâdemonstratedâcapacityâtoâuseâprofessionalâdiscretionâandâjudgmentâinâtheâwayâtheyâmanageâtheirâclassroomsâandârespondâtoâtheâchallengeâofâhelpingâvirtuallyâallâstudentsâbecomeâsuccessfulâlearners.â
sinceâtheâ1980s,â theâfinnishâsystemâofâaccountabilityâwasâredevelopedâentirelyâfromâtheâbottomâup.âteacherâ candidatesâ areâ selected,â inâ part,â accordingâ toâ theirâ capacityâ toâ conveyâ theirâ beliefâinâ theâcoreâmissionâofâpublicâeducationâ inâfinland,âwhichâ isâdeeplyâhumanisticâasâwellâasâcivicâandâeconomic.âtheâpreparationâ theyâreceiveâ isâdesignedâ toâbuildâaâpowerfulâsenseâofâ individualâresponsibilityâforâtheâlearningâandâwell-beingâofâallâtheâstudentsâinâtheirâcare.âduringâtheirâcareers,âtheyâmustâcombineâtheârolesâofâresearcherâandâpractitioner.âfinnishâteachersâareânotâonlyâexpectedâtoâbecomeâfamiliarâwithâtheâknowledgeâbaseâinâeducationâandâhumanâdevelopment,âbutâareâalsoârequiredâtoâwriteâaâresearch-basedâthesisâasâtheâfinalârequirementâforâtheâmastersâdegree.
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R e c r u i t m e n t a n d I n i t i a l P r e p a r a t i o n o f Te a ch e r s
© OECD 2011 BuIldIng a HIgH-QualITy TeacHIng PRofessIon: lessons fRom aRound THe WoRld
Chapter 1
In education too, policy makers have often concluded that top-down initiatives alone were insufficient to achieve deep and lasting changes in practice because reforms focused on aspects that were too distant from the instructional core of teaching and learning; because reforms assumed that teachers would know how to do things they actually didnât know how to do; because too many conflicting reforms asked teachers to do too many things simultaneously; or because teachers and schools did not buy in to the reform strategy. over the past decade, many education systems have granted significantly more discretion to school heads and school faculties,12 something that teachers often refer to as a factor contributing to the attractiveness of the teaching profession, and something that PIsa shows to be closely related to school performance, when combined with appropriate accountability arrangements.13 finland (see Box 1.3) and ontario (see Box 4.4) provide examples of how formerly centralized systems have shifted emphasis towards:
âą improving the act of teaching;
âą giving careful and detailed attention to implementation, along with opportunities for teachers to practice new ideas and learn from their colleagues;
âą developing an integrated strategy and set of expectations for both teachers and students; and
âą securing support from teachers and unions for the reforms.
In some countries, great discretion is given to the faculty, as a whole, and its individual members. In others, more discretion is given to schools that are doing well and less to those that might be struggling. In some countries, the school head is little more than the lead teacher; in others, the authorities continue to look to the school head to set the direction and manage the faculty.
Results from PIsa suggest that an emphasis on professional responsibility at the frontline does not conflict with the establishment of centralized standards and assessments; rather, these go hand-in-hand15.
Recruitment measures can be adapted to bring in teachers from a wider range of backgrounds.
countries are also trying to attract different types of people into teaching, not just to overcome shortages, but also to broaden the range of teachersâ backgrounds and experiences. This includes promoting the benefits of a teaching career to groups who are often under-represented among teacher ranks, such as males and those from minority backgrounds.
The following are some examples of interesting techniques various countries use to do so:
âą opening the teaching profession to individuals with relevant experience outside education, not just in vocational programs (whose teachers are required to have industrial experience in some countries).
âą Recognizing the skills and experience gained outside education and reflecting those in starting salaries.
âą enabling appropriately qualified entrants, including mature student teacher trainees, to start working and earning a salary before acquiring teacher education qualifications.
âą offering more flexible approaches to teacher education that provide opportunities for part-time study and distance learning, and that give credits for relevant qualifications and experience. such alternative pathways into teaching can be particularly appealing to under-represented groups, such as males and those from minority backgrounds.
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13© OECD 2011âBuildingâaâHigH-QualityâteacHingâProfession:âlessonsâfromâaroundâtHeâWorld
r e c r u i t m e n t â a n d â i n i t i a l â P r e p a r a t i o n â o f âte a ch e r s
Chapter 1
Teachers are paid less than most college graduates, but selective incentives, flexibly applied, can use scarce resources to help attract teachers where needed.
teachersââsalariesâincreasedâinârealâtermsâbetweenâ1996âandâ2008âinâvirtuallyâallâoecdâcountries,âbutâtendâtoâ remainâbelowâ thoseâofâotherâgraduatesâ (seeâfigureâ1.0).â statutoryâ salariesâ forâ teachersâwithâ15âyearsâofâexperienceâare,âonâaverage,âbelowâ80%âofâfull-timeâearningsâforâ25-64-year-oldsâwithâtertiaryâeducation,âandâ60%âorâbelowâinâtheâczechârepublic,âHungary,âiceland,âisrael,âitaly,âsloveniaâandâtheâunitedâstates.16âatâtheâsameâ time,âotherâaspectsâofâ teachersââemploymentâconditions,â suchâasâvacations,â relativeâ jobâsecurityâandâpensions,âareâoftenâmoreâgenerousâthanâinâotherâoccupations.âoecdâresearchâsuggestsâthatâwhereâteachersââsalariesâareâlowârelativeâtoâprofessionsârequiringâsimilarâqualifications,âteacherâsupplyâappearsâtoâbeâquiteâprice-elastic:âforâaâgivenâpercentageâincreaseâinâteachersâârelativeâsalaries,âtheâsupplyâofâpotentialâteachersâincreasesâbyâaâgreaterâpercentage.âinâcountriesâwhereâteachersââsalariesâareâalreadyârelativelyâhigh,âteacherâsupplyâtendsâtoâbeâlessâelastic:âaâgivenâpercentageâriseâinâsalaryâproducesâaâlowerâpercentageâincreaseâinâsupply.17â
Ratio
Spai
n
New
Zea
land
Ger
man
y
Aus
tral
ia
Finl
and
Swed
en
Bel
gium
(Fl.)
Sco
tlan
d
Bel
gium
(Fr.)
Den
mar
k
Fran
ce
Engl
and
Ko
rea
Net
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and
s
Aus
tria
Gre
ece
Port
ugal
No
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Esto
nia
Pola
nd
No
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Uni
ted
Sta
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Ital
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Slov
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Hun
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licCountries are ranked in descending order of the ratio of salary after 15 years of experience/minimum training to earnings for full-timefull-year workers with tertiary education aged 25 to 64 (latest available year).Source: OECD, Education at a Glance 2010, Table 3.1 (continued).
Figure 1.1Teacher salaries relative to workers with college degrees
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
nevertheless,â theâ largeâ sizeâofâ theâ teachingâworkforceâmeansâ thatâ toâ raiseâ salariesâ across-the-boardâbyâevenâaâfewâpercentageâpointsâisâveryâcostly.âfurthermore,âtheâteacherâlaborâmarketâisâdiverse,âandâteacherârecruitmentâdifficultiesâvaryâbyâtypeâofâschool,âsubjectâspecialization,âandâregion.âalso,âinâmanyâcountriesâtheâproblemsâofâteacherâshortagesâandâhighâturnoverâofâstaffâareâfeltâmostâacutelyâinâschoolsâthatâareâalreadyâdisadvantaged.âsomeâcountriesâareâ thereforeâ targetingâ largerâ salaryâ increasesâ toâ schoolsâwithâparticularâneedsâorâteacherâgroupsâinâshortâsupplyâ(seeâchapterâ3âbelow).âforâexample,âsomeâtargetedâpolicyâinitiativesâaimâtoâattractâteachersâinâsubjectsâsuchâasâmathematics,âscience,âtechnology,âandâvocationalâsubjects.â
feeâwaivers,âscholarshipsâandâforgivableâloansâareâsomeâofâtheâfinancialâincentivesâbeingâprovidedâtoâattractâsuchâpeopleâintoâteacherâeducation;âandâsalaryâbonusesâandârecognitionâofâworkâexperienceâareâprovidedâforâthoseâwhoâalreadyâhaveâtheâtypesâofâqualificationsâthatâareâinâshortâsupply.âsomeâcountriesâprovideâsubstantialâsalaryâallowancesâforâteachingâinâdifficultâareas,âtransportationâassistanceâforâteachersâinâremoteâareas,âorâbonusesâforâteachersâwithâskillsâinâshortâsupplyâtoâhelpâensureâthatâallâschoolsâareâstaffedâwithâteachersâofâsimilarâquality.â
alsoâworthyâofâattentionâareânon-salaryâstrategies,âsuchâasâlowerâclassâcontactâtimesâorâsmallerâclasses,âforâschoolsâinâdifficultâareasâorâthatâhaveâparticularâeducationalâneeds.â
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R e c r u i t m e n t a n d I n i t i a l P r e p a r a t i o n o f Te a ch e r s
© OECD 2011 BuIldIng a HIgH-QualITy TeacHIng PRofessIon: lessons fRom aRound THe WoRld
Chapter 1
The best potential candidates need access to good teaching jobs.
all this said, policies to encourage more people to enter teaching are unlikely to pay off if high-quality candidates find it hard to gain teaching posts. The best candidates, who are likely to have good job prospects outside teaching, may not be willing to wait in a lengthy queue or endure a succession of short-term teaching assignments in difficult schools. Well-structured and -resourced selection processes and programs of induction that ensure that the best candidates get the available jobs are therefore critical. Reducing the weight given to seniority in ranking applicants for teaching vacancies can also help reduce the risk that new teachers will be disproportionately assigned to difficult schools.
Ensuring high-quality initial tEaChEr EduCation
High-performing countries have found ways of educating teachers to become more effective and play an active role in reform.
Initial teacher education varies significantly across countries, and it is beyond the scope of this report to assess related policies and practices. However, oecd research has identified some principles that are worth noting18:
âą Education systems benefit from clear and concise profiles of what teachers are expected to knowandbeabletodoinspecificsubjectareas. such profiles can guide initial teacher education, teacher certification, teachersâ on-going evaluation, professional development and career advancement, and also help assess the extent to which these different elements are effective. The profiles can reflect the schoolâs learning objectives and profession-wide understanding of what counts as accomplished teaching (see also Box 3.2).
âą many countries have moved their initial teacher education programs towards a model based less onacademic preparation and more on preparing professionals in school settings, with an appropriatebalancebetweentheoryandpractice. In these programs, teachers get into classrooms earlier, spend more time there and get more and better support in the process. This can include both extensive course work on how to teach â with a strong emphasis on using research based on state-of-the-art practice â and more than a year teaching in a designated school, associated with the university, during which time the teacher is expected to develop and pilot innovative practices and undertake research on learning and teaching.
âą Moreflexible structuresof initial teacher education canbeeffective inopeningupnew routes intotheteachingcareer,withoutcompromisingtherigoroftraditionalroutes. The stages of initial teacher education, induction and professional development need to be interconnected to create a lifelong learning framework for teachers. In many countries, teacher education is not just providing sound basic training in subject-matter knowledge, pedagogy related to subjects, and general pedagogical knowledge; it also seeks to develop the skills for reflective practice and on-the-job research. Increasingly, initial teacher education tends to place more emphasis on developing the capacity of teachers in training to diagnose student problems swiftly and accurately and to draw from a wide repertoire of possible solutions those that are appropriate to the diagnosis. some countries provide teachers with the research skills needed to enable them to improve their practice in systematic ways. for example, both in finland (Box 1.3) and the shanghai province of china (Box 1.4), teachers are trained to be action researchers in practice, with the ability to work out ways of ensuring that any student starting to fall behind is helped effectively.
In addition, some countries have moved from a system in which teachers are recruited into a larger number of specialized colleges of teacher education, with relatively low entrance standards, to a relatively smaller number of university-based teacher-education colleges with relatively high entrance standards and relatively high status in the university.
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15© OECD 2011âBuildingâaâHigH-QualityâteacHingâProfession:âlessonsâfromâaroundâtHeâWorld
r e c r u i t m e n t â a n d â i n i t i a l â P r e p a r a t i o n â o f âte a ch e r s
Chapter 1
Box 1.4. Preparing teachers to lead improvement in China
Teachers are trained to be action researchers in effective practice, with the best teachers going on to support new teachers and helping to improve lesson quality.
theâauthoritiesâinâtheâshanghaiâprovinceâofâchinaâemphasizeâgivingâprospectiveâteachersâtheâskillsâtheyâwillâneedâforâactionâresearch,âandâtheirâmethodâforâimprovingâtheirâeducationâsystemâoverâtimeâreliesâonâresearchâperformedâbyâteachers.âasâinâfinlandâ(Boxâ1.3âabove),âallâstudentsâinâshanghaiâareâexpectedâtoâperformâatâhighâlevelsâandâteachersâareâexpectedâtoâmakeâsureâthatânoâstudent,âliterally,âwillâbeâallowedâtoâfallâbehind.âthisâmakesâitâessentialâthatâteachersâidentifyâstudentsâwhoâareâjustâbeginningâtoâflounder,âdiagnoseâtheâproblem,âandâhaveâtheâskillsâandâknowledgeâneededâtoâcreateâaâlargeâandâconstantlyâupdatedâreservoirâofâsolutionsâtoâtheâstudentâperformanceâproblemsâtheyâhaveâdiagnosed.
duringâtheâcourseâofâtheirâcareers,âteachersâinâshanghaiâareâinvolvedâinâsubject-basedââteaching-studyâgroupsââtoâimproveâteachingâatâtheâgrassrootsâlevelâonâaâday-to-dayâbasis.âthereâareâtimetabledâsessionsâwhenâtheâstudyâgroupâwillâmeet,âoftenâwithârelatedâpersonnel,âsuchâasâlaboratoryâassistants,âtoâ drawâ upâ veryâ detailedâ lessonâ schemesâ forâ aâ particularâ topicâ theâ followingâ week.âtheâ lessonâplanâservesânotâonlyâasâaâguideâforâtheâteacherâduringâtheâlesson,âbutâalsoâasâdocumentationâofâtheâteacherâsâprofessionalâperformance.âduringâactualâteaching,âteachersâmayâobserveâeachâotherâorâmayâbeâobservedâbyâpeers.âforâexample,âwhenâaâchangeâinâcurriculumâintroducesâaânewâteachingâtopic,âteachersâmayâbeâobservedâbyânewâteachers,âsoâtheseâcanâlearnâfromâmoreâexperiencedâcolleagues;âbyâseniorâteachers,âforâmentoringâpurposes;âorâbyâtheâschoolâprincipal,âforâmonitoringâorâtoâprovideâconstructiveâ developmentâ assistance.â sometimes,â teachersâ areâ expectedâ toâ teachâ demonstrationâlessons,âcalledâpublicâlessons,âforâaâlargeânumberâofâotherâteachersâtoâobserveâandâcommentâupon.â
thisâstructuredâorganizationâofâteachingâinâshanghaiâisânotâonlyâaâmeansâforâadministration;âitâ isâalsoâaâmajorâplatformâforâprofessionalâenhancement.âteachersâinâshanghaiâareâclassifiedâintoâfourâgradesâthatâindicateâtheirâprofessionalâstatus.âPromotionâfromâoneâgradeâtoâtheânextâoftenârequiresâtheâcapacityâ toâgiveâdemonstrationâlessons,âcontributeâ toâ theâinductionâofânewâteachers,âpublishâinâ journalsâorâmagazinesâ aboutâ educationâorâ teaching,â andâ soâ forth.âtheâprovincialâofficeâoftenâidentifiesâtheâbestâofâtheâteachersâwhoâemergeâfromâevaluationâprocessesâandârelievesâthemâofâsomeâorâallâofâtheirâteachingâdutiesâsoâthatâtheyâcanâgiveâlecturesâtoâtheirâpeers,âprovideâdemonstrations,âandâcoachâotherâteachersâonâaâdistrict,âprovincialâandâevenânationalâlevel.âcarefullyâpickedâschoolsâareâoftenâaskedâtoâpilotânewâprogramsâorâpoliciesâbeforeâtheyâareâscaled-up,âandâtheâbestâteachersâinâthoseâschoolsâareâenlistedâasâco-researchersâtoâevaluateâtheâeffectivenessâofâtheânewâpractices.â
theâpracticesâdescribedâhereâforâshanghaiâareâsimilarâinâotherâeastâasianâcountries.âtheâeastâasianâcountriesâ takingâpartâ inâPisaâallâprovideâ interestingâmodelsâ forâbuildingâonâprofessionalâ teacherâcollaborationâtoâmakeâtheâmostâofâ theirâ top-performingâteachers.âtheâtraditionâofâ lessonâstudyâinâtheseâcountriesâalsoâmeansâthatâasianâteachersâareânotâalone.âtheyâworkâtogetherâinâaâdisciplinedâwayâ toâ improveâ theâ qualityâ ofâ theâ lessonsâ theyâ teach.âthatâ meansâ thatâ teachersâ whoseâ practiceâlagsâbehindâthatâofâtheâleadersâcanâseeâwhatâgoodâpracticeâis.âBecauseâtheirâcolleaguesâknowâwhoâtheâpoorâperformersâareâandâdiscussâ them,â theâpoorâperformersâhaveâbothâ theâ incentiveâandâ theâmeansâ toâ improveâ theirâ performance.â sinceâ theâ structureâ ofâ theâ eastâasianâ teachingâ workforceâincludesâopportunitiesâtoâbecomeâaâmasterâteacherâandâmoveâupâaâladderâofâincreasingâprestigeâandâresponsibility,âitâalsoâpaysâtheâgoodâteacherâtoâbecomeâevenâbetter.
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Chapter 2
Teacher developmenT, supporT, careers and employmenT condiTions
17© OECD 2011âBuildingâaâHigH-QualityâteacHingâProfession:âlessonsâfromâaroundâtHeâWorld
Education is still far from being a knowledge industry, in the sense that its own practices
are being continuously transformed by greater understanding of their efficacy. While
in many other fields, people enter their professional lives expecting that what they
do and how they do it will be transformed by evidence and research, this is still not
generally the case in education. Transforming teaching does not just involve high-
quality recruiting and initial education; it also requires that those who are now
teaching adapt to constantly changing demands. Effective development of teachers
in service demands both more and different forms of professional development and
appropriate career structure and career diversity. Too often, courses are isolated events
that are not joined up with changes in schools. More effective forms of development
tend to be welcomed by teachers themselves, who are often willing to contribute
to the cost of such education in money and time. Effective individual professional
development sits alongside collective learning, with teachers exchanging ideas and
collaborating to improve classroom practice; but this remains all too rare. The existing
teaching force can be supported through flexible approaches to career development
and employment conditions. While jobs for life are becoming increasingly rare, having
opportunities to work part-time and to develop careers in new ways can help to improve
the attractiveness of the profession.
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te a ch e r â d e ve l o p m e n t , â s u p p o r t , â c a r e e r s â a n d â e m p l oy m e n t â c o n d i t i o n s
© OECD 2011âBuildingâaâHigH-QualityâteacHingâProfession:âlessonsâfromâaroundâtHeâWorld
Chapter 2
Improvements must come partly through the transformation of the present teaching force, with teachers expected to be able to adapt to new knowledge and demands during their careers.
asâ importantâ asâ theâ recruitmentâ andâ selectionâofâpromisingâgraduatesâ is,â itâ canâonlyâbeâoneâofâ severalâcomponentsâ ofâ humanâ resourceâ managementâ inâ education.âtheâ frequentlyâ citedâ claimâ thatâ theâ best-performingâeducationâsystemsâallârecruitâtheirâteachersâfromâtheâtop-thirdâofâgraduatesâ-âhoweverâthatâisâdefinedâ-âisânotâsupportedâbyâevidence.âsuccessfulâreformâcannotâwaitâforâaânewâgenerationâofâteachers;âitârequiresâinvestmentâinâtheâpresentâteacherâworkforce,âprovidingâqualityâprofessionalâdevelopment,âadequateâcareerâstructuresâandâdiversification,âandâenlistingâtheâcommitmentâofâteachersâtoâreformâ(seeâalsoâBoxesâ4.1,â4.3,â4.4âandâ4.5).âtheâilo/unescoâcommitteeâofâexpertsâonâtheâapplicationâofâtheârecommendationsâconcerningâteachingâPersonnelânotesâinâitsâ2009âreportâthatââteachingâcareerâstructuresâŠareâevolvingâtoâencourageâbetterâteachingâpracticesâandâincentivesâforâteachersâtoâremainâinâteaching,âbutâmuchâmoreâneedsâtoâbeâdoneâtoâlinkâteacherâeducationâandâprofessionalâdevelopment,âevaluationâandâcareerâprogression.âevidenceâfromâinternationalâsurveysâŠpointâtoâaâgeneralâlackâofâprofessionalâdevelopmentâsupportâadaptedâtoâtheâneedsâofâteachersâandâlearners.â19â
theâfollowingâanalysisâ looksâatâhowâtheâindividualâdevelopmentâofâ teachersâcanâbeâimprovedâandâhowâgreaterâcollaborationâamongâteachersâcanâimproveâteachingâquality.â
Meeting the need for professional developMent
The requirements of teachers change continuously, so pre-service education is not enough, andâŠ
inâ manyâ countries,â theâ roleâ andâ functioningâ ofâ schoolsâ areâ changingâandâ soâ isâ whatâ isâ expectedâ ofâteachers.âtheyâ areâ askedâ toâ teachâ inâ increasinglyâ multiculturalâ classrooms.âtheyâ mustâ placeâ greaterâemphasisâonâintegratingâstudentsâwithâspecialâlearningâneeds,âbothâspecialâdifficultiesâandâspecialâtalents,âinâtheirâclasses.âtheyâneedâtoâmakeâmoreâeffectiveâuseâofâinformationâandâcommunicationâtechnologiesâforâ teaching.â theyâ areâ requiredâ toâ engageâ moreâ inâ planningâ withinâ evaluativeâ andâ accountabilityâframeworks.âandâtheyâareâaskedâtoâdoâmoreâtoâinvolveâparentsâinâschools.ânoâmatterâhowâgoodâtheâpre-serviceâeducationâforâteachersâis,âitâcannotâbeâexpectedâtoâprepareâteachersâforâallâtheâchallengesâtheyâwillâfaceâthroughoutâtheirâcareers.â
⊠continuous professional development is needed to update skills and knowledge in a range of ways.
theâdevelopmentâofâteachersâbeyondâtheirâinitialâeducationâcanâserveâaârangeâofâpurposes,âincludingâto:
âąâ updateâindividualsââknowledgeâofâaâsubjectâinâlightâofârecentâadvancesâinâtheâarea;â
âąâ updateâindividualsââskillsâandâapproachesâinâlightâofâtheâdevelopmentâofânewâteachingâtechniquesâandâobjectives,ânewâcircumstances,âandânewâeducationalâresearch;
âąâ enableâindividualsâtoâapplyâchangesâmadeâtoâcurriculaâorâotherâaspectsâofâteachingâpractice;â
âąâ enableâschoolsâ toâdevelopâandâapplyânewâstrategiesâconcerningâ theâcurriculumâandâotherâaspectsâofâteachingâpractice;â
âąâ exchangeâinformationâandâexpertiseâamongâteachersâandâothers,âe.g.âacademicsâandâindustrialists;âorâ
âąâ helpâweakerâteachersâbecomeâmoreâeffective.
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19© OECD 2011âBuildingâaâHigH-QualityâteacHingâProfession:âlessonsâfromâaroundâtHeâWorld
te a ch e r â d e ve l o p m e n t , â s u p p o r t , â c a r e e r s â a n d â e m p l oy m e n t â c o n d i t i o n s
Chapter 2
Several aspects have shown to be central to successful professional development.
inâseekingâtoâmeetâteachersââprofessionalâdevelopmentârequirements,âpolicyâmakersâandâpractitionersâneedâtoâconsiderâbothâhowâtoâsupportâandâencourageâparticipationâandâhowâtoâensureâthatâopportunitiesâmatchâteachersââneeds.âthisâneedsâtoâbeâbalancedâwithâtheâcostâinâtermsâofâbothâfinanceâandâteachersââtime.âoecdâresearchâidentifiesâseveralâaspectsâasâcentralâtoâsuccessfullyâbridgingâtheâgapâbetweenâtheâidealâlearningâenvironmentâandâday-to-dayâpractice20:â
âąâ Well-structuredâandâ-resourcedâinductionâprogramsâcanâsupportânewâteachersâinâtheirâtransitionâtoâfullâteachingâresponsibilitiesâbeforeâtheyâobtainâallâ theârightsâandâresponsibilitiesâofâ full-timeâprofessionalâteachers.âinâsomeâcountries,âonceâteachersâhaveâcompletedâtheirâpre-serviceâeducationâandâbegunâtheirâteaching,âtheyâbeginâoneâorâtwoâyearsâofâheavilyâsupervisedâteaching.âduringâthisâperiod,âtheâbeginningâteacherâ typicallyâ receivesâaâ reducedâworkload,âmentoringâbyâmasterâ teachers,âandâcontinuedâ formalâinstructionâ(figureâ2.1).â
âąâ effectiveâ professionalâ developmentâ needsâ toâ beâ on-going,â includeâ training,â practiceâ andâ feedback,âandâprovideâadequateâ timeâandâ follow-upâsupport.âsuccessfulâprogramsâ involveâ teachersâ inâ learningâactivitiesâthatâareâsimilarâtoâthoseâtheyâwillâuseâwithâtheirâstudents,âandâencourageâtheâdevelopmentâofâteachersââlearningâcommunities.
âąâ teacherâdevelopmentâneedsâtoâbeâlinkedâwithâwiderâgoalsâofâschoolâandâsystemâdevelopment,âandâwithâappraisalâandâfeedbackâpracticesâandâschoolâevaluation.â
âąâ thereâisâoftenâaâneedâtoâre-examineâstructuresâandâpracticesâthatâinhibitâinter-disciplinaryâpracticeâandâtoâprovideâmoreâroomâforâteachersâtoâtakeâtimeâtoâlearnâdeeply,âandâemployâinquiry-âandâgroup-basedâapproaches,âespeciallyâinâtheâcoreâareasâofâcurriculumâandâassessment.
%
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Countries are ranked in descending order of percentage of teachers in schools that do not have a formal induction programme.Source: OECD, TALIS Table 3.6.
Figure 2.1Percentage of teachers without mentoring and induction
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No formal induction process
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te a ch e r â d e ve l o p m e n t , â s u p p o r t , â c a r e e r s â a n d â e m p l oy m e n t â c o n d i t i o n s
© OECD 2011âBuildingâaâHigH-QualityâteacHingâProfession:âlessonsâfromâaroundâtHeâWorld
Chapter 2
The extent of in-service teacher education varies greatly across and within countries...
inâ someâ countries,â ongoingâ professionalâ developmentâ alreadyâ playsâ anâ importantâ role.â inâ theâ chineseâprovinceâofâshanghai,âeachâteacherâisâexpectedâtoâengageâinâ240âhoursâofâprofessionalâdevelopmentâwithinâfiveâyears.âsingaporeâprovidesâteachersâwithâanâentitlementâofâ100âhoursâofâprofessionalâdevelopmentâperâyearâtoâkeepâupâwithâtheârapidâchangesâoccurringâinâtheâworldâandâtoâbeâableâtoâimproveâtheirâpractice.âmoreâgenerally,âresultsâfromâtalisâshowâthatâacrossâcountriesâalmostâ90%âofâteachersâparticipatedâinâsomeâformâofâprofessionalâdevelopmentâoverâanâ18-monthâperiodâand,âonâaverage,â spentâ justâunderâoneâdayâperâmonthâinâprofessionalâdevelopment21â(seeâalsoâfiguresâ2.2âandâ2.3).âHowever,âthereâisâconsiderableâvariationâinâtheâincidenceâandâintensityâofâteacherâparticipationâinâprofessionalâdevelopmentâbothâacrossâandâwithinâcountries;22âandâolderâteachersâtendâtoâengageâinâlessâprofessionalâdevelopmentâthanâyoungerâones.âtheâ typesâofâdevelopmentâundertakenâbyâ teachersâexplainâ someâofâ theseâvariations.âcountriesâ inâwhichâaâhighâpercentageâofâteachersâtakeâpartâinââqualificationâprogramsââorââindividualâandâcollaborativeâresearchââ tendâ toâ haveâ aâ higherâ averageânumberâ ofâ daysâ ofâ developmentâ butâ onlyâ aâ smallâminorityâ ofâteachersâtendâtoâparticipateâinâtheseâactivities.
Box 2.1.â Innovativeâteacher-preparationâprogramsâinâtheâUnitedâStates
Bostonâs Teacher Residency is preparing high-flying graduates to fill shortages in the cityâs schools.
theâBostonâteacherâresidencyâ (Btr),âestablishedâ inâ2003,â isâaâ teacher-preparationâprogramâthatârecruitsâhigh-performingâcollegeâgraduatesâandâprofessionalsâandâpreparesâthemâtoâteachâinâBostonâschools.âtheâprogramâfocusesâonâmasteringâtheâskillsâthatâteachersâwillâneedâtoâbeâeffectiveâinâtheâpublicâschoolsâinâwhichâteachersâwillâwork,âemphasizingâclinicalâtrainingâandâpairingâresidentsâwithâexperiencedâclassroomâteachers.âresidentsâbeginâtheâprogramâwithâaâtwo-monthâsummerâinstitute,âandâthenâspendâtheirâfirstâyearâinâaâclassroomâfourâdaysâaâweek,âspendingâtheâfifthâdayâattendingâcoursesâ andâ seminars.âthisâ approachâallowsâ residentsâ toâmasterâ simultaneouslyâbothâ theâ theoryâandâpracticeâofâ teaching.âafterâ theirâ firstâ year,â residentsâ receiveâ anâ initialâ teacherâ licenseâ andâ aâmasterâsâdegreeâinâeducation,âandâcontinueâtoâreceiveâsupportâfromâBtrâinâtheâformâofâinductionâcoaching,âcoursesâandâseminars,âandâplacementâinâcollaborativeâclustersâwithinâschools.âaâstudyâofâtheâprogramâsâimpactâonâstudentâachievementâisâunderway,âbutâearlyâindicatorsâofâsuccessâincludeâaârigorousârecruitmentâandâselectionâprocessâinâwhichâonlyâ13%âofâapplicantsâareâadmitted,âthree-yearâretentionâratesâofâ85%â(farâaboveâtheâu.s.âaverageâforâurbanâschools),âgrowthâofâtheâprogramâsâoutputsâtoâfillâ60%âofâBostonâsâannualâneedâforâmathâandâscienceâteachers,âandâhighlyâfavorableâreviewsâfromâschoolâprincipals,âwithâ96%âofâprincipalsâsayingâtheyâwouldârecommendâhiringâaâBtrâgraduateâtoâanotherâprincipal.âBtrârecentlyâreceivedâaâusdâ5âmillionââdevelopmentââgrantâunderâtheâu.s.âdepartmentâofâeducationâsâinvestingâinâinnovationâfund,âwhichâseeksâtoâidentifyâandâscale-upâpromisingâandâprovenâpracticesâinâteacherâeducationâandâotherâpriorityâareas.
teachersâ considerâ betterâ andâ moreâ targetedâ professionalâ developmentâ asâ anâ importantâ leverâ towardsâimprovement.âtalisâdataâshowâthatâteachersââparticipationâinâprofessionalâdevelopmentâgoesâhand-in-handâwithâtheirâmasteryâofâaâwiderâarrayâofâmethodsâtoâuseâinâtheâclassroom,âevenâifâitâisânotâclearâtoâwhatâextentâprofessionalâdevelopmentâtriggersâorârespondsâtoâtheâadoptionâofânewâtechniques.âtalisâdataâalsoâidentifyâcloseâassociationsâbetweenâprofessionalâdevelopmentâandâaâpositiveâschoolâclimate,âteachingâbeliefs,âco-operationâbetweenâteachersâandâteacherâjobâsatisfaction.
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21© OECD 2011âBuildingâaâHigH-QualityâteacHingâProfession:âlessonsâfromâaroundâtHeâWorld
te a ch e r â d e ve l o p m e n t , â s u p p o r t , â c a r e e r s â a n d â e m p l oy m e n t â c o n d i t i o n s
Chapter 2
âŠbut mostly still takes the form of one-off events rather than upgrading qualifications or collaborative research, which, teachers report, have the greatest impact.
However,âschoolsâandâsystemsâneedâtoâbetterâmatchâtheâcostsâandâbenefitsâof,âandâsupplyâandâdemandâfor,â professionalâ development.â resultsâ fromâtalisâ showâ that,â acrossâ countries,â relativelyâ fewâ teachersâparticipateâinâtheâkindsâofâprofessionalâdevelopmentâthatâtheyâbelieveâhasâtheâlargestâimpactâonâtheirâwork,ânamelyâqualificationâprogramsâandâindividualâandâcollaborativeâresearch,âevenâifâthoseâwhoâdoâcommitâconsiderableâtimeâandâmoneyâtoâtheseâcoursesâconsiderâthemâeffectiveâ(seeâfigureâ2.2).âconversely,â theâtypesâofâactivitiesâthatâteachersâconsiderâlessâeffective,ânamelyâone-offâeducationâconferencesâandâseminars,âshowâcomparativelyâhighâparticipationârates.âthisâbeingâsaid,âresearchâonâhowâtheâincidenceâandâintensityâofâdifferentâtypesâofâprofessionalâdevelopmentâactivitiesâinfluencesâlearningâoutcomesâisâstillâlimited.
Individual andcollaborative
research
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to improveteaching
Readingprofessional
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Professionaldevelopment
network
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observation
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other schools
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Figure 2.2Comparison of impact and participation by types of development activity
%
Activities are ranked in descending order of the percentage of teachers reporting a moderate or high impact of the professionaldevelopment they took.Source: OECD, TALIS Tables 3.2 and 3.8.
Teachers reporting moderate or high level of impact
Teachers participating in professional development
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Teacher demand for professional development is often not met, sometimes for lack of time, sometimes for lack of opportunityâŠ
despiteâhighâ levelsâofâparticipationâ inâdevelopmentâactivities,â theâprofessionalâdevelopmentâneedsâofâaâsignificantâproportionâofâteachersâareâoftenânotâfullyâmet.âtheâtalisâsurveyâfoundâthat:
âąâ fiftyâfiveâpercentâofâ theâteachersâsurveyedâreportedâthatâ theyâwantedâmoreâprofessionalâdevelopmentâthanâtheyâreceivedâduringâtheâ18-monthâsurveyâperiod.âtheâextentâofâunsatisfiedâdemandâisâsizeableâinâeveryâcountry,ârangingâfromâ31%âtoâoverâ80%.
âąâ acrossâcountries,âteachersâwhoâwereâmoreâlikelyâtoâreportâunsatisfiedâdemandâwereâinâpublicâschools,âfemalesâandâunderâ40âyearsâofâage.
âąâ acrossâcountries,âtheâaspectsâofâteachersââworkâwithâgreatestâdevelopmentâneedâareââteachingâspecial-needsâstudentsâ,âfollowedâbyââinformationâandâcommunicationâtechnologyâteachingâskillsââandââstudentâdisciplineâandâbehaviorâ.
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te a ch e r â d e ve l o p m e n t , â s u p p o r t , â c a r e e r s â a n d â e m p l oy m e n t â c o n d i t i o n s
© OECD 2011âBuildingâaâHigH-QualityâteacHingâProfession:âlessonsâfromâaroundâtHeâWorld
Chapter 2
Whatâpreventsâteachersâfromâundertakingâasâmuchâprofessionalâdevelopmentâasâtheyâwouldâlike?âtheâmostâcommonâreason,âcitedâbyânearlyâhalfâofâteachersâinâtalis,âwasâconflictâwithâtheirâworkâscheduleâ(figureâ2.3).âHowever,âalmostâasâmanyâcitedâtheâlackâofâsuitableâopportunitiesâforâprofessionalâdevelopment,âandâtheseâteachersâalsoâgenerallyâengagedâinâlessâdevelopmentâactivity.
Did nothave the
pre-requisites
Lack ofemployersupport
Too expensiveFamilyresponsibilities
No suitableprofessionaldevelopment
Conflictwith workschedule
Figure 2.3Reasons for not taking more professional development
Among those teachers who wanted more development than they received (international averages)%
Reasons are ranked in descending order of frequency with which the barrier was reported by teachers.Source: OECD, TALIS Table 3.7.
50454035302520151050
âŠand these shortfalls are likely to undermine the capacity of education systems to adapt to changing needs, especially in certain areas, like adopting ICT and serving students of varied backgrounds.
Butâitâisânotâjustâaâquestionâofâproducingâmoreâofâtheâsameâprofessionalâdevelopment.âteachersâconsistentlyâreportedâthatâtheirâgreatestâneedâforâprofessionalâdevelopmentâwasâinâlearningâhowâtoâhandleâdifferencesâinâstudentâlearningâstylesâandâbackgrounds,âusingâinformationâandâcommunicationâtechnologiesâeffectively,âandâimprovingâstudentâbehaviorâ(seeâfigureâ2.4).âtheseâresponsesâprovideâsomeâdirectionâonâwhereâfutureâeffortsâshouldâfocus,âandâsuggestâthatâaâsoundâassessmentâofâprovisionâandâsupportâofâdevelopmentâisâimportant.â
Schoolmanagement
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andbehaviourproblems
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Figure 2.4Areas of greatest need for teacher professional development
International average of percentage of teachers reporting a high level of need%
Areas are ranked in descending order of the international average where teachers report a high level of need for development.Source: OECD, TALIS Table 3.4.
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23© OECD 2011âBuildingâaâHigH-QualityâteacHingâProfession:âlessonsâfromâaroundâtHeâWorld
te a ch e r â d e ve l o p m e n t , â s u p p o r t , â c a r e e r s â a n d â e m p l oy m e n t â c o n d i t i o n s
Chapter 2
ofâcourse,âaâcertainâlevelâofâunsatisfiedâdemandâisâtoâbeâexpected;âitâisâonlyânaturalâthatâaâcertainâproportionâofâteachersâwill,âatâsomeâtime,ânotâfeelâfullyâequippedâtoâcarryâoutâtheirâworkâeffectively.ânonetheless,âtheâextentâofâunsatisfiedâdemandâappearsâlarge,âandâinâsomeâcountriesâtheâgreatâmajorityâofâteachersâreportâthatâtheyâneedâmoreâprofessionalâdevelopmentâthanâtheyâreceive.âtheâextentâtoâwhichâthisâunderminesâtheâeffectivenessâofâtheseâteachersâisâdifficultâtoâassess;âbutâitâisâequallyâdifficultâtoâimagineâthatâsuchâdeficitsâareânotâtoâsomeâextentâdetrimentalâ toâeffectiveâ teachingâandâ learning.âtheâcostâofâprovidingâadditionalâprofessionalâdevelopmentâneedsâtoâbeâseenâinârelationâtoâtheâcostâofânotâprovidingâit,âinâtermsâofâlostâopportunitiesâforâstudentsâtoâlearn.
Most professional development is provided free; but in some countries teachers who contribute financially tend to participate in and benefit more from these activities.
evenâifâthereâisânoâcountryâinâwhichâtheâprofessionalâdevelopmentâofâteachersâisâcompletelyâfree,âtalisâdataâindicateâthatâteachersâinâmostâcountriesâfeelâthatâtheâlevelâofâsupportâtheyâreceive,âinâtermsâofâfinanceâandâseparatelyâscheduledâtimeâinâwhichâtoâundertakeâdevelopmentâactivities,âisâsignificant.âinâtheâparticipatingâcountries,â anâ averageâ ofâ aroundâ two-thirdsâ ofâ teachersâ payâ nothingâ forâ theseâ activities,â andâ aâ similarâproportionâreceiveâallocatedâtime.âschoolsâandâpublicâauthoritiesâclearlyâmakeâaâsignificantâinvestmentâinâteachersââprofessionalâdevelopmentâ(seeâfigureâ2.5).â
theâ factâ thatâaâsizeableâproportionâofâ teachersâunderwriteâ theâcostâofâ theirâprofessionalâdevelopmentâ isâevidenceâ thatâ manyâ teachersâ areâ contributingâ theirâ shareâ ofâ theâ costâ ofâ advancingâ theirâ careerâ ifâ theyâcannotâfindâfreeâprogramsâofâadequateâquality.â inâfact,â theâdataâshowâthatâwhereâteachersâpaidâforâ theirâownâprofessionalâdevelopment,âtheyâtendedâtoâparticipateâinâmoreâofâit:âthoseâwhoâpaidâtheâfullâcostâtookâoverâtwiceâasâmanyâteacher-educationâcoursesâasâthoseâwhoâreceivedâthemâforâfree.âthisâpartlyâreflectsâtheâfactâthatâcoursesâthatâareâpaidâforâtendâtoâleadâtoâprofessionalâqualificationsâandâareâmoreâtime-consuming.âthisâsuggestsâthatâfreeâprovisionâisânotânecessarilyâtheâonlyâwayâofâstimulatingâparticipation,âatâleastâwhenâteachersâareâseekingâtoâfurtherâtheirâcareersâandâtheirâearningsâprospects,âsuchâasâwhenâtheyâprepareâforâbecomingâheadâteachers,âinspectorsâorâteachersâatâaâsuperiorâeducationalâlevel.â
fostering an environMent for effeCtive teaCher Collaboration
Teachers work together relatively rarely; but when they do, they tend also to work well with students.teachersâcanâdoâmore,âandâshouldâbeâencouragedâ toâdoâmore,â toâshareâ theirâexpertiseâandâexperienceâsystematicallyâinâwaysâthatâgoâbeyondâtheâmereâexchangeâofâinformation.âteachersâreportârelativelyâinfrequentâcollaborationâwithâcolleaguesâwithinâtheâschool,âbeyondâaâmereâexchangeâofâinformationâandâideas;âdirectâprofessionalâcollaborationâtoâenhanceâstudentâlearningâisârarer23.âunderstandingâthatâcollaborationâtakesâtime,âsomeâcountriesâareâprovidingâteachersâwithâsomeâscheduledâtimeâorâsalaryâsupplementâtoâencourageâthemâtoâengageâinâsuchâco-operation.â
teachersâwhoâexchangeâ ideasâandâ informationâandâco-ordinateâ theirâpracticesâwithâotherâ teachersâalsoâreportâmoreâpositiveâ teacher-studentâ relationsâatâ theirâ school.âthus,â itâmayâbeâ reasonableâ toâencourageâteachersââco-operationâinâconjunctionâwithâimprovingâteacher-studentârelations,âasâtheseâareâtwoâsidesâofâaâpositiveâschoolâculture.âPositiveâteacher-studentârelationsâareânotâonlyâaâsignificantâpredictorâofâstudentâachievement,âtheyâareâalsoâcloselyârelatedâtoâindividualâteachersââjobâsatisfactionâ(seeâfigureâ2.6).âthisâfindingâemphasizesâtheâroleâofâteachersââpositiveâevaluationsâofâtheâschoolâenvironmentâforâeffectiveâeducationâandâteacherâwell-being.âeffortsâ toâimproveâschoolâclimateâareâparticularlyâimportantâ inâlargerâpublicâschoolsâattendedâbyâstudentsâwithâlowâaverageâability.âseveralâofâtheâeastâasianâcountriesâprovideâinterestingâmodelsâforâbuildingâonâprofessionalâteacherâcollaborationâtoâmakeâtheâmostâofâtheirâtop-performingâteachersâ(seeâBoxesâ1.4âandâ1.5âabove).
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© OECD 2011âBuildingâaâHigH-QualityâteacHingâProfession:âlessonsâfromâaroundâtHeâWorld
Chapter 2
Figure 2.5Support for professional development
Percentageof teacherswho receivedsupport
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Countries are ranked in descending order of percentage of teachers having paid none of the cost of professional development.Source: OECD, TALIS Table 3.5.
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Countries are ranked in descending order of percentage of teachers having paid all of the cost of development they took.Source: OECD, TALIS Table 3.5a, available on line.
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10
0
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25© OECD 2011âBuildingâaâHigH-QualityâteacHingâProfession:âlessonsâfromâaroundâtHeâWorld
E
8577868871728575808877657480818079747578758586747182757479828369838979
94808983739170798291718987827580717989837484808085878387788173
D
8467848977787985848071637782777077648372788587747390797468828287888879
92689178807969878985809389857878787679858074827290888983827767
C
7161677472577160636269627974636862635763776673556082665667717078697467
89738674717560756763778075696666537577827177736979746482677281
B
7859638074677976495358666873766172286059776177573589713070756988788166
86757781538265837182818369656656646983817762768681817277805171
A
8587838985808986877885878688828382737982868788848194858082898586869085
89839086858687898993839390868285838990887889888989918887848388
AustraliaAustriaBelgiumCanadaChileCzech RepublicDenmarkEstoniaFinlandFranceGermanyGreeceHungaryIcelandIrelandIsraelItalyJapanKoreaLuxembourgMexicoNetherlandsNew ZealandNorwayPolandPortugalSlovak RepublicSloveniaSpainSwedenSwitzerlandTurkeyUnited KingdomUnited StatesOECD average
AlbaniaArgentinaAzerbaijanBrazilBulgariaColombiaCroatiaDubai (UAE)Hong Kong-ChinaIndonesiaJordanKazakhstanKyrgyzstanLatviaLiechtensteinLithuaniaMacao-ChinaMontenegroPanamaPeruQatarRomaniaRussian FederationSerbiaShanghai-ChinaSingaporeChinese TaipeiThailandTrinidad and TobagoTunisiaUruguay
OEC
DPa
rtne
rs
A I get along well with most of my teachers.B Most of my teachers are interested in my well-being.C Most of my teachers really listen to what I have to say.D If I need extra help, I will receive it from my teachers.E Most of my teachers treat me fairly.
Percentage of students agreeing or strongly agreeing with the following statements
School variability
in the distribution of the index (Proportion of the index
variance between schools)
0.040.070.040.070.060.060.060.040.030.050.050.060.050.090.030.100.080.050.060.040.050.020.040.060.040.030.080.080.090.070.070.040.040.080.06
0.060.080.060.050.070.060.050.040.030.040.040.140.060.060.110.060.030.100.040.080.050.040.070.030.030.040.030.140.030.060.04
Variability in the index
(S.D.)
1.01.10.91.01.00.91.00.80.90.91.11.00.91.11.01.11.01.00.81.11.00.81.01.00.90.90.80.91.01.01.11.20.91.11.0
1.01.01.11.01.11.00.91.10.90.81.20.90.90.91.21.10.91.01.11.01.20.90.91.00.90.90.90.81.11.01.0
Index points
-2.0 -1.0 1.0 2.00
-1.5 -0.5 0.5 1.5 2.5
Range between top and bottom quarter
Average index
Figure 2.6Studentsâ views of teacher-student relations
Index of teacher-student relations based on the reports of 15-year-old students
note:âHigherâvaluesâonâtheâindexâindicateâpositiveâteacher-studentârelations.source:âoecd,âPISA 2009 Database,âtableâiV.4.1.1â2âhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1787/888932343418
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26
te a ch e r â d e ve l o p m e n t , â s u p p o r t , â c a r e e r s â a n d â e m p l oy m e n t â c o n d i t i o n s
© OECD 2011âBuildingâaâHigH-QualityâteacHingâProfession:âlessonsâfromâaroundâtHeâWorld
Chapter 2
establishing effeCtive eMployMent Conditions
Finding alternatives to guaranteeing teachers a job for life has not been easy.theâ predominantâ modelâ forâ teacherâ employmentâ inâ oecdâ countriesâ isâ âcareer-basedââ publicâ serviceâ inâwhichâentryâisâcompetitive,âcareerâdevelopmentâisâextensivelyâregulatedâandâlifetimeâemploymentâisâlargelyâguaranteed.24âinâaâsituationâwhereâteachersâareânotâcommonlyâremovedâforâunsatisfactoryâperformance,âtheâqualityâofâteachersâdependsâmainlyâonâsettingâhighâstandardsâofâenteringâteacher-preparationâprograms,âonâtheâqualityâofâtheirâinitialâpreparation,âandâonâtheâattentionâgivenâtoâtheâqualityâofâtheirâpreparationâfollowingâtheirâinitialâinduction.âunderâcareer-basedâsystems,âtheâriskâisâthatâtheâqualityâofâtheâteachingâforceâdependsâexcessivelyâonâgettingâinitialârecruitmentâandâteacherâeducationâright,âandâthatâanyâimprovementâoverâtimeâwillâ takeâmanyâyearsâ toâaffectâmostâservingâ teachers.âmoreover,âcareerâadvancementâcanâbecomeâheavilyâdependentâ onâ adheringâ toâ organizationalâ norms,â whichâ helpsâ toâ ensureâ uniformityâ andâ predictabilityâ ofâserviceâandâaâstrongâgroupâethos,âbutâcanâmakeâsystemsâinflexibleâtoâchangeâandâill-equippedâtoâserveâdiverseâneedsâinâdifferentâsettings.
inâ someâ countries,â publicâ servantsâ areâ requiredâ toâ applyâ forâ specificâ positionsâ byâ showingâ thatâ theirâcompetenciesâmatchâspecificâjobârequirements,âratherâthanâhavingâaâguaranteedâcareer.âHowever,âthisâcanâincreaseâ recruitmentâ andâ managementâ costs,â andâ makeâ itâ harderâ toâ developâ sharedâ valuesâ andâ provideâconsistentâservice.âanotherâapproachâhasâbeenâtoâintroduceâmoreâcontractâorâtemporaryâemploymentâpositionsâinâ parallelâwithâ career-basedâ systems.âthisâ opensâupâpossibilitiesâ forâ externalâ recruitment,â providesâ localâmanagersâwithâmoreâscopeâforâpersonnelâdecisions,âandâinstitutesâmanagementâbyâobjectives.âHowever,âtheâgeneralâexperienceâinâoecdâcountriesâisâthatâitâisânotâeasyâtoâgraftâfeaturesâfromâaâmarkedlyâdifferentâsystemâontoâaâwell-establishedâemploymentâmodel.âthoseâinâcareer-basedâsystemsâwhoâhaveâmetâdemandingâentranceâcriteriaâandâacceptedârelativelyâlowâstartingâsalariesâcanâfeelâthreatenedâbyâaâlessâpredictableâfuture.âthoseâaccustomedâtoâprofessionalâstatusâandâautonomyâderivedâfromâtheirâspecialistâskillsâmayâfeelâthreatenedâbyâmovesâtoâinstituteâsystem-wideâstandards.âoecdâsâTeachers Matter study,âPisaâandâtheâannualâdataâcollectionâEducation at a Glanceâidentifyâaânumberâofâtrendsâinâcountryâreformsâthatâareâhighlightedâinâtheâfollowing.â
In many successful systems, schools have become more involved in personnel management. successfulâenterprisesâoftenâreportâthatâpersonnelâselectionâisâtheâmostâimportantâsetâofâdecisionsâthatâtheyâmake.âinâtheâcaseâofâteaching,âtheâevidenceâsuggestsâthatâallâtooâoftenâtheâselectionâprocessâfollowsârulesâaboutâqualificationsâandâseniorityâ thatâbearâ littleâ relationshipâ toâ theâqualitiesâneededâ toâbeâanâeffectiveâteacher.âtheâsheerâsizeâofâschoolâsystemsâinâmanyâcountriesâmeansâthatâtheâprocessâofâteacherâselectionâisâoftenâhighlyâimpersonal,âandâitâisâhardâforâteachersâtoâbuildâaâsenseâofâcommitmentâtoâtheâschoolsâwhereâtheyâareâappointedâââorâforâtheâschoolsâtoâbuildâaâsenseâofâcommitmentâtoâthem.âdataâfromâPisaâsuggestâthatâmanyâofâtheâhigh-performingâeducationâsystemsâhaveârespondedâbyâgivingâschoolsâmoreâresponsibilityâââandâaccountabilityâââforâteacherâselection,âworkingâconditions,âandâdevelopmentâ(seeâfigureâ2.7).
oecdâsâTeachers Matterâ studyâdescribesâhowâschoolâ leadersâ inâmanyâofâ theâbest-performingâeducationâsystemsâactivelyâseekâoutâandâdevelopâtheâbestâpossibleâteachersâand,âwithâpersonalâinterviewsâandâvisitsâtoâschoolsâbyâcandidates,âseekâtoâoptimizeâtheâmatchâbetweenâapplicantsâandâschoolâneeds.âtheâstudyâsuggestsâthatâsuchâapproachesâworkâbestâwhereâparallelâstepsâareâtakenâtoâensureâthatâaccountability,âefficiencyâandâequityâareânotâjeopardized,âforâexampleâbyâdevelopingâschoolâleadersââskillsâ inâpersonnelâmanagement,âprovidingâdisadvantagedâschoolsâwithâgreaterâresourcesâwithâwhichâtoârecruitâeffectiveâteachers,âmakingâinformationâ moreâ accessibleâ inâ theâ teacherâ laborâ market,â andâ monitoringâ theâ outcomesâ ofâ aâ moreâdecentralizedâ approachâ andâ adjustingâ accordingly.â However,â successfulâ decentralizationâ ofâ personnelâmanagement,â andâ schoolâdecision-makingâmoreâgenerally,â requireâ thatâ centralâ andâ regionalâauthoritiesâhelpâtoâensureâanâadequateâandâequitableâdistributionâofâteacherâresourcesâthroughoutâtheâcountry.âitâisâalsoâimportantâtoâhaveâindependentâappealsâproceduresâtoâensureâfairnessâandâprotectâteachersâârights.â
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27© OECD 2011âBuildingâaâHigH-QualityâteacHingâProfession:âlessonsâfromâaroundâtHeâWorld
Index of school responsibility for resource allocation
F304
175
201011w2
34206
1121
888
22001
31831324
28148
31247673
189508
286474
30
280
13471544472710
11
142
129
35
26
121919
924
215
6w275
225
2411
36
14701
1243
32721
45
1316
51312
812
4675
2339
142
197
160
29162210
64
132816
1887
121316
1938463767175988592w
9759927789666989867871
10099882689707893938356958381
6164202192876892917870171981
10042846543795240467498917890757849
E3
1680264536
989
23w
6759121327598669581248
01
175127152633163547141632
55738980
5364022
25
177981126348
068153153686364
6293710267275
216
91830
936135441w47
15301326
74
1257
614
2842104049
4203019292922
12565
225
342
1511
113
725
027
52115
94
253027
2221320281812
1681156255555803736w
293473576015
728293146999555
763452663643534575446
3322
51473582675848383
8126237259512706043
789
91495070461013
D3
819999916211705580w
811003780998096809494943364817794355695
97999157573
96968492
48697317466988284574586
578797750955165517570
5899996
260161
25143315w
1507
160603000
12211320
03331
22213
017
610
1431
12111
1211
010
32517
84
118244
2019
617
724
501
113
104
37651612
5w40
5641
133
16666
5515
645
3213
369
81
671817
31
137
8413
2681523
28
131839
69010142247
1291643
72372
612
C3
8499999262
8707384w
971004480988797879294922088887194348295278499257877
97975991148698345870987377759481
59581765097509059937556969996
250151
151020
7w007
132400000834
200
2711
216
80
2357
0161
20013
2491
104
1507455232
158537
14111
112
103
377720
78w30
497093
13868
729895
3973
5781
521717
32
358
6614
1621820
1171810
61191
0142247
035
136
41829
213
B3
4568174838
016
063w
7998
10
50138477744573
04
34 086
01
67201596
86
37
79702278
178
524
46395
219
063
040
72614186 070
621228909986
212262135
31
155
19w
14227
1438
614
36417
2210
02
101
1726
2221913
143
17821
119
1711
14
134015
18895
115
301
241412
401
143
563175999699518w70
97933649
92223192299894490149888326360
2707551
7276114972184677926
495689637999182203054
4956499147459
61
13
A3
195212
723
000
25w
3499
00
143
8273623861
0061
3001
6603
9900
25
78513876
275
023
25993
211
259
040
76474491
110
481450699878
220351339
8022
43w
36116
253010
26
41500
211257
2434
1519
1214
145
22755
10121512
11014
4044
113
15394
282
38132014
05
16113755469
100979832w
290
99946167
925322134
100100
7287139896319682
1908861
8444017932190658329
688749441969289223852
195729814733017
217
AustraliaAustriaBelgiumCanadaChileCzech RepublicDenmarkEstoniaFinlandFranceGermanyGreeceHungaryIcelandIrelandIsraelItalyJapanKoreaLuxembourgMexicoNetherlandsNew ZealandNorwayPolandPortugalSlovak RepublicSloveniaSpainSwedenSwitzerlandTurkeyUnited KingdomUnited StatesOECD average
AlbaniaArgentinaAzerbaijanBrazilBulgariaColombiaCroatiaDubai (UAE)Hong Kong-ChinaIndonesiaJordanKazakhstanKyrgyzstanLatviaLiechtensteinLithuaniaMacao-ChinaMontenegroPanamaPeruQatarRomaniaRussian FederationSerbiaShanghai-ChinaSingaporeChinese TaipeiThailandTrinidad and TobagoTunisiaUruguay
OEC
DPa
rtne
rs
A Selecting teachers for hireB Dismissing teachersC Establishing teachersâ starting salariesD Determining teachersâ salaries increasesE Formulating the school budgetF Deciding on budget allocations within the school
1 Only âprincipals and/or teachersâ2 Both âprincipals and/or teachersâ and âregional and/or national education authorityâ3 Only âregional and/or national education authorityâ
Variability in the index
(S.D.)0.90.30.30.51.21.20.90.60.5w
0.50.11.20.50.20.80.51.00.70.80.81.00.70.60.40.71.10.60.61.10.70.21.10.90.7
0.50.40.30.81.11.00.41.20.91.00.40.70.60.71.00.51.00.30.91.31.20.10.70.31.10.61.01.10.60.30.6
Index points-2.0 -1.0 1.0 2.00-1.5 -0.5 0.5 1.5 2.5
Range between top and bottom quarter
Average index
Figure 2.7 (1/2)
How much autonomy individual schools have over resource allocation
Percentageâofâ studentsâ inâ schoolsâofâ15-year-oldsâwhoseâprincipalsâ reportedâ thatâonlyââprincipalsâand/orâ teachersâ,âonlyââregionalâand/orânationalâeducationâauthorityââorâbothâââprincipalsâand/orâ teachersââandââregionalâand/orânationalâeducationâauthorityââhaveâconsiderableâresponsibilityâforâtheâfollowingâtasks
source:âoecd,âPISA 2009 Database,âtableâiV.3.5.1â2âhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1787/888932343399
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28© OECD 2011âBuildingâaâHigH-QualityâteacHingâProfession:âlessonsâfromâaroundâtHeâWorld
Figure 2.7 (2/2)
How much autonomy individual schools have over resource allocation
source:âoecd,âPISA 2009 Database,âtableâiV.3.6.1â2âhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1787/888932343399
Index of school responsibility for curriculum and assessment
D31
2913
316
114
26w2
882910
16
2724
2191
10
442986
12039222765
04
21
5361586575237225
0289237492838
54
4451374829
78720
471
158759
2244046542011392039w
185
2842215025
51761
510
83331
5485231255021143728
1230
517151425161323
122
742
9201436231817412212283125
851
919
1753240446488477955w
806
4348784449947918
58992234010522830532414865850
358
37181064
2598749
7404430537581202645353171
05266689134
421
C3
1423263835
112
416w
3296151334
514
12
2079
11
300
9256
378
3876
21824
5729644065
83926
27
937131365915
0613624602039573318
30
398371
2404042512216323052w
473
3626374427
68
727
122040
73
475931264115204631
743
925262350131718
1181046
035
6342323
933404122381611401426
1463732124383566632w
211
49612952599389
91487793093
54834326621
9773645
35282735106911628175
7115919415094
54153314621
24544818921
33
B3011
1171020w3
8503040307
26001005100
2068
010
8
13
432143
2707
957023
240
10
65223747
18
2334
301
109933
2854
492011
032
2w
138243
43184
8011
01282
3927
51
4018
22815
816
69
123
3417
713
114
827
511
0302612161327591724
81062
136
1929494407389
1006698w
847
989397539989961363
10099979298567295994014986278
918150888892635593804
1668715489
1005
52523786651949729289290
31
A32
154
1060
1137w9
680100102
5829
02
270
2835
233
1630
01311
336
382638393813
06
704726
4655
283410372212
752825
7847
23327196221
5283343w
2112
68
1320
826
3315
11736
837214834302729124023
1620
82737213610
728
422
8402520
032251518362544
9411718451130
1655778287295616350w
712094928780919892
9569981389235764644665742884666
51745447253926779367273165566975954041754542634986577479501123
AustraliaAustria
BelgiumCanada
ChileCzech Republic
DenmarkEstoniaFinlandFrance
GermanyGreece
HungaryIcelandIreland
IsraelItaly
JapanKorea
LuxembourgMexico
NetherlandsNew Zealand
NorwayPoland
PortugalSlovak Republic
SloveniaSpain
SwedenSwitzerland
TurkeyUnited Kingdom
United StatesOECD average
AlbaniaArgentina
AzerbaijanBrazil
BulgariaColombia
CroatiaDubai (UAE)
Hong Kong-ChinaIndonesia
JordanKazakhstanKyrgyzstan
LatviaLiechtenstein
LithuaniaMacao-ChinaMontenegro
PanamaPeru
QatarRomania
Russian FederationSerbia
Shanghai-ChinaSingapore
Chinese TaipeiThailand
Trinidad and TobagoTunisia
Uruguay
OEC
DPa
rtne
rs
A Establishing student assessment policiesB Choosing which textbooks are usedC Determining course contentD Deciding which courses are offered
1 Only âprincipals and/or teachersâ2 Both âprincipals and/or teachersâ and âregional and/or national education authorityâ3 Only âregional and/or national education authorityâ
Variability in the index
(S.D.)0.90.80.80.61.00.80.90.90.8w
0.70.30.90.90.71.00.90.70.80.60.50.60.80.70.80.41.00.80.81.00.70.40.80.90.8
0.80.60.80.80.40.80.41.10.80.90.50.51.00.61.10.90.80.60.81.00.90.70.80.21.00.90.90.80.70.10.4
Index points-2.0 -1.0 1.0 2.00-1.5 -0.5 0.5 1.5 2.5
Range between top and bottom quarter
Average index
Percentageâofâstudentsâinâschoolsâofâ15-year-oldsâinâschoolsâwhoseâprincipalsâreportedâthatâonlyââprincipalsâand/orâteachersâ,âonlyââregionalâand/orânationalâeducationâauthorityââorâbothââprincipalsâand/orâteachersââandââregionalâand/orânationalâeducationâauthorityââhaveâconsiderableâresponsibilityâforâtheâfollowingâtasks.
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29© OECD 2011âBuildingâaâHigH-QualityâteacHingâProfession:âlessonsâfromâaroundâtHeâWorld
te a ch e r â d e ve l o p m e n t , â s u p p o r t , â c a r e e r s â a n d â e m p l oy m e n t â c o n d i t i o n s
Chapter 2
Part-time work, which is widespread in many countries, may best be authorized at school level, according to local requirements.
aâdesireâforâincreasedâflexibilityâinâtheâlaborâmarket,âincludingâtoâaccommodateâmaternity/paternityâleave,âhasâledâtoâincreasedâpart-timeâemploymentâacrossâmanyâsectorsâofâtheâeconomy,âamongâthemâteaching.âonâaverageâacrossâoecdâcountries,âaboutâoneâinâsixâteachersâworksâonâaâpart-timeâbasisâinâpublicâinstitutionsâatâprimaryâandâlowerâsecondaryâlevelsâofâeducation.25âinâsomeâcountries,âpart-timeâworkâisâcommonâamongâteachers:âbetweenâoneâoutâofâfiveâandâoneâoutâofâthreeâteachersâinâaustralia,âtheâflemishâcommunityâofâBelgium,âiceland,âandânewâZealandâworkâpartâtime,âasâdoâmoreâthanâone-thirdâofâteachersâinânorwayâandâsweden,âandânearlyâhalfâtheâteachersâinâgermanyâ(primaryâeducation)âandâtheânetherlands.â
inâtheâmajorityâofâoecdâcountries,âpart-timeâemploymentâopportunitiesâdependâuponâaâdecisionâtakenâatâtheâschoolâlevelâorâbyâlocalâauthorities/government;â inâfiveâofâ theâcountriesâwithâtheâlargestâproportionsâofâpart-timeâemployment,âtheâdecisionâisâtakenâatâtheâschoolâlevel.âschoolsârecognizeâthatâtheirâteachingâandâschoolâorganizationârequirementsâchange;âandâtheseâcountriesâhaveâsomeâflexibilityâinâtheirâteacherâworkforceâthatâreflectsâtheâchangingârequirementsâofâtheâschools.â
Probationary periods can be crucial in ensuring that suitable people become teachers; but the length of these periods varies greatly across countries.
thereâisâconsiderableâevidenceâthatâsomeâbeginningâteachers,ânoâmatterâhowâwellâpreparedâandâsupported,âstruggleâtoâperformâwellâonâtheâjob,âorâfindâthatâtheâjobâdoesânotâmeetâtheirâexpectations.âinâaânumberâofâcountries,âaâformalâprobationaryâprocess,âcombinedâwithâadequateâteacherâsupport,âprovidesâanâopportunityâforâbothânewâteachersâandâtheirâemployersâtoâassessâwhetherâteachingâisâtheârightâcareerâforâthem.â
inâsomeâcountries,âtheâsuccessfulâcompletionâofâprobationâisâacknowledgedâasâaâmajorâstepâinâtheâteachingâcareer.âamongâ26âcountriesâwithâcomparableâdataâinâoecdâsâEducation at a Glance,â16âcountriesâhaveâaâmandatoryâprobationâperiodâforâteachers.âthisâperiodâusuallyâlastsâforâoneâyear,âbutâinâsomeâcountriesâ(greece,âluxembourg)âitâlastsâforâtwoâyears,âandâinâgermanyâitâcanâevenâbeâextendedâtoâthreeâyears.âinâsevenâoecdâcountries,â teachersâreceiveâjobâtenureâafterâcompletingâtheirâprobationaryâperiod.â inâsomeâcountries,âsuchâasâaustria,âsixâyearsâareânecessaryâtoâachieveâjobâtenure,âwhereasâthereâisâonlyâaâone-monthâprobationâperiod.âinâsomeâcountriesâaâperiodâofâtimeâisânecessaryâtoâholdâtheâtenure,âevenâifâthereâisânoâprobationâperiod.âforâexample,âaâteacherâneedsâsixâmonthsâtoâgetâtenureâwithoutâanyâprobationâperiodâinâmexico,âtwoâyearsâtoâachieveâtenureâinâiceland,âandâthreeâyearsâinâtheâflemishâcommunityâofâBelgium.â
Education systems could become more dynamic if teachers became more mobileâŠ
limitedâmobilityâofâteachersâbetweenâschools,âandâbetweenâteachingâandâotherâoccupations,âcanârestrictâtheâspreadâofânewâideasâandâapproaches,âandâresultâinâteachersâhavingâfewâopportunitiesâforâdiverseâcareerâexperiences.âitâcanâalsoâleadâtoâanâinequitableâdistributionâofâteachers,âwhereâteachersâdoânotâmoveâfromâtheâmostâfavoredâschools.âinâsomeâcasesâtheâlackâofâmobilityâmeansâthatâsomeâregionsâofâtheâcountryâmightâhaveâteacherâshortagesâwhileâothersâhaveâanâoversupplyâofâteachers.âinâsomeâcountries,âprovidingâincentivesâforâ greaterâ mobilityâ andâ removingâ barriersâ areâ importantâ policyâ responses.â inâ countriesâ withâ differentâeducationalâ jurisdictions,â suchâ asâ federalâ systems,â theâ mutualâ recognitionâ ofâ teachingâ qualificationsâ isâcrucial,âasâitâensuresâthatâentitlementsâtoâleaveâandâretirementâbenefitsâmoveâwithâtheâteacher.ârecognizingâtheâskillsâandâexperienceâgainedâoutsideâeducationâisâalsoâanâimportantâmeansâofâencouragingâgreaterâcareerâmobilityâamongâteachers,âasâisâprovidingâflexibleâre-entryâpathwaysâtoâtheâprofession.âinternationalâmobilityâofâteachersâisâalsoâaâgrowingâphenomenon,âraisingâissuesâofârecognitionâofâqualifications,âcertificationsâandâproceduresâforârecruitmentâandâinduction.26â
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© OECD 2011âBuildingâaâHigH-QualityâteacHingâProfession:âlessonsâfromâaroundâtHeâWorld
Chapter 2
⊠and information flows in the teacher labor market were improved.
givenâtheâlargeânumberâofâ teachersâandâapplicantsâ involvedâinâmostâschoolâsystems,â itâ isâoftenâdifficultâandâcostlyâforâemployersâtoâuseâextensiveâinformationâwhenâselectingâcandidates.âitâcanâbeâjustâasâdifficultâforâcandidatesâforâteachingâpositionsâtoâhaveâpreciseâinformationâaboutâtheâschoolsâtoâwhichâtheyâapply,âorâevenâaboutâbroadâtrendsâinâtheâlaborâmarketâandâtheâavailableâvacancies.âsuchâinformationâgapsâandâlimitationsâ meanâ thatâ manyâ applicationâ andâ selectionâ decisionsâ areâ sub-optimal.âtheâ developmentâ ofâtransparentâandâpromptâsystemsâtoâcloseâtheâinformationâgapsâbetweenâteachersâandâschoolsâisâessentialâforâanâeffectivelyâfunctioningâteacherâlaborâmarket,âespeciallyâwhereâschoolsâareâmoreâdirectlyâinvolvedâinâteacherârecruitmentâandâselection.âsomeâcountriesârequireâallâteachingâvacanciesâtoâbeâposted,âandâcreateâwebsitesâwhereâtheâinformationâisâcentralizedâorâestablishâaânetworkâofâagenciesâtoâco-ordinateâandâfosterârecruitmentâactivities.âsinceâimbalancesâinâtheâteacherâlaborâmarketâcanâtakeâaâlongâtimeâtoâbeârectified,âtoolsâforâmonitoringâandâprojectingâteacherâdemandâandâsupplyâunderâdifferentâscenariosâcanâalsoâhelp.
providing for attraCtive Careers
teacherâ policyâ needsâ toâ ensureâ thatâ teachersâ workâ inâ anâ environmentâ thatâ facilitatesâ successâ andâ thatâencouragesâeffectiveâteachersâ toâcontinueâinâteaching.âthereâisâconcernâinâaânumberâofâcountriesâ thatâ theâratesâatâwhichâteachersâareâleavingâtheâprofessionâareâcompoundingâschoolâstaffingâproblemsâandâleadingâtoâaâlossâofâteachingâexpertise.âalsoâofâconcernâisâthatâteacherâattritionâratesâtendâtoâbeâhigherâinâtheâfirstâfewâyearsâofâteaching,âwhileâtheyâdeclineâtheâlongerâthatâteachersâareâinâtheâprofession,âbeforeâtheyâincreaseâagainâasâteachersâapproachâretirement27.âthisâimpliesâthatâlargeâprivateâandâsocialâcostsâareâbeingâincurredâinâpreparingâsomeâ peopleâ forâ aâ professionâ thatâ theyâ foundâ didâ notâ meetâ theirâ expectations,â orâ thatâ wasâ insufficientlyârewarding,âorâwhichâtheyâfoundâdifficult,âorâsomeâcombinationâofâtheseâfactors.âitâunderlinesâtheâimportanceâforâbeginningâteachersâ toâparticipateâ inâstructuredâinductionâprogramsâinvolvingâaâreducedâteachingâload,âtrainedâmentorâteachersâinâschools,âandâcloseâpartnershipsâwithâteacherâeducationâinstitutions,âandâforâschoolâsystemsâtoâensureâthatâtheâcriteriaâandâprocessesâusedâtoâallocateâteachersâtoâschoolsâareâdesignedâsuchâthatânewâteachersâareânotâconcentratedâinâtheâmoreâdifficultâandâunpopularâlocations.
Box 2.2.âProvidingâgreaterâcareerâdiversityâinâAustralia,âEnglandâandâWales,âIrelandâandâQuebecâ(Canada)
inâAustralia,âteachersâtypicallyâhaveâaccessâtoâaâcareerâstructureâthatâinvolvesâtwoâtoâfourâstages,âwithâannualâ salaryâ incrementsâwithinâeachâstage.âtheâstagesânormallyâ rangeâ fromâbeginningâ teacherâ toâexperiencedâ teacher,â toâexperiencedâ teacherâwithâ responsibilityâ (leadingâ teacher)âorâ learningâareaâorâ grade-levelâ co-coordinator,â assistantâ principal,â principal,â andâ regional/districtâ officeâ positions.âadvancementâfromâoneâstageâtoâtheânext,âespeciallyâatâtheâhigherâlevels,âusuallyârequiresâapplyingâforâwidelyâadvertisedâvacancies.âasâtheyâmoveâupâtheâscale,âteachersâareâexpectedâtoâhaveâdeeperâlevelsâofâknowledge,âdemonstrateâmoreâsophisticatedâandâeffectiveâteaching,âtakeâonâresponsibilityâforâco-curricularâaspectsâofâtheâschool,âassistâcolleaguesâandâsoâon.âByââleadingâteacherââstage,âtheyâareâexpectedâtoâdemonstrateâexemplaryâteaching,âeducationalâleadership,âandâtheâabilityâtoâinitiateâandâmanageâchange.
inâEngland and Wales,âtheânewâcareerâgradeâofâadvancedâskillsâteacherâ(ast),âintroducedâinâ1998,âisâdesignedâtoâprovideâanâalternativeârouteâforâcareerâdevelopmentâforâteachersâwhoâwishâtoâstayâinâtheâ classroom.âtheirâ roleâ isâ toâprovideâpedagogicâ leadershipâwithinâ theirâ ownâandâotherâ schools.â
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31© OECD 2011âBuildingâaâHigH-QualityâteacHingâProfession:âlessonsâfromâaroundâtHeâWorld
te a ch e r â d e ve l o p m e n t , â s u p p o r t , â c a r e e r s â a n d â e m p l oy m e n t â c o n d i t i o n s
Chapter 2
Teaching careers are about more than pay.
althoughâ attractiveâ salariesâ areâ clearlyâ importantâ forâ makingâ teachingâ moreâ appealingâ andâ retainingâeffectiveâteachers,âoecdâsâTeachers Matter studyâconcludesâthatâpolicyâneedsâtoâaddressâmoreâthanâpay:â
âąâ teachersâplaceâconsiderableâemphasisâonâtheâqualityâofâ theirârelationsâwithâstudentsâandâcolleagues,âonâfeelingâsupportedâbyâschoolâleaders,âonâgoodâworkingâconditions,âandâonâopportunitiesâtoâdevelopâtheirâskills.âsomeâcountriesâareâ thereforeâplacingâgreaterâemphasisâonâ teacherâevaluationsâ toâsupportâimprovementâinâteachingâpractice.âWhileâtheseâevaluationsâareâdesignedâmainlyâtoâenhanceâclassroomâpractice,âtheyâprovideâopportunitiesâforâteachersââworkâtoâbeârecognizedâandâcelebrated,âandâhelpâbothâteachersâandâschoolsâtoâidentifyâprofessionalâdevelopmentâpriorities.âtheyâcanâalsoâprovideâaâbasisâforârewardingâteachersâforâexemplaryâperformance.
âąâ teachingâcareersâcanâbenefitâ fromâgreaterâdiversification,âwhichâcanâhelpâmeetâ schoolâneedsâandâalsoâprovideâmoreâopportunitiesâandârecognitionâforâteachers.âinâmostâcountries,âopportunitiesâforâpromotionâandânewâresponsibilitiesâareâgenerallyâlimitedâforâteachersâwhoâwantâtoâstayâinâtheâclassroom.âPromotionsâgenerallyâ involveâ teachersâ spendingâ lessâ timeâ inâ classrooms,â andâ thusâ diminishâ oneâ ofâ theâ majorâsourcesâofâjobâsatisfaction.âevenâforâthoseâwhoâwouldâlikeâtoâtakeâonâmoreârolesâoutsideâtheâclassroom,âinâ manyâ countries,â thoseâ opportunitiesâ areâ limited.â someâ countriesâ areâ movingâ toâ openâ moreâ careerâopportunitiesâforâteachers,âspurred,âinâpart,âbyâtheâgreaterâvarietyâofâschoolârolesâthatâhaveâbeenâdelegatedâsignificantâdecision-makingâ responsibilities.âexamplesâ fromâoecdâcountriesâ (seeâBoxâ2.2)â suggestâ thatâ
typically,âtheyâwillâspendâ20%âofâtheirâtimeâinâanââoutreachââroleâsupportingâprofessionalâdevelopmentâofâtheirâcolleagues,âandâteachâinâclassâforâtheâremainingâtime.âteachersâcanâtakeâupâanâastâpostâatâanyâpointâinâtheirâcareer,âbutâinâorderâtoâdoâsoâtheyâmustâpassâtheâastâassessment.âtheyâprepareâaâportfolioâthatâshowsâhowâtheyâmeetâtheâprescribedâstandardsâforâtheâgrade,âwhichâisâevaluatedâbyâanâexternalâassessor.âtheâassessorâalsoâinterviewsâtheâapplicantsâandâobservesâtheirâprofessionalâpractice.âinâJulyâ2004,âsomeâ5â000âteachersâhadâpassedâtheâastâassessment.âtheâintentionâisâthatâtheâgradeâwillâultimatelyâformâbetweenâ3%âandâ5%âofâtheâworkforce.
Ireland hasâintroducedâfourâcategoriesâofâpromotionâposts:âPrincipal,âdeputyâPrincipal,âassistantâPrincipal,âandâspecialâdutiesâteacher.âeachâhasâspecialâmanagementâdutiesâandâreceivesâbothâsalaryâandâ timeâallowances.â inâadditionâ toâclassroomâ teaching,âassistantâPrincipalsâandâspecialâdutiesâteachersâhaveâspecialâresponsibilityâforâacademic,âadministrativeâandâpastoralâmatters,â includingâtimetablingâ arrangements,â liaisonâ withâ parentsââ associations,â supervisingâ theâ maintenanceâ andâavailabilityâ ofâ schoolâ equipment,â andâ soâ on.âtheyâ areâ selectedâ byâ aâ panel,â whichâ consistsâ ofâ aâPrincipal,â chairâ ofâ theâ Boardâ ofâ management,â andâ anâ independentâ externalâ assessor.â overâ theâcourseâofâtheirâcareers,âaboutâ50%âofâteachersâcanâexpectâtoâreceiveâoneâofâtheseâpositions.â
inâQuebec, experiencedâteachersâcanâworkâasâmentorsâforâstudentâteachers.âexperiencedâteachersâcoachâandâguideâtheâstudentâteachersâandâundertakeâspecificâtraining.âtheyâreceiveâeitherâadditionalâpayâorâaâreductionâinâclassroomâteachingâresponsibilities.âaboutâ12â000âteachersâparticipateâinâtheâmentorâprogram.âsomeâofâ theseâexperiencedâ teachersâalsoâhaveâanâopportunityâ toâbecomeâco-researchersâwithâuniversityâstaffâandâtoâparticipateâinâcollaborativeâstudiesâonâsubjectsâsuchâasâteaching,âlearning,âclassroomâmanagementâ andâ studentâ successâorâ failure.â inâ addition,â experiencedâ teachersâmayâbeâreleasedâfromâsomeâofâtheirânormalâdutiesâtoâprovideâsupportâforâlessâexperiencedâcolleagues.
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© OECD 2011âBuildingâaâHigH-QualityâteacHingâProfession:âlessonsâfromâaroundâtHeâWorld
Chapter 2
greaterâ careerâ diversityâ canâbeâ achievedâbyâ creatingânewâpositionsâ associatedâwithâ specificâ tasksâ andârolesâinâadditionâtoâclassroomâteaching,âwhichâleadsâtoâgreaterâhorizontalâdifferentiation;âandâthroughâaâcompetency-basedâteachingâcareerâladderâthatârecognizesâextraâresponsibilities,âandâwhichâleadsâtoâgreaterâverticalâdifferentiation.âinâtheâlatter,âeachâstageâisâmoreâdemandingâthanâtheâpriorâstage,âinvolvingâmoreâresponsibilities,âandâisâopenâtoâfewerâpeople,âbutâisâaccompaniedâbyâaâsignificantâriseâinâstatusâand,âoften,âcompensation.âtheâ recognitionâ thatâ schoolsâandâ teachersâneedâ toâassumeâaâgreaterâ rangeâofâ tasksâandâresponsibilitiesâalsoâcallsâforâtheâcreationâofânewâroles,âsuchâasâmentorâofâbeginningâandâtraineeâteachers,âco-coordinatorâofâin-serviceâeducation,âandâschoolâprojectâco-coordinator.
âąâ greaterâ emphasisâ onâ schoolâ leadershipâ canâ helpâ addressâ theâ needâ forâ teachersâ toâ feelâ valuedâ andâsupportedâinâtheirâwork.âinâaddition,âwell-trainedâprofessionalâandâadministrativeâstaffâcanâhelpâreduceâtheâburdenâonâteachers,âbetterâfacilitiesâforâstaffâpreparationâandâplanningâwouldâhelpâbuildâcollegiality,âandâmoreâflexibleâworkingâconditions,âespeciallyâforâmoreâexperiencedâteachers,âwouldâpreventâcareer-burnoutâandâretainâimportantâskillsâinâschools.
Some countries use periodic reviews of teacher certification as an alternative to lifelong tenure.
asânotedâbefore,â teachersâareâlargelyâemployedâasâpublicâservants,âandâinâaânumberâofâcountriesâ thisâ isâassociatedâwithâtenuredâemployment.âWhileâsomeâmayâconsiderâsecurityâofâemploymentâasâanâincentiveâtoâbecomeâaâteacher,âthereâmayânotâbeâsufficientâincentivesâorâsupportâsystemsâforâallâteachersâtoâcontinuouslyâreviewâ theirâ skillsâ andâ improveâ theirâ practice,â especiallyâwhereâ thereâ areâonlyâ limitedâmechanismsâ forâteacherâ appraisalâ andâ accountability.âtenuredâ employmentâ canâ alsoâ makeâ itâ difficultâ toâ adjustâ teacherânumbersâwhenâenrolmentsâdeclineâorâcurriculaâchange,âandâmayâmeanâthatâtheâburdenâofâadjustmentâfallsâonâthoseâwhoâlackâtenure,âcommonlyâthoseânearâtheâbeginningâofâtheirâcareers.â
inâ someâ countriesâ teachersâ needâ toâ renewâ theirâ teacherâ certificatesâ afterâ aâ periodâ ofâ time,â andâ oftenâdemonstrateâthatâtheyâhaveâparticipatedâinâon-goingâprofessionalâdevelopmentâandâcourseworkâtoâincrease,âdeepen,âandâstrengthenâtheirâknowledge.âtheâbasisâforârenewalâcanâbeâasâsimpleâasâanâattestationâthatâtheâteacherâisâcontinuingâtoâmeetâstandardsâofâperformanceâthatâareâagreedâthroughoutâtheâteachingâprofession.âsuchâsystemsâmustâensureâanâopen,âfairâandâtransparentâsystemâofâteacherâappraisal,â involvingâteachingâpeers,âschoolâleadersâandâexternalâexpertsâwhoâareâproperlyâtrainedâandâresourcedâforâtheseâtasksâââandâwhoâareâthemselvesâevaluatedâonâaâregularâbasis.âunderpinningâtheseâmodelsâisâtheâviewâthatâtheâinterestsâofâstudentsâwillâbeâbetterâservedâwhereâteachersâachieveâemploymentâsecurityâbyâcontinuingâtoâdoâaâgoodâjob,âratherâthanâbyâregulationâthatâeffectivelyâguaranteesâtheirâemployment.âPeriodicâreviewsâalsoâprovideâtheâopportunityâtoârecognizeâandâacknowledgeâqualityâteaching.âsomeâcountriesâalsoâhaveâfairâbutâspeedyâmechanismsâtoâaddressâineffectiveâteaching.âteachersâinâtheseâcountriesâhaveâtheâopportunityâandâsupportâtoâimproveâbut,âifâtheyâdoânot,âtheyâcanâbeâmovedâeitherâintoâotherârolesâorâoutâofâtheâschoolâsystem.
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Chapter 3
Teacher evaluaTion and compensaTion
33© OECD 2011âBuildingâaâHigH-QualityâteacHingâProfession:âlessonsâfromâaroundâtHeâWorld
Teacher evaluation is essential for improving the individual performance of teachers
and the collective performance of education systems. Designing teacher-appraisal
methods is not easy, and requires the objectives of accountability and improvement
to be carefully balanced. A crucial feature is what criteria teachers are appraised
against, including, but not limited to, student performance. Also important are the
degree to which teachers improve their professional skills and, crucially, the part
they play in improving the school and system as a whole. In this way, evaluation and
appraisal need to be well aligned with the process of system change. However, it
is not enough to appraise the right things; the ways in which appraisal is followed
through will determine its impact. At present, many teachers feel that appraisal
has no or little consequence. School leaders need to become more skilled at using
it intelligently, and evaluation needs to be more closely connected with career
development and diversity. A specific issue is the extent and style of links between
assessed performance, career advancement, and compensation. Whatever system
is chosen, it must be well understood and transparently applied.
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© OECD 2011âBuildingâaâHigH-QualityâteacHingâProfession:âlessonsâfromâaroundâtHeâWorld
Chapter 3
In searCh of an effeCtIve teaCher appraIsal system
Teacher appraisal is advancing from checking whether teachers are doing their job to helping them improve.
theâ roleâ ofâ teacherâ appraisalâ hasâ changedâ inâ recentâ years.â Historically,â inâ mostâ countriesâ itâ focusedâ onâmonitoringâtoâensureâadherenceâtoâcentrallyâestablishedâprocedures,âpoliciesâandâpractices.âinâmostâeducationâsystemsâtheâfocusâhasânowâshiftedâtoâhowâteacherâappraisalâaffectsâlearningâoutcomesâ(seeâBoxâ3.2).â
New approaches to teacher appraisal seek to improve learning outcomes through fostering and targeting teacher professional development and holding teachers accountable⊠retainingâeffectiveâteachersâimpliesânotâonlyâthatâallâteachersâhaveâtheâopportunities,âsupportâandâincentivesâtoâcontinueâtoâimproveâandâperformâatâhighâlevels,âbutâalsoâthatâineffectiveâteachersâdoânotâremainâinâtheâprofession.âsomeâgroupsâinâpublicâdiscussionâwantâtoâfocusâmainlyâonâtheâlatterâissue,âtoâtheâdetrimentâofâtheâimageâandâachievementsâofâtheâlargeâmajorityâofâteachers.âothersâdoânotâwantâtoâacknowledgeâthatâthisâisâaârealâproblem.
effectiveâteacherâappraisalâcanâhelpâtoâimproveâteachersââpracticesâbyâidentifyingâstrengthsâandâweaknessesâforâfurtherâprofessionalâdevelopmentâââtheâimprovementâfunction.âthisâinvolvesâhelpingâteachersâlearnâabout,âreflectâon,âandâadjustâtheirâpractice.âteacherâappraisalâcanâalsoâhelpâtoâholdâteachersâaccountableâforâtheirâperformanceâinâenhancingâstudentâlearningâââtheâaccountabilityâfunction.âthisâtypicallyâentailsâperformance-basedâcareerâadvancementâand/orâsalaries,âbonusâpayâand,âinâsomeâcountries,âtheâpossibilityâofâsanctionsâforâunderperformance.âitâalsoâusuallyâinvolvesâevaluatingâperformanceâatânodalâpointsâinâaâteacherâsâcareer.â
âŠbut achieving both these aims simultaneously is challenging...combiningâ theâ improvementâandâaccountabilityâ functionsâ intoâaâ singleâ teacher-appraisalâprocessâ raisesâmanyâchallenges,âandâcomparativeâresearchâonâtheâeffectivenessâofâdifferentâmodelsâisâjustâbeginningâtoâemerge.âforâexample,âwhenâevaluationâisâorientedâtowardsâimprovingâpracticeâwithinâschools,âteachersâareâtypicallyâwillingâtoârevealâtheirâweaknesses,âinâtheâexpectationâthatâconveyingâthatâinformationâwillâleadâtoâmoreâeffectiveâdecisionsâonâdevelopmentalâneedsâandâteacherâeducation.âHowever,âwhenâteachersâareâconfrontedâwithâpotentialâconsequencesâofâevaluationâonâ theirâcareerâandâsalary,â theyâareâ lessâ inclinedâtoârevealâweaknessesâinâtheirâperformance,âandâtheâimprovementâfunction,âwhichâbuildsâonâtrustâ inâtheârelationshipâbetweenâappraiserâandâtheâappraised,âmayâbeâjeopardized.âinâpractice,âcountriesâusuallyâuseâsomeâcombinationâofâtheseâapproachesâthatâintegratesâmultipleâpurposesâandâmethodologies.â
âŠand careful implementation.anyâteacher-appraisalâsystemâneedsâtoâbeâimplementedâwithâcare.âthisâinvolvesâreconcilingâtheâdivergingâinterestsâofâ stakeholders,â carefullyâ analyzingâpolicyâalternativesâ andâ theirâ likelyâ impact,â andâdiscussingâthemâwithâ stakeholdersâ toâaimâ towardsâconsensus.âteachersâcanâandâdoâ seeâappraisalâandâ feedbackâ inâpositiveâterms.âforâexample,â80%âofâteachersâinâtheâtalisâsurveyâreportedâthatâitâwasâhelpfulâinâdevelopingâtheirâworkâasâteachers;âandâalmostâhalfâofâteachersâreportedâthatâitâledâtoâaâteacher-developmentâorâtrainingâplanâtoâimproveâtheirâteaching.28âoneâwayâofâensuringâthatâteachersâseeâsuchâevaluationâinâpositiveâtermsâisâtoâinvolveâthemâinâschoolâevaluations,âinâparticularâbyâorganizingâschoolâself-evaluationsâasâaâcollectiveâprocessâinâwhichâteachersâtakeâresponsibility.
effectiveâappraisalâ requiresâ theâdevelopmentâofâconsiderableâexpertiseâ inâ theâsystem,â includingâ trainingâevaluators,âestablishingâevaluationâprocessesâandâaligningâbroaderâ schoolâ reforms,â suchâasâprofessionalâdevelopmentâopportunities,âwithâevaluationâandâassessmentâstrategies.âallâofâ theseârequireâconsiderableâresources,âincludingâtime.
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35© OECD 2011âBuildingâaâHigH-QualityâteacHingâProfession:âlessonsâfromâaroundâtHeâWorld
te a ch e r â e va l u a t i o n â a n d â c o m p e n s a t i o n
Chapter 3
The criteria used to evaluate teachers center on learning outcomes, although they also assess significant inputs, such as teacher qualifications and the learning environment created in classroomsâŠ
Whileâimprovingâstudentâlearningâoutcomesâisâtheâcentralâobjectiveâofâteachersââwork,âtheâqualityâofâthoseâoutcomesâisânotâtheâonlyâmeasureâofâteachingâquality.âacrossâoecdâcountries,âteachersâareâjudgedâonâaârangeâofâcriteria,âsuchâas:â
âąâ teacherâqualifications,âincludingâteacherâcredentials,âyearsâofâservice,âdegrees,âcertificationsâandâotherârelevantâprofessionalâdevelopment;
âąâ howâteachersâoperateâinâtheâclassroomâsetting,âincludingâattitudes,âexpectationsâandâpersonalâcharacteristics,âasâwellâasâstrategies,âmethodsâandâactionsâemployedâinâtheirâinteractionâwithâstudents;âand
âąâ measuresâofâteacherâeffectiveness,âbasedâonâanâassessmentâofâtheâdegreeâtoâwhichâteachersâcontributeâtoâstudentsââlearningâoutcomesâasâwellâasâtheirâknowledgeâofâtheirâfieldâandâpedagogicalâpracticeâ(seeâalsoâfigureâ3.2).â
acrossâcountries,âsuchâcriteriaâareâassessedâbyâaâvarietyâofâinstruments,âincludingâscoresâofâstandardizedâstudentâassessments,âclassroomâobservation,âstudent-generatedâratings,âpeerâratings,âschoolâprincipalâand/orâadministratorâratings,âself-evaluation,âteacherâinterviewsâandâportfolios,âparentalâratings,âcompetence-basedâtests,âandâotherâindirectâmeasures.â
âŠbut the key requirement is to align appraisals with system objectives and school evaluations.
theseâcriteriaâneedâtoâbeâalignedâwithâtheâobjectivesâofâtheâsystemâandâtheâschools.âaligningâcriteriaâforâschoolâevaluationâwithâthoseâforâteacherâappraisalâandâfeedbackâcanâemphasizeâtheâimportanceâofâpolicyâobjectivesâatâtheâschoolâlevelâandâgiveâteachersâandâschoolâprincipalsâanâincentiveâtoâmeetâsuchâobjectives.â
Figure 3.1Percentage of teachers without appraisal in the last 18 months
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Sum
mit
11
aver
age
Aus
tria
Aus
tral
ia
Bel
gium
(Fl.)
Mal
ta
Turk
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Mex
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Den
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Pola
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Slov
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Hun
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Slov
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Mal
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Bul
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Countries are ranked in descending order of the percentage of teachers who have received no appraisal or feedback.Source: OECD, TALIS Tables 5.1 and 5.3.
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
No appraisal or feedback
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te a ch e r â e va l u a t i o n â a n d â c o m p e n s a t i o n
© OECD 2011âBuildingâaâHigH-QualityâteacHingâProfession:âlessonsâfromâaroundâtHeâWorld
Chapter 3
maxImIzIng the ImpaCt of teaCher appraIsal
Appraisal, feedback and evaluation still have limited impact, which could be improved.
Whileâmanyâcountriesâhaveâinnovativeâteacher-appraisalâsystems,âinâsomeâtheyâareâstillârelativelyârareâorâhaveâlimitedâimpact.âoneâinâfiveâteachersâsurveyedâinâtalisâworkâinâschoolsâthatâhadânotâhadâaâself-evaluationâinâtheâpastâfiveâyears,âandâoneâinâeightâreceivedânoâappraisalâofâorâfeedbackâonâtheirâworkâduringâtheâpriorâ18âmonthsâ(seeâfigureâ3.1).âmoreover,âonlyâaâminorityâofâteachersâreportedâthatâappraisalâandâevaluationâaffectsâtheirâprofessionalâdevelopmentâ(oneâinâfour),âtheirâcareerâadvancementâ(oneâinâsix)âorâtheirâpayâ(oneâinâten)â(seeâfigureâ3.3).âthree-quartersâreportedâthatâtheyâwouldâreceiveânoârecognitionâforâimprovingâtheâqualityâofâtheirâteaching,âaâsimilarânumberâsaidâthatâtheyâwouldânotâbeârewardedâforâbeingâinnovative,âandâonlyâjustâoverâaâquarterâreportedâthatâteachersâwouldâbeâdismissedâbecauseâofâsustainedâpoorâperformanceâ(seeâfigureâ3.4).âtheseâareâparticularlyâworryingâshortfallsâinâschoolâsystemsâwhereâteachersâareâbeingâurgedâtoâfindâcreativeâapproachesâtoâteachingâinârapidlyâchangingâlearningâenvironments,âyetâareâmoreâlikelyâtoâbeârewardedâforâseniority,âevenâifâtheyâareâunderperforming,âthanâforâself-improvementâorâinnovation.â
thisâ suggestsâ considerableâ scopeâ forâ improvingâ theâ impactâ ofâ evaluation,â appraisalâ andâ feedback.âexperiencesâ fromâ someâcountriesâ showâ thatâ theâ linkâbetweenâappraisalâ andâ improvementâ canâbeâ low-keyâ andâ low-cost,â andâ thatâ appraisalâ canâ includeâ self-evaluation,â informalâ peerâ evaluation,â classroomâobservation,âandâstructuredâconversationsâandâregularâfeedbackâfromâtheâprincipalâandâexperiencedâpeers.âinâ additionâ toâ celebratingâ qualityâ teachingâ andâ identifyingâ areasâ forâ improvement,â appraisalsâ canâ alsoâprovideâaâbasisâforârewardingâgoodâteachers.âtimeâallowances,âsabbaticalâperiods,âopportunitiesâforâschool-basedâresearch,âsupportâ forâpost-graduateâstudy,âorâopportunitiesâ forâ in-serviceâeducationâareâ justâaâ fewâexamplesâofâtheâkindsâofârewardsâforâexemplaryâperformanceâthatâcouldâbeâofferedâifâbudgetâconstraintsâdoânotâallowâforâraisesâinâsalaries.â
Figure 3.2Criteria for teacher appraisal and feedback
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Countries are ranked in descending order of the importance of student test scores in teacher apprasial and feedback.Source: OECD, TALIS Table 5.4.
Student test scores
Innovative teaching practicesProfessional development undertaken by the teacher
Teaching of students with special learning needs
1009080706050403020100
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37© OECD 2011âBuildingâaâHigH-QualityâteacHingâProfession:âlessonsâfromâaroundâtHeâWorld
te a ch e r â e va l u a t i o n â a n d â c o m p e n s a t i o n
Chapter 3
Improved appraisal and feedback can have beneficial effects on teachers, improving their job satisfaction and personal development as well as their effectiveness in implementing priorities for improvement.
dataâfromâtalisâshowâthatâwhereâteachersâreceiveâfeedbackâonâtheirâwork,âtheyâareâmoreâlikelyâtoâfindâitâfairâthanâthreatening.âonâaverage,âeightâinâtenâteachersâsurveyedâinâtalisâwhoâreceivedâfeedbackâthoughtâitâwasâfair,âandâinâallâcountriesâbutâKoreaâthatâproportionâwasâmoreâthanâsixâinâten.âmoreâthanâthree-quartersâofâteachersâalsoâconsideredâitâhelpfulâforâtheirâwork,âwhileâtheâmajorityâsaidâitâimprovedâtheirâjobâsatisfactionâandâdevelopmentâasâteachers,âwithoutâreducingâjobâsecurity.âtheseâfindingsâareâimportant,âgivenâfearsâthatâappraisalâandâfeedbackâlinkedâtoâaccountabilityâwillâundermineâteachers.âmoreover,âappraisalsâcanâhelpâteachersâbuildâconfidenceâinâthemselves:âtheâmoreâfeedbackâteachersâinâtalisâreceivedâonâspecificâaspectsâofâtheirâwork,âtheâmoreâtheyâreportedâthatâtheyâtrustâtheirâownâabilitiesâinâtheseâareas.âtheyâalsoâreportedâthatâappraisalâleadsâtoâchangesâinâtheâspecificâaspectsâofâtheirâteachingâonâwhichâitâfocuses.âinâsomeâcases,âtheâ focusâofâappraisalâmirroredâ theâareasâemphasizedâ inâschoolsââevaluation,â facilitatingâpolicyâmakersââeffortsâtoâsetâaâframeworkâtoâinfluenceâteachersââwork,âcreatingâaâcoherentâlinkâbetweenâpolicyâprioritiesâandâchangesâinâteachersââworkâandâteachingâpractices.29â
Figure 3.3Impact of teacher appraisal on career
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Countries are ranked in descending order of changes in teachers' opportunities for professional development activities.Source: OECD, TALIS Table 5.5.
Opportunities for professional development activities Public recognition from the principal and/or colleaguesChanges in work responsibilites that make the job more attractiveA change in the likelihood of career advancement
1009080706050403020100
strengtheningâ theâsystemâofâ teacherâappraisalâandâ feedbackâcanâalsoâcontributeâ toâdevelopingâ teachingâskillsâwithinâschools,âaccordingâtoâteachersââreports.âforâexample,âgreaterâemphasisâonâtheâframeworkâforâevaluatingâeducationâinâschoolsâcanâstrengthenâlinksâbetweenâschoolâevaluationsâandâteacherâappraisalâandâfeedback.âtheâresultsâofâappraisalâareâoftenâalsoâusedâtoâplanâtheâprofessionalâdevelopmentâofâindividualâteachers.âinâturn,âcloserâlinksâwithâcareerâprogressionâhaveâtheâbenefitâofâaddressingâwhatâteachersâreportâasâaâsevereâlackâofârecognitionâforâtheirâdevelopment,âandâtheâperceptionâthatâteachersâârewardsâareânotâproperlyâlinkedâtoâtheirâeffectivenessâ(seeâfigureâ3.4).â
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te a ch e r â e va l u a t i o n â a n d â c o m p e n s a t i o n
© OECD 2011âBuildingâaâHigH-QualityâteacHingâProfession:âlessonsâfromâaroundâtHeâWorld
Chapter 3
Figure 3.4Consequences of teacher performance as reported by teachers
Malaysia
Bulgaria
Poland
Italy
Slovak Republic
Hungary
Mexico
Slovenia
Turkey
Lithuania
TALIS Average
Estonia
Brazil
Portugal
Iceland
Summit 11 average
Malta
Austria
Korea
Spain
Denmark
Australia
Ireland
Norway
Belgium (Fl.)
Malaysia
Bulgaria
Poland
Italy
Slovak Republic
Hungary
Mexico
Slovenia
Turkey
Lithuania
TALIS Average
Estonia
Brazil
Portugal
Iceland
Summit 11 average
Malta
Austria
Korea
Spain
Denmark
Australia
Ireland
Norway
Belgium (Fl.)
Countries are ranked in descending order of percentage of teachers reporting to receive increased monetary or non-monetary rewardsfor an improvement in the quality of their teaching.Source: OECD, TALIS Table 5.9.
Teachers who would receive increasedmonetary or non-monetary rewards if theyare more innovative in their teaching
Teachers who would receive increasedmonetary or non-monetary rewards if theyimprove the quality of their teaching
Teachers who will be dismissed becauseof sustained poor performance in their school
Teachers whose school principal takes stepsto alter the monetary rewards of a persistently
underperforming teacher
%20406080100 0 20 40 60 80 100%
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39© OECD 2011âBuildingâaâHigH-QualityâteacHingâProfession:âlessonsâfromâaroundâtHeâWorld
Figure 3.5School principalsâ views of their involvement in school matters
Index of school principalâs leadership based on the reports of school principals of 15-year-old students
N3253
4196223292439w
4263412639261817
7234316122837
7152363133136291629
474377442931193945479017293044
7452343452840314414
82045264525
M948796989775957994w
84969175979898606898967194959397919499878399979690
969699999696
1009796939989818558839096949598998697899695979899
100
L939298999796998398w
959894
100979798617998978683989799919899989297969794
96989099919699989681
100868676969590
100979196
100969799979797979998
K977574879493768777w
73698687889492296347908097818097969392935493999082
9387909498929593979681878783138988
10088918799979198989598955973
J812246638459256213w
33347358789077374632627587477182766571681778978861
8766869471877690929581608275
065528485848491559370989096924045
I816782868283765759w
57676554628688316074927974489248918566525987959472
93869991948298989596999995851055869995929899978796938894848484
H957990959698919395w
85969196928998506967918284919989989586908090969789
8891969798969599989699989694168976
10092949598999993939898958294
G898489959086947277w
80978987889496297596957678909191869086898575909586
90948697879096989689998589858274939290809596809791938694949792
F588633607393397561w
82468469508187405664905042559649909045296190887266
9484999193889693937798979886466086
10084809490958269669497716081
E766768869579535840w
53536277418575386852897373498965868555636085929469
9496979479929298
10099
1009794831475829795939790879199948695889790
D936042919381448446w
57618478648786306465946698709594877885833493
1009675
99908994958580979791999590971592749788889898899057998498869290
C6441437755572559
9w
401254391446393742326852682493
9867728386470939550
98639760924570959988
100989880
34788888686
10087926794809288609289
B999297989898899475w
9478998988999951859897979888979799
10097968295
1009893
100989699
1009998
1009999
1009892972198
100100
9598
100100
99100
98100
9899989798
A988995989795869264w
82409388889497438087959599819493979986907285
1009888
97959599
1009894
1009994999690965397
1009591949698999798
1009894978485
AustraliaAustriaBelgiumCanadaChileCzech RepublicDenmarkEstoniaFinlandFranceGermanyGreeceHungaryIcelandIrelandIsraelItalyJapanKoreaLuxembourgMexicoNetherlandsNew ZealandNorwayPolandPortugalSlovak RepublicSloveniaSpainSwedenSwitzerlandTurkeyUnited KingdomUnited StatesOECD average
AlbaniaArgentinaAzerbaijanBrazilBulgariaColombiaCroatiaDubai (UAE)Hong Kong-ChinaIndonesiaJordanKazakhstanKyrgyzstanLatviaLiechtensteinLithuaniaMacao-ChinaMontenegroPanamaPeruQatarRomaniaRussian FederationSerbiaShanghai-ChinaSingaporeChinese TaipeiThailandTrinidad and TobagoTunisiaUruguay
OEC
DPa
rtne
rs
A I make sure that the professional development activities of teachers are in accordance with the teaching goals of the school.B I ensure that teachers work according to the schoolâs educational goals.C I observe instruction in classrooms.D I use student performance results to develop the schoolâs educational goals.E I give teachers suggestions as to how they can improve their teaching.F I monitor studentsâ work.G When a teacher has problems in his/her classroom, I take the initiative to discuss matters.H I inform teachers about possibilities for updating their knowledge and skills.I I check to see whether classroom activities are in keeping with our educational goals.J I take exam results into account in decisions regarding curriculum development.K I ensure that there is clarity concerning the responsibility for co-ordinating the curriculum.L When a teacher brings up a classroom problem, we solve the problem together.M I pay attention to disruptive behaviour in classrooms.N I take over lessons from teachers who are unexpectedly absent.
Variability in the index
(S.D.)1.00.80.81.01.10.80.60.90.7w
0.71.00.80.70.90.90.90.91.21.01.00.71.00.60.80.70.70.80.90.80.80.90.91.10.9
0.80.91.01.10.81.20.81.20.91.01.10.80.90.80.70.80.90.71.11.11.10.80.90.80.80.90.90.91.01.11.0
Percentage of students in schools whose principals reported that the following activities and behaviours
occurred âquite oftenâ or âvery oftenâ during the last school year
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 Index points
Range between top and bottom quarter
Average index
note:âHigherâvaluesâonâtheâindexâindicateâgreaterâinvolvementâofâschoolâprincipalsâinâschoolâmatters.source:âoecd,âPISA 2009 Database,âtableâiV.4.8.1â2âhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1787/888932343418
A âiâmakeâsureâthatâtheâprofessionalâdevelopmentâactivitiesâofâteachersâareâinâaccordanceâwithâtheâteachingâgoalsâofâtheâschool.B âiâensureâthatâteachersâworkâaccordingâtoâtheâschoolâsâeducationalâgoals.C âiâobserveâinstructionâinâclassrooms.D âiâuseâstudentâperformanceâresultsâtoâdevelopâtheâschoolâsâeducationalâgoals.E âiâgiveâteachersâsuggestionsâasâtoâhowâtheyâcanâimproveâtheirâteaching.F âiâmonitorâstudentsââwork.G âWhenâaâteacherâhasâproblemsâinâhis/herâclassroom,âiâtakeâtheâinitiativeâtoâdiscussâmatters.H âiâinformâteachersâaboutâpossibilitiesâforâupdatingâtheirâknowledgeâandâskills.
I âiâcheckâtoâseeâwhetherâclassroomâactivitiesâareâinâkeepingâwithâourâeducationalâgoals.J âiâtakeâexamâresultsâintoâaccountâinâdecisionsâregardingâcurriculumâdevelopment.K âiâensureâthatâthereâisâclarityâconcerningâtheâresponsibilityâforâco-ordinatingâtheâcurriculum.L âWhenâaâteacherâbringsâupâaâclassroomâproblem,âweâsolveâtheâproblemâtogether.M âiâpayâattentionâtoâdisruptiveâbehaviourâinâclassrooms.N âiâtakeâoverâlessonsâfromâteachersâwhoâareâunexpectedlyâabsent.
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© OECD 2011âBuildingâaâHigH-QualityâteacHingâProfession:âlessonsâfromâaroundâtHeâWorld
Chapter 3
allâthisâshowsâthatâitâisâpossibleâtoâovercomeâconcernsâaboutâappraisalâpracticesâifâtheâevaluationâcultureâofâschoolsâandâschoolâsystemsâisâconstructive,âcollaborativeâandâformative.âforâpolicyâmakers,âadministrators,âschoolâprincipalsâandâteachers,âtheseâfindingsâhighlightâaâdualâbenefitâofâappraisalâandâfeedback,âbothâtoâteachersâpersonallyâandâtoâtheâdevelopmentâofâtheirâteaching.â
Effective teacher appraisal requires school leaders and others to develop new competenciesâŠ
linkingârecognitionâandârewardsâtoâteacherâeffectivenessâisânotâjustâaâmatterâofâcarryingâoutâappraisalsâbutâalsoâofâschoolâleadersâadoptingâeffectiveâmethodsâforâidentifyingâgoodâperformance.âtheâfactâthatânearlyâfourâtimesâasâmanyâteachersâsayâthatâtheirâprincipalâdoesânotâidentifyâeffectiveâteachingâasâsayâthatâtheyâhaveânotârecentlyâbeenâappraisedâindicatesâtheâneedâforâfollow-through.âthisâunderlinesâtheâfactâthatâtheâeffectivenessâofâteacherâappraisalâcriticallyâreliesâonâensuringâthatâthoseâwhoâdesignâevaluationâactivities,âthoseâwhoâundertakeâthemâandâthoseâwhoâuseâtheirâresultsâallâhaveâtheâskillsârequiredâtoâdoâso.âinâparticular,âsuccessfulâ feedbackâ mechanismsâ requireâ thoseâ involvedâ toâ beâ clearâ aboutâ theirâ responsibilitiesâ andâ toâdevelopâtheârequiredâcompetenciesâtoâcarryâoutâtheseâroles.â
thus,â competenciesâ forâ usingâ feedbackâ toâ improveâ practiceâ areâ vitalâ toâ ensureâ thatâ evaluationâ andâassessmentâproceduresâareâeffective.âassessmentâforâimprovingâperformanceârequiresâthatâactors,âsuchâasâteachers,âareâincludedâinâtheâprocessâofâschoolâdevelopmentâandâimprovement.âasâaâresult,âitâisâappropriateâtoâincludeâtrainingâforâevaluationâinâinitialâteacherâeducationâalongsideâtheâdevelopmentâofâresearchâskills.âsimilarly,âtheâpreparationâtoâbecomeâaâschoolâleaderâisâexpectedâtoâincludeâeducationalâleadership,âwithâsomeâemphasisâonâ feedbackâmechanismsâ (seeâfigureâ3.5).âParticularâ groups,â suchâasâ inspectorates,â areâalsoâinâaâgoodâpositionâtoâengageâinâmodelingâandâdisseminatingâgoodâpracticeâinâareasâsuchâasâschoolâassessmentâandâteacherâappraisal.
âŠand good appraisal and feedback can contribute to the improvement of schools as learning organizations.
teacherâ reportsâ thatâ appraisalâ andâ feedbackâ hasâ contributedâ toâ theirâ developmentâ suggestâ thatâ suchâsystemsâalsoâcontributeâtoâschoolâimprovement.âappraisalâofâteachersâandâsubsequentâfeedbackâcanâhelpâstakeholdersâtoâimproveâschoolsâthroughâmoreâinformedâdecisionâmaking.âsuchâimprovementâeffortsâcanâbeâdrivenâbyâobjectivesâthatâconsiderâschoolsâasâlearningâorganizationsâthatâuseâevaluationâtoâanalyzeâtheârelationshipsâbetweenâinputs,âprocessesâandâoutputsâinâorderâtoâdevelopâpracticesâthatâbuildâonâidentifiedâstrengthsâandâaddressâweaknesses.â
DesIgnIng effeCtIve CompensatIon systems
Overall teachersâ pay varies across countriesâŠ
asânotedâinâchapterâ1,âcareerâadvancementâopportunities,âsalariesâandâworkingâconditionsâareâimportantâforâattracting,âdevelopingâandâretainingâskilledâandâhigh-qualityâteachersâandâareâintertwined.âasâteacherâsalariesâârepresentâbyâfarâtheâlargestâsingleâcostâinâschoolâeducation,âcompensationâschemesâareâaâcriticalâconsiderationâforâpolicyâmakersâseekingâtoâmaintainâbothâtheâqualityâofâteachingâandâaâbalancedâeducationâbudget.âdecisionsâonâcompensationâinvolveâtrade-offsâamongârelatedâfactors,âsuchâasâratiosâofâstudentsâtoâteachingâstaff,âclassâsize,âinstructionâtimeâplannedâforâstudents,âandâdesignatedânumberâofâteachingâhours.âdataâ fromâPisaâshowâthatâhigh-performingâeducationâsystemsâ tendâ toâprioritizeâ theâqualityâofâ teachers,âincludingâthroughâattractiveâcompensation,âoverâotherâinputs,âmostânotablyâclassâsize.
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41© OECD 2011âBuildingâaâHigH-QualityâteacHingâProfession:âlessonsâfromâaroundâtHeâWorld
te a ch e r â e va l u a t i o n â a n d â c o m p e n s a t i o n
Chapter 3
inâaâcompetitiveâlaborâmarket,âtheâequilibriumârateâofâsalariesâpaidâtoâteachersâacrossâschoolâprogramsâandâgeographicâ regionsâofâaâcountryâwouldâreflectâ theâsupplyâofâandâdemandâ forâ teachers.âthisâ isâgenerallyânotâtheâcaseâinâeducation,âasâsalariesâandâotherâworkingâconditionsâareâoftenâsetâcentrallyâforâallâteachersâââalthoughâthisâhasâbeenâchangingâinâsomeâcountries,ânotablyâsweden,âwhereâtheâgovernmentânowâonlyâsetsâaâminimumâstartingâsalaryâandâpayâisânegotiatedâbetweenâtheâprincipalâandâtheâteacherâ(seeâBoxâ3.1).âinâ mostâ countries,â however,â teachersââ salariesâ andâ conditionsâ remainâ policy-malleableâ factorsâ thatâ canâaffectâwhetherâtheânumberâofâqualifiedâteachersâmeetsâtheâneedsâofâtheâsystemâ(seeâBoxesâ3.3âandâ3.4).âasâdescribedâinâchapterâ1,âteachersââsalaryâlevelsâvaryâconsiderablyâacrossâcountriesâbutâtendâtoâremainâclearlyâbelowâotherâgraduatesââsalaries.â
Box 3.1.â IndividualâpayâinâSweden
In Sweden, pay is now negotiated between the principal and the teacher.
oneâofâtheâmostâradicalâapproachesâtoâcompensationâsystemsâhasâbeenâimplementedâinâsweden,âwhereâ theâ federalâgovernmentâestablishesâminimumâstartingâsalariesâandâleavesâ theâdecisionsâaboutâindividualâteachersââsalariesâtoâbeânegotiatedâannuallyâbyâtheâprincipalâandâtheâteacher.âifâ theâ teacherâ requestsâ assistance,â theâ teachersââ unionâ canâ participateâ inâ theâ negotiation.â inâsweden,âtheâcentrallyâbargainedâfixed-payâschemeâforâteachersâwasâabolishedâinâ1995âasâpartâofâ aâ packageâ designedâ toâ enhanceâ localâ autonomyâ andâ flexibilityâ inâ theâ schoolâ system.âtheâgovernmentâcommittedâitselfâtoâraisingâteachersââsalariesâsubstantiallyâoverâaâfive-yearâperiod,âbutâonâtheâconditionâthatânotâallâteachersâreceivedâtheâsameâraise.âthisâmeansâthatâthereâisânoâfixedâupperâlimitâandâonlyâaâminimumâbasicâsalaryâisâcentrallyânegotiated,âalongâwithâtheâaggregateâriseâinâtheâteacher-salaryâbill.âsalariesâareânegotiatedâwhenâaâteacherâisâhired,âandâteacherâandâemployerâ agreeâ onâ theâ salaryâ toâ beâ paidâ atâ theâ beginningâ ofâ theâ termâ ofâ employment.âtheâindividualânegotiationâinvolves: (1)â teachersââqualificationâareas:â teachersâ inâupperâsecondaryâschoolsâhaveâhigherâ salariesâ thanâ teachersâ inâcompulsoryâschoolsâorâ teachersâ inâpre-schools;â(2)â theâ laborâ marketâ situation:â inâ regionsâ whereâ teacherâ shortagesâ areâ moreâ acute,â teachersâgetâhigherâ salaries;â theâ sameâoccursâ forâcertainâ subjectsâ likeâmathematicsâorâ science;â (3)â theâperformanceâofâtheâteacher:âtheâcollectiveâcentralâagreementârequiresâthatâpayâraisesâbeâlinkedâtoâimprovedâperformance,âallowingâschoolsâtoâdifferentiateâtheâpayâofâteachersâwithâsimilarâtasks;âandâ (4)â theâ rangeâofâ responsibilitiesâofâ teachers:âprincipalsâcanâ rewardâ teachersâ ifâ theyâworkâharderâandâtakeâupâmoreâtasksâthanâgenerallyâexpected.â
thereâ isâ nowâmuchâgreaterâ varietyâ inâ teachersââ payâ inâ sweden,âwithâ thoseâ teachersâ inâ areasâofâshortageâandâwithâhigherâdemonstratedâperformanceâableâtoânegotiateâaâhigherâsalary.âtheâschemeâ isâunderpinnedâbyâaâ systemâofâcentralâgovernmentâgrantsâ toâensureâ thatâ low-incomeâmunicipalitiesâareâableâtoâcompeteâeffectivelyâforâteachersâandâotherâstaffâinâtheâserviceâsectorsâofâ theâ municipality.â sweden,â withâ itsâ individualâ teacherâ payâ systemâ introducedâ inâ 1995,âprovidesâanâinterestingâexampleâofâaâcountryâthatâhasâattemptedâtoâcombineâaâstrongâtraditionâofâteacherâunionismâandâconsultativeâprocessesâwithâopportunitiesâforâflexibleâresponsesâandânon-standardizedâworkingâconditionsâatâtheâschoolâlevel.âtheâsystemâwasâatâfirstâstronglyâcontestedâbyâunionsâandâteacherâorganizations,âbutânowâenjoysâanâoverâ70%âapprovalârateâamongâunionizedâteachers.
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Box 3.2.â Identifyingâandâcertifyingâoutstandingâteachers
In the United States, the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards has established standards.
theâ nationalâ Boardâ forâ Professionalâteachingâ standardsâ (nBPts)â wasâ createdâ inâ 1987,â onâ theârecommendationâofâ theâcarnegieâtaskâforceâonâteachingâasâaâProfession,â toââestablishâhighâandârigorousâstandardsâforâwhatâaccomplishedâteachersâshouldâknowâandâbeâableâtoâdoâ.âtheâgoalâofâBoardâcertification,âmodeledâonâthatâinâotherâprofessions,âwasâtoâidentifyâandâcertifyâoutstandingâteachers,âprovideâaâframeworkâforâteacherâprofessionalâdevelopmentâandâcreateâaâsystemâthroughâwhichâoutstandingâ teachersâ couldâ receiveâ salaryâ supplementsâ andâbeâ availableâ forâ newâ rolesâ inâschools.âtheâBoardâwasâdevelopedâwithâtheâactiveâsupportâofâtheâamericanâfederationâofâteachersâandâtheânationalâeducationâassociationâandânowâhasâcertificatesâinâ25âfields,âdefinedâbyâsubjectâmatterâandâdevelopmentalâ level.âteachersâcompleteâ tenâassessmentsâoverâaâperiodâofâmoreâ thanâaâyear,âincludingâportfoliosâofâstudentâwork,âvideosâofâclassroomâpractices,âexamplesâofâimpactâonâstudentâlearning,âreviewâbyâpeers,âexpertâevaluations,âandâassessmentsâofâsubject-matterâknowledge.âtoday,âmoreâ thanâ90,000â teachersâ haveâ takenânationalâBoardâcertification.âthirty-twoâ statesâ andâmoreâthanâ700âdistrictsâprovideâfeeâsupportâorâsalaryâsupplements.âaâcongressionallyâmandatedâreviewâofâstudiesâofâtheâeffectivenessâofânBPtsâteachersâfoundâteachersâwhoâearnedânBPtsâcertificationâtendedâtoâbeâmoreâeffectiveâthanâteachersâwhoâhadânotâearnedânBPtsâcertification,âalthoughâitâdidânotâestablishâaâcausalârelationship.âitâconcludedâthatâexistingâresearchââneitherâprovesânorârefutesââtheâideaâthatâpursuingânBPtsâcertificationâleadsâtoâimprovementsâinâeffectiveness.âaânumberâofâotherâcountriesâareânowâlookingâatâtheânBPtsâstandardsâandâprocessesâasâaâpotentialâmodel.â
Box 3.3.â Linkingâpayâtoâwork
In Denver, Colorado, teachers get additional pay linked to factors such as professional improvement, good evaluation and student progress.
denverâsâProfessionalâcompensationâ (Procomp)â systemâwasâ initiallyâdevelopedâbyâaâ jointâ taskâforceâofâdistrict,âunionâandâcommunityârepresentatives.âthisâworkâbeganâinâ2002,âandâtheâgroupâsâproposalâwasâacceptedâbyâaâvoteâofâ teachersâ inâ2004.âtheâprogramâbeganâwithâ localâ funding,âandâthenâstartedâtoâreceiveâfederalâfundsâunderâtheâteacherâincentiveâfundâprogramâinâ2006.âasâpartâofâtheâProcompâsystem,âteachersâreceiveâadditionalâcompensationâbasedâonâseveralâfactors,âincludingâ(1)âteacherâknowledgeâandâskills,âasâobtainedâthroughâtargetedâprofessionalâdevelopment;â(2)âhighâevaluationâratings;â(3)âteachingâinâhigh-needâschoolsâandâsubjects;âandâ(4)âdemonstratedâstudentâgrowth,âbothâatâtheâclassroomâandâtheâwhole-schoolâlevel.âdistrictâandâunionâleadershipâreportâongoingâcollaborationâbothâtoâimproveâtheâProcompâsystemâandâtoâimproveâresultsâinâtheâdistrictâ inâgeneral.âaâ recentâ studyâpublishedâbyâ theâuniversityâofâcoloradoâatâBoulderâ foundâaâstrongâ impactâ onâ studentâ achievement,â withâ improvementsâ inâ teacherâ effectivenessâ leadingâ toâimprovedâlearningâoutcomesâandâincreasesâinâteacherâretention.âtheâfederalâgovernmentâcontinuesâtoâsupportâinnovativeâapproachesâtoâteacherâevaluation,âcompensation,âprofessionalâdevelopment,âandâcareerâadvancementâthroughâtheârecentlyâexpandedâteacherâincentiveâfundâprogram.â
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âŠas does the structure of salary rewards, especially in terms of how salaries increase in the course of a careerâŠcomparingâ salaryâ levelsâ atâ differentâ pointsâ inâ aâ careerâ indicatesâ howâ payâ progressesâ throughâ teachersââcareers.â someâcountriesâ concentrateâ salaryâ increasesâearlyâ inâ theâcareer,â someâ saveâhigherâ rewardsâ forâmoreâexperiencedâemployees,âwhileâ forâothersâprogressâ isâ steadyâ throughoutâ aâ career30.âthereâ isâ someâevidenceâthatâaâsizeableâproportionâofâteachersâandâschoolâadministratorsâdoânotâwantâtoâmoveâintoâhigherâpositionsâinâtheâhierarchyâinâschools,âsuchâasâschoolâprincipal.âthisâmayâbeâbecauseâtheânegativeâaspectsâofâaâpromotionâoutweighâpositiveâaspects,âsuchâasâincreasedâsalaries,âprestigeâandâotherârewards.âifâthisâisâtheâcase,âthenâtheâpromotionâcanâbeâmadeâmoreâattractiveâeitherâbyâchangingâtheâdutiesâandârequirementsâofâtheâpositionâorâbyâchangingâtheâsalaryâandâotherârewards.â
deferredâ compensationâ isâ aâ keyâ incentiveâ forâ workersâ inâ manyâ industries.âthisâ rewardsâ employeesâ forâstayingâ inâorganizationsâorâprofessionsâandâ forâmeetingâestablishedâperformanceâcriteria.âsomeâ formâofâdeferredâ compensationâ existsâ inâ theâ teachersââ salaryâ structuresâ ofâ mostâ countries.â inâ oecdâ countries,âstatutoryâsalariesâforâprimary,âlowerâandâupperâsecondaryâgeneralâteachersâwithâ15âyearsâofâexperienceâare,âonâaverage,â38%,â39%âandâ43%âhigher,ârespectively,âthanâstartingâsalaries.âfurthermore,âtheâincreasesâfromâstartingâsalaryâtoâtheâtopâofâtheâsalaryâscaleâare,âonâaverage,â71%,â70%âandâ74%,ârespectively.31â
theânumberâofâyearsâ itâ takesâ forâaâ teacherâ toâadvanceâ throughâ theâsalaryâscaleâalsoâvariesâ substantiallyâacrossâcountries.â inâ lowerâ secondaryâeducation,â teachersâ inâaustralia,âestonia,âdenmark,ânewâZealandâandâ scotlandâ reachâ theâ highestâ stepâ onâ theâ salaryâ scaleâ withinâ sixâ toâ nineâ years.â monetaryâ incentivesâthereforeâdisappearârelativelyâquicklyâcomparedâtoâotherâcountries.âifâjobâsatisfactionâandâperformanceâareâdetermined,âatâleastâinâpart,âbyâprospectsâofâsalaryâincreases,âdifficultiesâmayâariseâasâteachersâapproachâtheâpeakâinâtheirâage-earningsâprofiles.
aânumberâofâcountriesâhaveâbothâsteepâandâflatârisesâinâteachersââsalariesâthatâvaryâacrossâteachersââtenure.âforâexample,âteachersâinâgermanyâandâluxembourgâhaveâanâopportunityâforâsimilarâsalaryâincreasesâinâtheâfirstâ15âyears,âbutâthenâfaceâveryâdifferentâgrowthârates.âinâluxembourgâsalariesâriseâfaster,âwhileâinâgermanyâincreasesâareârelativelyâsmall.âPolicyâmakersâinâtheseâcountriesâthusâneedâtoâconsiderâhowâtoâretainâtheâmoreâexperiencedâteachers.â
âŠas do additional payments, whether linked to extra responsibilities, family status, or performance. inâadditionâtoâbasicâpayâscales,âschoolâsystemsâincreasinglyâofferâadditionalâpaymentsâorâotherârewardsâforâteachersâ(seeâfigureâ3.6).âtheseâmayâtakeâtheâformâofâfinancialâremunerationâand/orâreductionâinâtheânumberâofâteachingâhours.âinâsomeâcases,âsuchâasâinâgreeceâandâiceland,âlongâserviceâisârewardedâbyâreductionsâinâteachingâhours.âinâPortugal,âteachersâmayâreceiveâaâsalaryâincreaseâandâaâreductionâinâteachingâtimeâduringâtheâtimeâtheyâcarryâoutâspecialâtasksâorâactivities,âsuchâasâeducatingâstudentâteachers,âguidanceâcounseling,âetc.âtogetherâwithâtheâstartingâsalary,âsuchâpaymentsâmayâaffectâaâpersonâsâdecisionâtoâenterâorâstayâinâtheâteachingâprofession.âadditionalâpaymentsâearlyâinâaâcareerâmayâincludeâfamilyâallowancesâandâbonusesâforâworkingâinâcertainâlocations,âandâhigherâinitialâsalariesâforâhigher-than-minimumâteachingâcertificationâorâqualifications,âsuchâasâqualificationsâinâmultipleâsubjectsâorâcertificationâtoâteachâstudentsâwithâspecialâeducationalâneeds.âdataâonâadditionalâpayments32âfallâintoâthreeâbroadâareas:â
âąâ thoseâ basedâ onâ responsibilitiesâ assumedâ byâ teachersâ andâ onâ particularâ conditionsâ (e.g.â additionalâmanagementâresponsibilitiesâorâteachingâinâhigh-needâregions,âorâdisadvantagedâschools);
âąâ thoseâbasedâonâtheâfamilyâstatusâorâdemographicâcharacteristics;âand
âąâ thoseâ basedâ onâ teachersââ qualifications,â teacherâ educationâ andâ performanceâ (e.g.â higherâ thanâ theâminimumâqualificationsâand/orâcompletingâprofessionalâdevelopmentâactivities).â
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Figure 3.6 (1/2)
Criteria for additional payments in public institutions
Experience Criteria based on teaching conditions/responsibilities
Years of experience as a teacher
Management responsibilities in addition to
teaching duties
Teaching more classes
or hours than required by full-time
contract
Special tasks (career
guidance or counselling)
Teaching in a disadvantaged, remote or high
cost area (location
allowance)
Special activities
(e.g. sports and drama clubs, homework
clubs, summer school, etc.)
Teaching students
with special educational
needs (in regular schools)
Teaching courses in a particular
field
OEC
D Australia â â s s Austria â s s s s Belgium (Fl.) â Belgium (Fr.) â Chile m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m
Czech Republic â s â s s s s â s Denmark â s â s s s â s s s s
England â s â s â s â s â s
Finland s â s s â s s â â s
France â s s s â s â Germany â â Greece â s s s Hungary â s s s s
Iceland â s â s s â s s â s Ireland â s â s â s Italy â s Japan â s s s s Korea â s s s Luxembourg â â Mexico â s â s â s â s â s â s Netherlands â s â s â s â â s â s â s â s
New Zealand â s s s s s s Norway â s â s s s Poland â s s s s Portugal â s s â Scotland â s Slovak Republic m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m
Spain â s s Sweden â â â â Switzerland â â â Turkey m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m
United States â s â s s s
Part
ners Brazil m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m
Estonia â s s â s â s s s Israel â â â â â â Russian Federation m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m
Slovenia â â s s s
â : Decisionsonpositioninbasesalaryscales : Decisionsonsupplementalpaymentswhicharepaideveryyear
: Decisionsonsupplementalincidentalpayments
Source:OECD,Education at a Glance 2010.SeeAnnex3fornotes (www.oecd.org/edu/eag2010). Please refer to the Readerâs Guide in EducationataGlance2010for information concerning the symbols replacing missing data.1â2âhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1787/888932310510
Figure 3.6 (1/2)
Criteria for additional payments in public institutions
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45© OECD 2011âBuildingâaâHigH-QualityâteacHingâProfession:âlessonsâfromâaroundâtHeâWorld
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Figure 3.6 (2/2)
Criteria for additional payments in public institutions
Criteria related to teachersâ qualifications, training and performanceCriteria based
on demography
Other
Holding an initial
educational qualification higher than
the minimum qualification required to enter the teaching
profession
Holding a higher than
minimum level of teacher
certification or training obtained during
professional life
Outstanding performance in teaching
Successful completion
of professional development
activities
Reaching high scores in the
qualification examination
Holding an educational qualification in multiple
subjects
Family status (married, number
of children)
Age (independent
of years of teaching experience)
OEC
D Australia â â s
Austria s s
Belgium (Fl.) â s s
Belgium (Fr.) â â s
Chile m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m
Czech Republic â s âDenmark â s â s s s â s
England â s â s
Finland â â s s s âFrance â s
Germany â âGreece â s s âHungary â â â s s
Iceland â s â s s â s
Ireland â s â s
Italy âJapan s s
Korea s
Luxembourg â â s âMexico â s â s â s â s â s
Netherlands â s â s â s â s â s â s
New Zealand â â s s
Norway â s s s s s s s
Poland â s s â s
Portugal â â â â s
Scotland âSlovak Republic m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m
Spain s âSweden â â â â âSwitzerland s s
Turkey m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m
United States â s â s â s
Part
ners Brazil m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m
Estonia â â s â s âIsrael â â â â âRussian Federation m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m
Slovenia s â â s
â : Decisionsonpositioninbasesalaryscales : Decisionsonsupplementalpaymentswhicharepaideveryyear
: Decisionsonsupplementalincidentalpayments
Source:OECD,Education at a Glance 2010.SeeAnnex3fornotes (www.oecd.org/edu/eag2010). Please refer to the Readerâs Guide in EducationataGlance2010for information concerning the symbols replacing missing data.1â2âhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1787/888932310510
Figure 3.6 (2/2)
Criteria for additional payments in public institutions
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lessâthanâhalfâofâoecdâcountriesâofferâadditionalâpaymentsâbasedâonâteachersââfamilyâstatusâorâdemographicâcharacteristics,âandâinâmostâcasesâtheseâareâyearlyâpayments.â
manyâcountriesâprovideâadditionalâpaymentsâbasedâonâteachersââqualifications,âprofessionalâdevelopmentâandâ performance.â theâ mostâ commonâ typesâ ofâ paymentsâ basedâ onâ teachersââ initialâ educationâ andâqualificationsâareâforâanâinitialâeducationâqualificationâhigherâthanâtheâminimumârequirementâand/orâaâlevelâofâteacherâcertificationâandâteacherâeducationâhigherâthanâtheâminimumârequirements.âtheseâareâavailableâinâaroundâtwo-thirdsâofâoecdâcountries,âwithâhalfâofâcountriesâofferingâbothâtypes.âtheyâareâusedâinânearlyâallâcountriesâasâaâcriterionâforâbaseâsalary.âeighteenâcountriesâofferâadditionalâpaymentsâforâtheâsuccessfulâcompletionâofâprofessional-developmentâactivities.âinâsomeâcountries,âadjustmentsâtoâtheâbaseâsalaryâareâawardedâtoâteachersâannuallyâorâonâanâincidentalâbasis,âeitherâbyâtheâheadâteacherâorâschoolâprincipal,âorâbyâ theâ local,â regionalâorânationalâgovernment.âcountriesâvaryâ inâwhetherâ theyâprovideâsuchâpaymentsâasâanâadditionâtoâteachersââbaseâsalary,âinâtheâformâofâaâyearlyâpaymentâorâonâanâincidental,âorââone-offâ,âbasis.
Developing a closer relationship between teacher performance and compensation has proved difficult.
thirteenâoecdâcountriesâandâtwoânon-oecdâcountriesâwithâavailableâdataâofferâanâadditionalâpaymentâforâoutstandingâperformanceâinâteaching.âinâtwo-thirdâofâtheseâcountries,âtheseâareâdiscretionaryâpayments,âandâinâten,âtheyâareâmostlyâannualâadditionsâtoâteachersââsalaries.âitâisânotableâthatâinâ13âofâtheâ15âcountriesâwithâavailableâdataâthatâofferâthisâincentiveâââaustria,âtheâczechârepublic,âdenmark,âengland,âestonia,âfinland,âHungary,âmexico,âtheânetherlands,ânewâZealand,âPoland,âsloveniaâandâswedenâââtheâdecisionâtoâawardâtheâadditionalâpaymentsâcanâbeâmadeâatâtheâschoolâlevel.âformalâmetrics,âincludingâstudent-achievementâdata,âcomeâintoâplayâinâsomeâcountries,âbutâmostâdecisionsâareâbasedâonâtheânuancedâjudgmentsâofâprofessionalâcolleaguesâwho,âinâturn,âbaseâtheirâopinionsâonâmultipleâsourcesâofâdata,âonlyâsomeâofâwhichâareâmeasuredâinâanyâformalâway.
Performance-basedârewardâsystemsâinâoecdâcountriesâcanâbeâclassifiedâintoâthreeâtypes:ââPerformanceâpayâ,âwhichâgenerallyâinvolvesâmeasuringâteacherâperformanceâbasedâonâstudentâoutcomesâandâotherâmeasuresâandâprovidingâstrongâperformersâwithâhigherâpayâand,âinâsomeâcases,âadvancementâopportunities;ââKnowledge-âandâ skill-basedââ compensation,â whichâ generallyâ involvesâ higherâ payâ forâ demonstratedâ knowledgeâ andâskillsâ whichâ areâ believedâ toâ enhanceâ studentâ performance;â andâ âschool-basedâ compensationâ,â whichâgenerallyâinvolvesâgroup-basedâfinancialârewardthoseâwhoâargueâinâsupportâofâperformance-basedârewardsâsayâthatâitâisâfairerâtoârewardâteachersâwhoâperformâwellâratherâthanâpayingâallâequally;âperformance-basedâpayâmotivatesâteachersâandâimprovesâstudentâperformance;âandâaâclearerâconnectionâbetweenâspendingâonâ schoolsâandâ studentâperformanceâbuildsâpublicâ support.âthoseâwhoâopposeâperformance-basedâpayâusuallyâargueâ thatâ fairâandâaccurateâevaluationâ isâdifficult,âbecauseâperformanceâcannotâbeâdeterminedâobjectively;â co-operationâ amongâ teachersâ isâ reduced;â teachersâ areâ notâ motivatedâ byâ financialâ rewards;âteachingâbecomesânarrowlyâfocusedâonâtheâcriteriaâbeingâused;âandâtheâcostsâofâimplementationâareâtooâhigh.âresearchâinâthisâfieldâisâdifficultâandâthereâareâfewâreliableâstudies.
The experience so far with performance-based rewards raises issues about how to design such awards, including issues relating toâŠ
thoughâexperienceâwithâperformance-basedâ rewardsâ systemsâ inâoecdâcountriesâ isâ stillâ limited,âoecdâresearchâhighlightsâaânumberâofâcommonâdesignâaroundâwhatâ toâ reward,âwhomâtoâ rewardâandâhowâ toâstructureârewards33.
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âŠwhat to rewardâŠ
Performance-basedârewardsâ implyârewardingâsomethingâmoreâthanâcredentialsâandâyearsâofâexperience,âwhichâ haveâ beenâ shownâ toâ beâ weakâ indicatorsâ ofâ teacherâ effectiveness.â researchâ hasâ shownâ thatâ itâ isâpossibleâtoâevaluateâeffectiveâteaching,âlinkedâwithâimprovedâstudentâresults,âthusâmakingâitâpossible,âinâprinciple,âtoâincludeâevaluationsâbothâofâteacherâperformanceâandâstudentâperformanceâasâpartâofâaââteacher-compensationâsystem.âWhateverâcriteriaâareâchosen,â theyâneedâ toâbeâclearâ toâ teachersâandâconsistentlyâapplied.
measuresâofâteacherâperformanceâneedâtoâbeâvalid,âreliableâandâagreedâbyâteachersâthemselvesâtoâbeâfairâandâ accurate.â inâ someâ countries,â theseâ includeâ assessmentsâ ofâ teacherâ performanceâ thatâ areâ basedâ onâmultipleâobservationsâbyâtrainedâevaluatorsâusingâaâstandards-basedârubricâ thatâ teachersâbelieveâreflectsâgoodâinstructionalâpractices.âotherâmeasuresâofâteacherâperformanceâmayâincludeâcontributionsâtoâschool-improvementâeffortsâorâperformanceâinâspecificâareasâbasedâonâexternalâcertifications.â
someâapproachesâincludeâstudentâperformanceâinâtheârewardâsystemsâforâteachers,âwhichârequireârobustâdataâmanagementâsystemsâthatâareâableâtoâconnectâstudentâandâteacherâdata.âinâparticular,âifââvalue-addedââmeasuresâareâused,âdatabasesâneedâtoâbeâableâtoâtrackâstudentâprogressâfromâyearâtoâyear,âtoâgiveâanâindicationâofâwhatâanyâindividualâteacherâhasâaddedâtoâaâstudentâsâattainment.âtheâdataâQualityâcampaignâidentifiesâaânumberâofâdataârequirementsâforâsuchâapproaches.34âmeasuresâofâstudentâperformanceâincludeâtestâscores,âenrolmentâinâadvancedâcourses,âstudentâattendance,âstudentâgraduationârates,âandâstudentâdropoutârates.âanalysisâofâstudentâworkâcanâprovideâaâfurtherâmeasureâofâstudentâperformance,âbutâitârequiresâtimeâandâfundingâforâaâgroupâofâtrainedâassessorsâtoâevaluateâportfoliosâofâstudentâworkâandâdetermineâevidenceâofâgrowth.âifâtheâtestsâareâtoâbeâusedâtoâdetermineâvalue-addedâprogressâthatâstudentsâhaveâmadeâ(i.e.âusingâstatisticalâmethodsâ toâanalyzeâaâstudentâsâcurrentâscoresâ inâ lightâofâpastâperformanceâ toâgetâanâaccurateâreadingâofâtheâeffectâofâtheâschool/teacherâonâtheâstudentâsâperformance),âthenâtestsâneedsâtoâbeâdesignedâtoâenableâanalysesâofâyear-to-yearâgainsâinâperformanceâatâtheâindividualâstudentâlevel.â
âŠwhom to reward, andâŠ
aâmajorâissueâisâwhetherâtheârewardsâareâtargetedâtoâindividualâteachers,âgroupsâofâteachersâorâtheâwholeâschool.âeachâapproachâhasâadvantagesâandâdisadvantages.â
individualârewardsâcanâbothâselectâtheâmostâeffectiveâstaffâandâmotivateâindividualsâtoâworkâharder,âgivingâthemâaâsenseâofâdirectâcontrolâoverâtheirâchancesâofâreward.âHowever,âitâcanâbeâdifficultâtoâdistinguishâtheâimpactâmadeâbyâanâindividualâteacher,âcomparedâtoâpreviousâteachersâorâotherâfactorsâsuchâasâtheâschoolâenvironment.â
anâalternativeâisâtoâconsiderâtheâperformanceâofâaâgroupâofâteachersâasâaâunitâââsuchâasâaâgrade-levelâteams,âaâdisciplinaryâdepartments,âorâanotherâgroupingâthatâfitsâaâschoolâsâstructureâandâmission.âgroupârewardsâhaveâbeenâ foundâ toâpromoteâ staffâ cohesion,â feelingsâofâ fairnessâ andâproductivityânorms,â andâ theyâmayâfosterâtheâtransferâofâknowledgeâandâmutualâlearningâamongâteachersâwhichâcanâleadâtoâimprovedâresults.âschool-wideârewardsâcanâencourageâcollaborationâamongâteachersâtoâensureâtheâschoolâmeetsâtheâcriteriaâforâ rewards,â butâ theyâ mayâ haveâ disadvantages,â suchâ asâ dilutingâ theâ linkâ betweenâ individualâ effortâ andâreward.âanyâgroupâapproachârunsâtheâriskâofââfreeâridersâ,âbutâsomeâsystemsâseekâtoâlimitâtheseâbyâkeepingâgroupsâsmallâorâbyâestablishingâprogramsâtoâexertâsocialâpressureâasâwellâasâtoâmonitorâpeerâcontributionsâtoâtheâgroupâsâperformance.âanotherâconsiderationâisâwhetherâtoârewardâotherâstaffâthanâclassroomâteachers.âPrincipalsâandâassistantâprincipalsâmayânotâteach,âbutâtheirâworkâisâcriticalâtoâestablishingâanâenvironmentâthatâisâconduciveâtoâimprovingâstudentâachievement.â
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âŠhow to structure awards.
systemsâ alsoâ differâ inâ whetherâ theyâ structureâ theâ payoutâ ofâ rewardsâ asâ aâ fixedâ globalâ sumâ distributedâaccordingâ toâ rankedâ teacherâ performanceâ (forâ example,â aâ bonusâ forâ theâ topâ quarterâ ofâ performers)â orâasâaâbonusâforâanyâteacherâreachingâaâfixedâlevelâofâteacherâperformance.âtheâfirstâhasâtheâadvantageâofâestablishingâ atâ theâoutsetâ theâmaximumâamountâofâmoneyâ thatâ aâdistrictâ orâ countryâwillâ spendâbut,â asânotedâabove,âmayâdiscourageâeffortâamongâthoseâwhoâdoânotâthinkâtheyâcanâoutperformâtheirâcolleagues.âthisâdisincentiveâcan,âhowever,âbeâreducedâwhereâtheâassessmentâofâteachersâorâschoolsâtakesâaccountâofâcontextualâfactors,âsuchâasâsocio-economicâbackgroundâorâpriorâattainment,âbyâgivingâteachersâwithâtheâmostâchallengingâstudentsâaâprospectâofâscoringârelativelyâwell.â
Box 3.4.â AâcomprehensiveâapproachâtoâteacherâappraisalâandâcompensationâinâSingapore
Singapore takes steps to ensure that high-quality graduates can start their careers on salaries competitive with other professions, and follows through with a coherent and comprehensive system of teacher appraisal and progression.
singaporeâhasâestablishedâaâcoherentâandâcomprehensiveâsystemâofâteacherâappraisalâandâprogression.âtoâthisâend,âitâusesâaâcombinationâofâincentivesâthroughoutâtheâteacherâsâcareer,âalignedâtoâtheâgoalsâofâtheâsystem,âthatâenableâitâtoâselectâandâsustainâeffectiveâteachers.âtheâsystemâhasâbeenâdevelopedâoverâtimeâandârefinementsâhaveâbeenâaddedâasânewâissuesâorâconditionsâhaveâarisen.â
onceâ inâ theâsingaporeâ teachingâcorps,âannualâevaluationsâofferâ theâpossibilityâofâperformanceâbonusesâofâ10%-30%âofâbaseâsalary.âincludedâinâsingaporeâsâenhancedâPerformanceâmanagementâsystemâisâanâappraisalâofâteachersââcontributionâtoâtheâacademicâandâcharacterâdevelopmentâofâtheâstudentsâ inâ theirâcharge,â theirâcollaborationâwithâparentsâandâcommunityâgroups,âandâtheirâcontributionâ toâ theirâcolleaguesââdevelopmentâandâ toâ theâ schoolâasâaâwhole.âteachersâwhoâdoâoutstandingâworkâreceiveâaâbonusâ fromâtheâschoolâsâbonusâpool.âtheâevaluationsâalsoâpinpointâareasâofâneededâimprovementâthatâformâtheâbasisâofâtheâpersonalâprofessionalâdevelopmentâplanâforâtheâfollowingâyear.âallâteachersâhaveâaccessâtoâ100âhoursâofâprofessionalâdevelopmentâeachâyear,âatânoâcostâtoâtheâteacher,âwhichâtheyâcanâuseâtoâmakeâprogressâonâtheirâpersonalâdevelopmentâplans.âPoorlyâperformingâteachersâareâprovidedâassistanceâtoâimproveâandâareâdismissedâifâtheyâdoânot.â
inâ addition,â teachersâ receiveâ annualâ reimbursementsâ forâ improvingâ theirâ knowledgeâ andâ skillsâthroughâprofessionalâdevelopment,âsubscriptionsâtoâprofessionalâjournals,â languageâlearning,âorâtechnologyâtraining.âteachersâmoveâalongâaâseriesâofâcareerâstepsâthatâincludeâgreaterâcompensationâforâgreaterâresponsibilityâandâcontributionsâtoâtheâprofessionâandâtheâschool.âandâtoâkeepâeffectiveâteachersâinâtheâprofession,âthereâareâattractiveâretirementâpayments.â
Whileâ theâsingaporeâ systemâ includesâmanyâ interestingâcomponents,â itâ isâ theâcoherenceâofâ theâwholeâsystemâthatâisâimportant.âBecauseâsingaporeâhasâaâsingleâsystemâandâteachersâareâcentrallyâassigned,âmarketâ factorsâwithinâ theâ systemâareânotâ theâ issueâ theyâareâ inâotherâcountries.âthereâareâalsoânoââhard-to-staffââschoolsâbecauseâteachersâareâassignedâwhereâtheyâareâmostâneeded,âresultingâinâaâmixâofâlessâandâmoreâexperiencedâteachersâinâeveryâschool.
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theâalternativeâofâgivingâfixedârewardsâtoâschoolsâorâteachersâmeetingâaâspecifiedâperformanceâlevelâneedsâtoâspecifyâclearlyâwhatâteachersâneedâtoâdoâtoâmeetâthisârequirement.âitâopensâtheâpossibilityâofâearningâaâ rewardâ toâmoreâ teachersâandâencouragesâ themâ toâdevelopâ theirâ skillsâandâworkâmoreâeffectively;âbutâitâ potentiallyâ raisesâ theâ amountâofâmoneyâ thatâmustâbeâ setâ asideâ toâ fundâ theâ rewards,â allowingâ forâ theâpossibilityâofâmostâorâallâteachersâearningâtheâbonus.âtoârenegeâonâtheâpaymentâofârewardsâtoâteachersâwillâdoomâaârewardâprogram,âasâteachersâwillâquestionâtheâcommitmentâtoâimprovementâthatâitârepresents.âtheâdecisionâbetweenârank-orderâandâfixed-performanceâcriteriaâasâaâbasisâforâperformanceâpayâmayâdependâonâtheâresourcesâavailable,âalthoughâaâsystemâmayâchooseâtoâuseâaâcombinationâofâtheâtwo.â
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Chapter 4
Teacher engagemenT in educaTion reform
51© OECD 2011âBuildingâaâHigH-QualityâteacHingâProfession:âlessonsâfromâaroundâtHeâWorld
Learning outcomes at school are the result of what happens in classrooms, thus
only reforms that are successfully implemented in classrooms can be expected to
be effective. Teacher engagement in the development and implementation of
educational reform is therefore crucial and school reform will not work unless it
is supported from the bottom up. This requires those responsible for change to
both communicate their aims well and involve the stakeholders who are affected.
But it also requires teachers to contribute as the architects of change, not just
its implementers. Some of the most successful reforms are those supported by strong
unions rather than those that keep the union role weak.
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AChieving eduCAtionAl reform thAt workstheâpreviousâchaptersâhaveâdiscussedâaârangeâofâ featuresâofâschoolâreformâthatâcanâhelpâmakeâteachersâmoreâeffective.âtheseâleadâtoâaâkeyâpurposeâofâtheâsummit,âwhichâisâexaminingâhowâtoâachieveâreformsâthatâworkâforâpupilsâthroughâaâconstructiveâsocialâdialogueâbetweenâeducationalâauthoritiesâandâtheâorganizedâteachingâprofession.
fundamentalâchangesâtoâtheâstatusâquoâcanâraiseâuncertaintiesâthatâcanâtriggerâresistanceâfromâstakeholders,âandâwithoutâ theâactiveâandâwillingâengagementâofâ teachers,âmostâeducationalâreformsâfail.âtheâchancesâforâsuccessâinâreformâimproveâthroughâeffectiveâconsultation,âaâwillingnessâtoâcompromiseâand,âaboveâall,âthroughâ theâ involvementâofâ teachersâ inâ theâplanningâandâ implementationâofâ reform.â inâmovingâbeyondâconsultationâ toâ involvement,â theâ reformâ processâ becomesâ orientedâ towardsâ transformingâ schoolsâ intoâlearningâorganizations,âwithâteachingâprofessionalsâinâtheâlead.
atâtheâsameâtime,âstakeholderâgroupsâshouldânotâbeâableâtoâexerciseâaâvetoâoverâeducationâreformsâthatâareâmandatedâthroughâdemocraticâpoliticalâprocesses.âtoâdoâsoâwouldâbeâtoâriskâlosingâtheâpublicâsupportâonâwhichâeducationâsoâcriticallyâdepends.âitâisâdifficultâtoâfindâtheârightâbalance,âbutâopenâandâongoingâsystematicâdialogueâandâconsultationâareâfundamentalâtoâtheâprocess.âsuchâdialogueâshouldârecognizeâthatâteachersâareâexpertsâinâteachingâandâlearningâandâthusâcanâmakeâanâessentialâcontributionâtoâtheâdesignâofâreforms.âthisâchapterâsetsâoutâsomeâissuesâtoâbeâtackled,âwithoutâpretendingâtoâofferâaâblueprintâforâhowâtoâengageâteachers.â
Given the uncertainties that accompany change, stakeholders often value the status quo. To address this, systems need to become better at communicating and building support for change.asâ inâ otherâ areasâ ofâ theâ publicâ sector,â reformâ canâ beâ harderâ ifâ itâ isâ resistedâ byâ stakeholdersâ whoâ feelâthatâ theyâ standâ toâ loseâ fromâchange.â itâ isâ thereforeânotâ enoughâ toâdesignâ reformsâ capableâofâ changingâlearningâoutcomes;âtoâsucceed,âtheyâneedâtoâaddressâtheâlegitimateâconcernsâofâstakeholdersâsoâthatâtheyâareâsupportedâbyâthoseâwhoâdeliverâtheâsystem.âthisâisâaâbigâchallenge,âinâlightâofâevidenceâthatâagentsâoftenâpreferâavoidingâpotentialâlossesâtoâacquiringâpotentialâgains,âandâtoâover-estimateâtheâcostsâand/orâunder-estimateâtheâbenefitsâofâchangeârelativeâtoâtheâstatusâquo.â
inâthisâsense,âteachersâareânotâexceptionalâinâtendingâtoâprotectâtheâsystemâtheyâknowâinâtheâfaceâofâuncertaintyâandâfailedâreformâinâtheâpast.âHowever,âthisâphenomenonâisâmultipliedâinâeducationâreformâbecauseâofâtheârangeâ ofâ actors,â includingâ students,â parents,â teachers,â employersâ andâ tradeâ unions,â whoâ haveâ stakesâ inâeducationalâoutcomes.âuncertaintyâaboutâcostsâisâproblematicâbecauseâeducationâinfrastructureâisâlargeâandâimplicatesâmultipleâlevelsâofâgovernment,âeachâofâwhichâisâtryingâtoâminimizeâorâshiftâtheâcostsâofâreform.35â
moreover,âproviderâinterestsâtendâtoâbeâwellâorganizedâandâgenerallyâcommandâgreaterâpublicâtrustâthanâdoâpoliticians.âitâcanâbeâhardâforâtheâlatterâtoâmakeâtheâcaseâforâreformâonâgroundsâofâpolicyâoutcomes,âbecauseâthereâisânoâconsensusâaboutâhowâtoâassessâoutcomesâinâeducation.âthisâisâpartlyâdueâtoâtheâcomplexâmixâofâgoalsâtoâbeâpursuedâ(equity,âefficiency,âquality,âchoice,âcost-containment,âetc.),âbutâitâalsoâreflectsâtheâlackâofâreliable,âgenerallyâacceptedâindicatorsâconcerningâtheâqualityâofâeducationalâoutcomesâandâtheirâvalue.â evidence-basedâ reformâ isâ difficultâ whereâ theâ evidenceâ baseâ isâ eitherâ lackingâ orâ contested.â oneâconsequenceâofâthisâisâthatâisolatedâfactsâorâbitsâofâdata,âorâtheâemergenceâofâaâsingleâhigh-profileâstudy,âcanâhaveâaâdisproportionateâimpactâonâpolicyâdebates.â
inâovercomingâtheseâobstacles,âeducationâsystemsâneedâtoâemployâstate-of-the-artâknowledge,âprofessionalâknow-howâ andâ adequateâ institutionalâ arrangementsâ toâ disseminateâ informationâ andâ lessonsâ aboutâ theânewâtasksâandâresponsibilitiesâinherentâinâtheâreforms.âsuccessfulâreformsâhaveâoftenâinvolvedâsignificantâinvestmentâinâstaffâdevelopment,âorâclusteringâreformsâtoâbuildâupâsupportâforâthemâinârelatedâinstitutions.â
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Experience of reform produces some useful pointers about how to engage teachers in education reform.
inâ septemberâ 2008,â directorsâ generalâ ofâ educationâ ministriesâ inâ oecdâ countriesâ metâ toâ discussâ whyâsomeâeducationalâreformsâsucceedâandâothersâfail.âtheyâconsideredâhowâtoâengageâparents,âteachers,âandâpoliticiansâtoâsupportâreforms,âandâwhatâchangesâtheâmindsâofâstakeholdersâwhoâinitiallyâresistâreformsâorâtheirâimplementation.âseveralârecurrentâthemesâemergedâfromâtheirâexchangeâofâexperiences:
âąâ Policyâmakersâneedâtoâbuildâconsensusâonâtheâaimsâofâeducationâreformâandâactivelyâengageâstakeholders,âespeciallyâteachers,âinâformulatingâandâimplementingâpolicyâresponses.â
âąâ someâreformsâcapitalizeâonâexternalâpressuresâorâcrisesâasâpartâofâbuildingâaâcompellingâcaseâforâchange.
âąâ allâpoliticalâplayersâandâstakeholdersâneedâtoâdevelopâmoreârealisticâexpectationsâaboutâtheâpaceâandânatureâofâreformsâtoâimproveâoutcomes.â
âąâ reformsâneedâtoâbeâbackedâbyâsustainableâfinancing.â
âąâ thereâisâsomeâshiftâawayâfromâreformâinitiativesâperâseâtowardsâbuildingâself-adjustingâsystemsâwithârichâfeedbackâatâallâlevels,âincentivesâtoâreact,âandâtoolsâtoâstrengthenâcapacitiesâtoâdeliverâbetterâoutcomes.â
âąâ investmentâisâneededâinâchange-managementâskillsâinâtheâeducationâsystem.âteachersâneedâreassuranceâthatâtheyâwillâbeâgivenâtheâtoolsâtoâchangeâandârecognitionâofâtheirâprofessionalâmotivationâtoâimproveâoutcomesâforâtheirâstudents.â
âąâ evidenceâcanâbeâusedâmoreâeffectivelyâtoâguideâpolicyâmaking,âcombiningâinternationalâbenchmarksâwithânationalâsurveysâandâwithâinspectoratesâtoâprovideâaâbetterâdiagnosis.â
âąâ evidenceâisâmostâhelpfulâwhenâitâisâfedâbackâtoâinstitutionsâalongâwithâinformationâandâtoolsâaboutâhowâtheyâcanâuseâtheâinformationâtoâimproveâoutcomes.â
âąâ âWhole-of-governmentââ approachesâ canâ includeâ educationâ inâ moreâ comprehensiveâ reforms.âtheseâneedâeffectiveâco-ordinationâandâoverallâleadershipâacrossâallâtheârelevantâministries.â
oecdâsârecentâreviewâofâreformsâinâpublicâpolicy36âsuggestsâthat,âinâmostâcircumstances,âitâpaysâtoâcloselyâengageâ thoseâwhoâwillâbeâmostâdirectlyâaffectedâbyâreform.â inclusive,âconsultativeâpolicyâprocessesâareânoâ guaranteeâ againstâ conflictâ whenâ sensitiveâ reformsâ areâ underâ consideration,â butâ overâ time,â suchâ anâapproachâ seemsâ toâ payâ dividends.â inâ particular,â itâ canâ createâ greaterâ trustâ amongâ theâ partiesâ involvedâ(seeâalsoâBoxâ4.2).âthisâmayâmakeâallâstakeholdersâmoreâwillingâtoârelyâonâcommitmentsâtoâstepsâthatâwillâmitigateâtheâcostâofâreformâforâthem.â
researchâliteratureâdevotesâaâgreatâdealâofâattentionâtoâtheâquestionâofâwhenâandâhowâpotentialâlosersâofâreformâmightâbeâcompensated,âwhetherâbyâexemptingâthemâfromâtheâreform,âatâleastâforâsomeâperiod,âorâviaâ someâ sortâ ofâ alternativeâ compensation.â failureâ toâ compensateâ mayâ reinforceâ oppositionâ toâ reform,âwhileâexcessiveâcompensationâmayâbeâcostlyâorâmayâsimplyâbluntâtheâeffectsâofâtheâreformâitself.âitâmayâalsoâreinforceâoppositionâtoâfutureâreforms,âasâtheâperceivedâweaknessâofâtheâgovernmentâencouragesâagentsâtoâpushâforâmaximumâconcessions.â
Teachers need to be active agents, not just in the implementation of reforms, but also in their designâŠ
teacherâ supportâ forâ reformâ isâ alsoâ notâ merelyâ anâ issueâ ofâ politicsâ andâ pragmatism.â researchâ onâ theâcharacteristicsâ ofâ effectiveâ professionalâ developmentâ indicatesâ thatâ teachersâ mustâ beâ activeâ agentsâ inâanalyzingâ theirâ ownâ practiceâ inâ theâ lightâ ofâ professionalâ standards,â andâ theirâ studentsââ progressâ inâ theâlightâofâstandardsâforâstudentâ learning.âsuchâengagementânecessitatesâaâclearâandâwell-structuredâpolicyâframeworkâforâreform.âthisâdependsâgreatlyâonâtheâspecificâinstitutionsâandâtraditionsâofâanyâgivenâcountry.â
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However,âinâeveryâreformâcontext,âtheârolesâandâcompetenciesâofâeachâactorâneedâtoâbeâclearlyâdefined.âthereâshouldâalsoâbeâaâstrongâcommitmentâtoâsharingâinformation,âandâtoâbuildingâtrustâandâco-operation,âasâwellâasâanâexplicitâhigh-levelâcommitmentâtoâtheâreformâagendaâfromâeachâpartner.
âŠand reform must be underpinned by solid research and analysis.
teacherâengagementâalsoârequiresâconsistent,âco-ordinateâeffortsâtoâpersuadeâthoseâaffectedâofâtheâneedâforâreformâand,âinâparticular,âtoâcommunicateâtheâcostsâofânon-reform.âthisâmayâbeâparticularlyâchallengingâwhenâtheâopportunityâcostsâofâmaintainingâtheâstatusâquoâareâlessâapparentâthanâtheâcostsâofâchange.â
lastâbutânotâleast,âpolicyâdesignâneedsâtoâbeâunderpinnedâbyâsolidâresearchâandâanalysis.âifâreformâadvocatesâcanâbuildâaâbroadâconsensusâamongâexpertsâandâtheâpublicâinâsupportâofâreform,âandâbuildâthatâconsensusâbyâshowingâevidenceâofâtheâneedâforâreform,âtheyâareâlikelyâtoâbeâinâaâstrongerâpositionâtoâimplementâtheâreformsâsuccessfully.â
Recognition of the importance of engaging teachers is growing. Dialogue can involve conversations both within national professional bodies and among local groups of professionals.
atâ aâ politicalâ level,â theâ commitmentâ toâ workingâ inâ partnershipâ withâ teachersâ toâ reformâ educationâ isâgrowing.âWhenâoecdâeducationâministersâmetâ inâdublinâ inâmarchâ2004,â thereâwasâaâclearâ recognitionâofâtheâimportanceâofâteacherâengagement:ââitâisâvitalâthatâteachersâandâtheirâprofessionalâorganizationsâareâfullyâ engagedâ inâ theâ debateâ aboutâ educationalâ reform,â andâ inâ theâ implementationâ ofâ change.ââ ministersâcommittedâ themselvesâ toâ consultativeâ andâ participatoryâ processes,â andâ wereâ encouragedâ byâ theâ reportsâfromâsomeâcountriesâofâ theâleadâthatâteachersââorganizationsâwereâtakingâinâdesigningânewâapproachesâtoâteacherâappraisalâandâcareerâstructures.37âtheâimportanceâofâteacherâengagementâwasâalsoânotedâbyâtheâilo/unescoâcommitteeâofâexpertsâonâtheâapplicationâofâtheârecommendationsâconcerningâteachingâPersonnelâinâ2003:ââsocialâdialogueâisâtheâglueâforâsuccessfulâeducationalâreform.âWithoutâfullâinvolvementâofâteachersâandâtheirâorganizationsâââthoseâmostâresponsibleâforâimplementingâreformâââinâkeyâaspectsâofâeducationalâobjectivesâandâpolicies,âeducationâsystemsâcannotâhopeâtoâachieveâqualityâeducationâforâall.â38âHowever,âtheâcommitteeâalsoâobservedâthatââsocialâdialogueâinâeducationâremainsâaâfragileâprocessâofâdecisionâmakingâinâmostâ[countries].ââinâ2006,âtheâcommitteeânoted:ââtheâbasicâprerequisitesâforâdialogueâareâaâdemocraticâculture,ârespectâforârulesâandâlaws,âandâinstitutionsâorâmechanismsâthatâpermitâindividualsâtoâexpressâtheirâviewsâindividuallyâorâcollectivelyâthroughâunionsâorâassociationsâonâissuesâthatâaffectâtheirâdailyâlivesâonâbothâaâpersonalâandâprofessionalâbasisâŠthisâimpliesârespectâforâprofessionalâfreedomâandâtheâactiveâparticipationâofâindividualâteachersâinâdecidingâaârangeâofâprofessionalâissuesâââcurricula,âpedagogy,âstudentâassessmentâandâissuesârelatingâtoâtheâorganizationâofâeducationââŠâeducationalâauthoritiesâandâteacherâunionsâshouldâtryâtoâjointlyâanalyzeâproblemsâandâfindâsolutions.âParticipatoryâprocessesâandâconsultationsâareânotâaâpanaceaâtoâresolveââŠâdifficulties,âbutâtheyâareâvirtuallyâtheâonlyâmechanismsâforâovercomingâsuspicionâandâestablishingâaâpositiveâclimateâforâmakingâandâimplementingâeducationâpolicy.â39â
inâadditionâtoâconsultativeâmechanisms,âthereâareâalsoâinstitutionalâarrangementsâthatâcanâhelpâtoâpromoteâdialogueâandâengageâteachersâandâtheirâprofessionalâassociationsâinâpolicyâformation.âseveralâcountriesâhaveâinstitutionalâarrangementsâthatâprovideâteachersâandâotherâstakeholderâgroupsâwithâbothâaâforumâforâpolicyâdevelopmentâand,âcritically,âaâmechanismâforâprofession-ledâstandard-settingâandâquality-assuranceâinâteacherâeducation,âteacherâinduction,âteacherâperformanceâandâcareerâdevelopmentâ(seeâBoxesâ4.1,â4.2,â4.3,â4.4,â4.5âandâ4.6).âsuchâorganizationsâseekâtoâobtainâforâteachingâtheâcombinationâofâprofessionalâautonomyâandâpublicâaccountabilityâthatâhasâlongâcharacterizedâotherâprofessions,âsuchâasâmedicine,âengineeringâandâlaw.â
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thisâprovidesâteachersâwithâgreaterâinputâintoâtheâcriteriaâforâentryâtoâtheirâprofession,âtheâstandardsâforâcareerâadvancement,âandâtheâbasisâonâwhichâineffectiveâteachersâshouldâleaveâtheâprofession.âsuchâanâapproachâisâalsoâconsistentâwithâtheâilo/unescoârecommendationâonâtheâstatusâofâteachers,âanâinstrumentâsupportedâbyâunesco,âiloâandâoecdâmemberâstatesâasâwellâasâteachersââunions.
Box 4.1.â InvolvingâunionsâinâreformâinâAustraliaâ
Teacher unions are engaging in setting professional standards across the country.
nationalâProfessionalâstandardsâforâteachersâwereâfinalizedâbyâtheâaustralianâinstituteâforâteachingâandâschoolâleadershipâ(aitsl)âandâendorsedâbyâfederalâandâstateâministersâinâlateâdecemberâ2010.âtheâstandardsâmakeâexplicitâwhatâteachersâshouldâknowâandâbeâableâtoâdoâacrossâfourâcareerâstagesâââgraduate,âproficient,âhighlyâaccomplishedâandâleadâteacherâââandâacrossâ theâ threeâdomainsâofâprofessionalâknowledge,âpracticeâandâengagement.âaitslâ includesâ theânationalâeducationâunionâinâanâ independentâ structureâ thatâprovidesânationalâ leadershipâ forâ theâcommonwealth,â stateâandâterritoryâgovernmentsâinâpromotingâexcellenceâinâtheâprofessionâofâteachingâandâschoolâleadership.âaitslâhasâ responsibilityâ forâ rigorousânationalâprofessionalâ standards,â fosteringâandâdrivingâhigh-qualityâprofessionalâdevelopmentâforâteachersâandâschoolâleaders,âworkingâcollaborativelyâacrossâjurisdictions,âandâengagingâwithâkeyâprofessionalâbodies.
Box 4.2.â BuildingâtrustâinâFinland
Finnish teachers have long enjoyed high professional status but only recently gained the level of trust that allows them to take responsibility for educational change.
Perhapsâtheâgreatestâchallengeâtoâreformâhasâtoâdoâwithâtrust.âtrustâcannotâbeâlegislated.âtheâstrongâroleâthatâtrustâplaysâinâtheârelationshipâbetweenâgovernmentâandâteachersâinâfinlandâhasâsuggestedâtoâsomeâthatâlessonsâfromâfinlandâmayâbeâlessârelevantâtoâotherâcountries,âespeciallyâifâoneâviewsâtrustâasâaâpreconditionâ forâ theâkindsâofâdeepâ institutionalâ reformsâembodiedâ inâ theâdevelopmentâofâtheâcomprehensiveâschool.âButâinâtheâcaseâofâtheârelationshipâbetweenâteachersâandâtheâlargerâsociety,âtheâfinnishâexperienceâalsoâshowsâthatâtrustâisâatâleastâasâmuchâaâconsequenceâofâpolicyâdecisionsâasâitâisâaâpre-existingâculture.
finlandâhasâadoptedâaâstanceâinâwhichâitâisâassumedâthatâstudentsâwillâperformâatâtheirâbestâwhenâtheirâteachersââmoraleâisâhigh,âandâteachersââmoraleâwillânotâbeâhighâifâtheyâperceiveâthemselvesâtoâbeâunderâattackâbyâtheâauthorities.âtrustâinâthisâcaseâmeansâelicitingâteachersââviewsâonâwhatâneedsâtoâbeâdoneâtoâimproveâstudentâperformance,âactingâtoâtheâextentâpossibleâonâthoseâviews,âandâworkingâhardâtoâhelpâteachersâdevelopâtheâcapacityârequiredâtoâmeetâtheirâstudentsââneeds.âgivenâtheârespectâthatâteachersâhaveâhistoricallyâenjoyedâinâfinland,âthereâwasâaâsolidâbaseâonâwhichâtoâbuildâreforms.âButâfinnishâteachersâonlyâlatterlyâgainedâtheirâhighâlevelâofâautonomyâoverâcurriculum,âassessmentâandâ otherâ decisions.âthisâ grantingâ ofâ trustâ fromâ theâ government,â coupledâ withâ theirâ new-foundâstatusâasâuniversityâgraduatesâfromâhighlyâselectiveâprograms,âempoweredâteachersâtoâpracticeâtheirâprofessionâinâwaysâthatâdeepenedâtheâtrustâaccordedâthemâbyâparentsâandâothersâinâtheâcommunity.
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inâadditionâtoâsystem-levelâconsultativeâmechanismsâandâpolicy-makingâbodies,â itâ isâalsoâimportantâ thatâteacherâ engagementâ occursâ atâ theâ schoolâ level.âthisâ canâ meanâ teachersâ takingâ responsibilityâ forâ localâchangeâasâmembersâofââlearningâcommunitiesâ.
Box 4.3.â School-levelâteacherâinvolvementâinâSweden
The principle of consensus is a central feature of the Swedish decision-making process.
dialogueâandâcollaborationâamongâvariousâpartiesâ inâ theâeducationâsectorâ isâcommon,âalthoughâitâdoesânotâalwaysâresultâinâconsensusâonâchangesâinâeducationâpolicy.âatâtheâcentralâgovernmentâlevel,â representativesâ ofâ theâ swedishâassociationâ ofâ localâauthoritiesâ andâ theâ teachersââ unionsâoftenâparticipateâasâexpertsâ inâgovernmentâcommitteesâorâ consultationâgroupsâonâ schoolâpolicy.âstakeholdersâmayâalsoâpresentâtheirâviewsâthroughâreviewâbodiesâinâconnectionâwithâofficialâinquiriesâandâgovernmentâproposals.âapartâfromâsuchâorganizedâcollaborationâarrangements,âvariousâformsâofâtalksâandâmeetingsâofferâopportunitiesâforâdialogueâandâconsultationsâamongâparties.
atâ theâ localâ levelâ andâ inâ individualâ schools,â theâ co-determinationâ atâWorkâactâ guaranteesâ thatâemployersâ consultâ withâ employeesâ beforeâ makingâ majorâ decisionsâ aboutâ theirâ workplace.âmoreover,âtheâemployeeârepresentativesâconcludedâanâagreementâinâ1992âthatâsetsâtheâframeworkâforâcollaborationâinâtheâworkplace.âunderâthisâagreement,âemployersâandâteachersâseekâtoâreachâsolutionsâonâmattersâconcerningâworkplaceâconditions.
seCuring A strAtegiC relAtionship between government And teAChersâ unions
Conflict between unions and reform has best been avoided not where unions are weak but where they are strong and co-operate with reform.
unionsâareâsometimesâperceivedâasâinterferingâwithâpromisingâschoolâreformâprogramsâbyâgivingâhigherâpriorityâ toâ theâ unionsââ âbreadâ andâ butterââ issuesâ thanâ toâ whatâ theâ evidenceâ suggestsâ studentsâ needâ toâsucceed.âButâtheâfactâisâthatâmanyâofâtheâcountriesâwithâtheâstrongestâstudentâperformanceâalsoâhaveâstrongâteachersââunions,âandâ theâbetterâaâcountryâsâeducationâ systemâperforms,â theâmoreâ likelyâ thatâcountryâ isâworkingâconstructivelyâwithâitsâunionsâandâtreatingâitsâteachersâasâtrustedâprofessionalâpartners.40â
asâillustratedâinâBoxâ4.4,âissuesâofâcollectiveâbargainingâcanâbeâsuccessfullyâseparatedâfromâprofessionalâissues,âwhereâteachersâandâtheirâorganizationsâcollaborateâwithâministryâstaffâinâself-governingâbodiesâtoâoverseeâworkâonâentry,âdiscipline,âandâtheâprofessionalâdevelopmentâofâteachers.â
lastâbutânotâleast,âteachersââunionsâhaveâdevelopedâtheirâresearchâcapacitiesâsignificantlyâinârecentâyears.âtheirâresearchâunitsâhaveâalsoâdevelopedâinternationalâlinks,âprincipallyâthroughâtheâresearchânetworkâofâeducationâinternational.âWithinâcountries,âthereâisâevidenceâofâgrowingâlinksâbetweenâunionâresearchersâandâ theirâcounterpartsâ inâministriesâandâ thoseâ inâ independentâ researchâ institutesâandâuniversities.âtheseâdevelopmentsâareâ importantâbecauseâ theyâcanâ facilitateâaâconstructiveâdialogueâbasedâonâ researchâandâevidence.
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Box 4.4.â SuccessfulâcollaborationâinâOntario
Ontarioâs education reforms were accepted by teachers because the government consulted them on its implementation and ensured that it was implemented by professionals, not bureaucrats.
inâ2003,âtheâcanadianâprovinceâofâontarioâinitiatedâaâcomprehensiveâreformâtoâraiseâgraduationâratesâasâwellâasâ literacyâandânumeracyâstandards.âthisâ featuredâ (1)â strategiesâdirectlyâ focusedâonâimprovingâ theâ actâ ofâ teaching;â (2)â carefulâ andâdetailedâ attentionâ toâ implementation,â alongâwithâopportunitiesâ forâ teachersâ toâ practiceâ newâ ideasâ andâ learnâ fromâ theirâ colleagues;â (3)â aâ single,âintegratedâstrategyâandâoneâsetâofâexpectationsâforâbothâteachersâandâstudents;âandâ(4)âsupportâforâtheâreformsâfromâteachers.âofâallâofâtheseâpoints,âtheâlastâone,âgainingâteacherâsupport,âhasâbeenâwidelyâregardedâasâtheâmostâimportantâelement.
centralâtoâthisâwasâtheâsigningâofâaâfour-yearâcollectiveâbargainingâagreementâwithâtheâfourâmajorâteachersââunions.âinâreachingâtheâaccord,âtheâministryâwasâableâtoânegotiateâitemsâthatâwereâconsistentâwithâ bothâ itsâ educationalâ strategyâ andâ theâ unionsââ interests,â thusâ providingâ aâ basisâ forâ pushingâforwardâtheâeducationâagendaâwhileâcreatingâaâsustainedâperiodâofâ laborâpeaceâthatâallowedâforâcontinuedâfocusâonâeducationalâimprovement.
theâministryâdevotedâsignificantâeffortsâtoâwinningâoverâteachers,âschools,âandâunionsâtoâitsâvisionâofâreform.âitâhadâaâclearâtheoryâofâwhereâresponsibilitiesâlay.âtheâroleâofâtheâministryâwasâtoâsetâclearâexpectationsâandâtargets,âprovideâfunding,âcreateâaâworkingâcollective-bargainingâagreementâthatâwouldâsupportâ improvedâ teachingâandâ learning,âprovideâexternalâexpertise,âandâprovideâsupportâforâstrugglingâschools.âtheâroleâofâtheâdistrictâwasâtoâalignâitsâpersonnelâandâhiringâpoliciesâwithâtheâoverallâstrategy,âandâtoâsupportâtheâschoolsâasâtheyâwentâthroughâcontinuousâprocessesâofâlearning.âtheâroleâofâtheâschoolâwasâconsideredâcrucial,âasâtheâplaceâwhereâchangeâneededâtoâoccur;âandâwhileâtheâmissionâandâpressureâcameâfromâtheâtop,âtheâroleâofânon-schoolâcontributorsâtoâtheâreformâwasâtoâsupportâtheâlearningâandâchangeâoccurringâinâtheâschools.
atâ aâ politicalâ level,â thoseâ leadingâ theâ reformsâ madeâ aâ pointâ ofâ involvingâ teachersâ andâ theirârepresentatives.âtheâdeputyâministerâmetâquarterlyâwithâtheirâmainâunions,âwithâsuperintendentsââorganizations,â andâ withâ principalâ associationsâ toâ reviewâ progress.â theâ ministryâ alsoâ createdâtheâontarioâeducationâPartnershipâtableâwhereâaâwiderâ rangeâofâstakeholdersâcouldâmeetâwithâministryâofficialsâtwoâtoâfourâtimesâaâyear.âthisâledâtoâWorkingâtables,âwhereâsmallerâgroupsâofâstakeholdersâworkedâinâmoreâdetailâonâparticularâissues.âimportantâtoâtheseâeffortsâwasâtheâsigningâofâ aâ four-yearâ collectiveâ bargainingâ agreementâ withâ theâ fourâ majorâ teachersââ unionsâ inâ 2005,âcoveringâ2004âtoâ2008.âinâthisâagreement,âtheâministryâwasâableâtoânegotiateâchangesâconsistentâwithâbothâtheâeducationalâstrategyâandâtheâunionsââinterests,âincludingâaâreductionâofâclassâsizeâandâtheâcreationâofâextraâpreparationâtime,âwhichâledâtoâtheâcreationâofâ5â000âandâ2â000ânewâjobs,ârespectively.âtheâagreementâalsoâprovidedâmoneyâtoâhireâaâfull-âorâpart-timeâstaffâmemberâinâeachâschoolâwhoâwasâresponsibleâforâstudentâsuccess.âaâsecondâfour-yearâagreementâwasâsignedâinâ2008.â
toâfollowâthroughâonâtheâreforms,âtheâministryâcreatedâaâcomprehensiveâimplementationâstrategy.âtheâministryâcreatedâaânewâ100-personâsecretariatâresponsibleâforâbuildingâtheâcapacityâandâexpertiseâtoâimplementâtheâliteracyâandânumeracyâinitiativesâinâelementaryâschools.âthisâwasâseparateâfromâtheâministry,âandâwasâthusâableâtoâstartâfreshâwithoutâtheâusualâbureaucraticâobstacles.âtheâreformâalsoâinvolvedâcreatingâteamsâinâeachâdistrictâandâeachâschoolâtoâleadâtheâworkâonâliteracyâandânumeracy.â
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Box 4.5.â Transformingâgovernment-unionârelationsâinâtheâUnitedâStates
In Montgomery County, Maryland, a collaborative model for raising performance was agreed with unions.
montgomeryâ countyâ Publicâ schoolsâ (mcPs)â isâ theâ sixteenthâ largestâ districtâ inâ theâ unitedâ states.âlongâseenâasâaâwealthyâenclave,âtheâcountyâwasâbecomingâincreasinglyâurbanizedâinâ1999.âBroadâacresâelementaryâschool,âlocatedâinâaâraciallyâdiverseâneighborhoodâinâtheâcountyâsâsoutheastâcorner,âepitomizedâtheâchallengesâfacingâmcPs.âitsâstudentsâhadâperformedâsoâpoorlyâonâstateâassessmentsâthatâtheâschoolâqualifiedâforârestructuring.âtheâschoolâsystemâfacedâtheâprospectâofâimplementingâaâfull-scaleâimprovementâprocess.â
neitherâschoolâsystemâleadersânorâtheâmontgomeryâcountyâeducationâassociationâ(mcea)âbelievedâschoolâstaffâshouldâbeâreplaced.âinstead,âinâ2000,âcollaborationâbetweenâteachersâandâadministrationâbroughtâBroadâacresâbackâ fromâtheâbrinkâandârealizedâstudent-achievementâ levelsâcommensurateâwithâtheirâpeersâinâfarâwealthierâareasâofâtheâcounty.âandâthatâisâwhereâBroadâacresâhasâremainedâforâtheâpastâeightâyears.âmanyâschoolsâ throughoutâ theâcountyâhaveâreplicatedâthisâprocessâofâ targetedâschoolâimprovement.
theâcollaborativeâcultureâhasâfosteredâbothâtrustâandâengagementâamongâallâemployeeâgroups.âanâevolvingâoutcomeâhasâbeenâtheâdevelopmentâofâthreeâProfessionalâgrowthâsystemsâ(Pgs)âââforâteachers,âadministrators,âandâsupportâstaffâââeachâwithâaâsupportiveâPeerâassistanceâandâreviewâcomponentâthatâallowsâforânoviceâandâunderperformingâstaffâtoâbeâmentoredâandâreturnedâtoâsuccessfulâemploymentâorâ removedâ fromâ serviceâ ifâ improvementâ isâ insufficient.âtheâPgsâ integratesâqualitativeâ evaluationâandâprofessionalâgrowth.âtheâteachersââPgs,âforâexample,âisâbasedâonâsixâstandardsâofâperformanceâderivedâfromâcoreâpropositionsâofâtheânationalâBoardâforâProfessionalâteachingâstandards.âitâprovidesâtrainingâforâevaluatorsâandâteachersâinâorderâtoâestablishâaâcommonâlanguageâofâsuccessfulâteaching;âestablishesâaâprofessionalâgrowthâcycle,âinâwhichâaâformalâevaluationâyearâisâfollowedâbyâsequentialâyearsâ dedicatedâ toâ professionalâ growth;â providesâ forâ aâ job-embeddedâ professionalâ developmentâprogram;âandâincludesâmultipleâfactorsâinâidentifyingâteachersâwhoâwillâbeâinvoluntarilyâtransferred.
inâaprilâ2010,âmceaâandâmcPsâsignedâanâagreementâtoâaffirmâtheâuseâofâstudent-performanceâdata,âincludingâstudentâandâparentâsurveys,âasârequiredâevidenceâforâtwoâofâtheâsixâperformanceâstandardsâforâevaluation.âthatâinitiativeâisârepresentativeâofâaâsharedâfocusâonâdoingâwhatâsâbestâforâstudents.â
inâsoâdoing,âtheâministryâpairedâexternalâexpertiseâwithâsustainedâinternalâtimeâandâleadershipâtoâpushâtheâinitiative.âtheâtransformationâteamâofâteachers,âprincipalsâandâsubject-matterâspecialistsâhadâdeep,âon-the-groundâexperienceâthatâearnedâthemâtheârespectâofâteachersâandâschools,âratherâthanâbeingâseenâasârepresentingâaâbureaucracy.â
theâstrategyâalsoâsoughtâtoâensureâthatâreformâwasâreallyâaâtwo-wayâstreetâandânotâsomethingâimposedâfromâabove.â
theâgovernmentâpursuedâaâsimilarâstrategyâforâtheâstudentâsuccessâinitiativeâinâhighâschools.âratherâthanâsendingâoutâaâteamâfromâtheâministry,âtheyâgaveâtheâdistrictsâmoneyâtoâhireâaââstudentâsuccessâleaderââtoâco-ordinateâeffortsâinâtheirâdistrict.âtheâministryâalsoâgaveâmoneyâforâtheâdistrictâleadersâtoâmeetâandâshareâstrategies.âagain,âeachâhighâschoolâwasâgivenâsupportâtoâhireâaâprovincially-fundedâstudentâ successâ teacherâ andâ wasâ requiredâ toâ createâ aâ studentâ successâ teamâ toâ identifyâ studentsâshowingâearlyâsignsâofâacademicâstruggleâandâtoâdesignâappropriateâinterventions.
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Box 4.6.â EstablishingâcareerâincentivesâinâNorway
In Norway, governments and unions have co-operated to enhance and recognize teachersâ competence.
theâunionâofâeducationânorwayâ(uen)âhadâlongâconsideredâthatâthereâwereâtooâfewâcareerâincentivesâforâteachers.âexistingâcareerâstructuresâmeantâthatâteachersâstoppedâteachingâorâtaughtâlessâwhenâtheyâenteredâpositionsâofâeducationalâleadership.âinâtheâ2008ânegotiationsâwithâtheâcentralâorganizationâforâlocalâandâregionalâgovernments,âtheâuenâsuggestedâintroducingâaânewâandâhigherâwageâscaleâforâteachersâtoâbeâpromotedâonâtheâbasisâofâcompetence.âtheâsuggestionâwasâaccepted,âandâproceduresâwereâagreedâtoâpromoteâhighlyâcompetentâteachers,âasâidentifiedâbyâtheâschoolâleader.âinâ2008âtheânorwegianâministryâofâeducation,âtheâcentralâorganizationâforâlocalâandâregionalâgovernments,âtheâorganizationâ forâ teacherâeducationâ institutions,âandâ theâuenâformedâaâpartnershipâ toâ introduceâaâsystemâ forâ in-serviceâeducationâ forâ teachers.âaroundâ2â000â full-timeâstudyâplacesâ inâcollegesâandâuniversitiesâhaveâbeenâsetâasideâforâfull-âorâpart-timeâstudies.âteachersâwhoâparticipateâareâgrantedâleaveâofâabsenceâwithâfullâpayâforâ80%âofânormalâstudyâtime.âcostsâforâsubstituteâteachersâareâsharedâbetweenâtheâcentralâgovernmentâandâtheâlocalâemployer.âHowever,âevenâthoughâthereâisâagreementâbetweenâtheâcentralâgovernmentâandâtheâotherâimportantâstakeholdersâaboutâtheseâandâotherânationalâinitiativesâtoâenhanceâteacherâcompetence,âtheâactualâimplementationâmustâbeâdecidedâbyâtheâlocalâgovernmentsâasâemployers,âaâtotalâofâ430âmunicipalitiesâandâ19âcounties.âBothâforâeconomicâandâpoliticalâreasons,âmanyâemployersâhaveânotâimplementedâtheseâinitiativesâinâpractice.
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Conclusion
61© OECD 2011âBuildingâaâHigH-QualityâteacHingâProfession:âlessonsâfromâaroundâtHeâWorld
thisâ backgroundâ reportâ hasâ underlinedâ theâ importanceâ ofâ developingâ aâ centralâ roleâ forâ teachersâ inâeducationalâchange.âsuccessfulâcountriesâhaveâshownâhowâaâteachingâprofessionâthatâassumesâaâhighâlevelâofâresponsibilityâandâisâwellârewardedâcanâattractâsomeâofâtheâbestâgraduatesâintoâaâteachingâcareer.âindeed,âaâstrikingâcontrastâbetweenâtheâteachingâprofessionâinâdifferentâcountriesâisâitsâstatusâandâtheâcaliberâofâitsârecruits.âdramaticallyâincreasingâtheâqualityâandâprestigeâofâaânationâsâteachingâcorpsâisâfarâfromâeasyâandâcannotâbeâdoneâovernight.âHowever,â thisâreportâhasâillustratedâsomeâofâtheâwaysâinâwhichâitâ isâpossibleâtoâ moveâ inâ thisâ direction.âtheyâ includeâ measuresâ atâ recruitmentâ stage,â butâ moreâ importantlyâ involveâtransformingâtheâteachingâprofessionâfromâwithin.âHighlyâqualifiedâgraduatesâareâunlikelyâtoâbeâattractedâtoâteachingâifâtheyâseeâanâexistingâteachingâcorpsâwithâlowâskillâlevelsâthatâisânotâtrustedâtoâactâasâprofessionals.
theâtransformationâofâtodayâsâteachingâforceârequiresâsmarterâdevelopmentâofâprofessionalsâthanâisâtypicalâinâmostâeducationsâsystems.âWhileâmoreâresourcesâneedâtoâgoâintoâsuchâdevelopment,âsimplyâlayingâonâmoreâcoursesâisânotâenough.âaboveâall,âprofessionalâdevelopmentâneedsâtoâbeâintegratedâintoâbothâanâindividualâteacherâsâcareerâandâschoolâandâsystemâchanges.âatâtheâcareerâlevel,âin-serviceâeducation,âappraisalâandârewardâneedâtoâbeâcloselyâaligned.âatâtheâsameâtime,âlearningâthatâimprovesâindividualâcompetenciesâandâcollaborationâamongâteachersâtoâproduceâbetterâinstructionâinâtheâclassroomâmustâgoâhand-in-hand.â
finally,â inâaâprocessâofâeducationalâ reformâ thatâ tooâoftenâbecomesâpoliticized,â itâ isâessentialâ toâbuildâaâconstructiveâpoliticalâprocessâinâwhichâteachersâshareâwithâpoliticiansâandâadministratorsâtheâmainâgoalsâofâreform.âthisâdoesânotâmeanâthatâtheâspecificâinterestsâorâconcernsâofâparticularâgroupsâcanâbeâignored:âthereâwillâalwaysâneedâtoâbeâcompromiseâinâmakingâchangesâtoâwell-establishedâsystems,âparticularlyâwhenâsomeâindividualsâareâboundâtoâbeâthreatenedâbyâchange.âHowever,âaroundâtheâworld,âitâhasâbeenâshownâthatâcollaborativeâmodelsâofâeducationalâreformâcanâbeâhighlyâeffective.â
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63© OECD 2011âBuildingâaâHigH-QualityâteacHingâProfession:âlessonsâfromâaroundâtHeâWorld
Notes
1.â oecdâsâteachingâandâlearningâinternationalâsurveyâ(talis)âsurveyedâaroundâ90,00âteachersâinâ2008âbasedâonârandomâsamplesâinâaustralia,âaustria,âBelgiumâ(flemishâcommunity),âBrazil,âBulgaria,âdenmark,âestonia,âHungary,âiceland,âireland,â italy,âKorea,âlithuania,âmalaysia,âmalta,âmexico,ânorway,âPoland,âPortugal,â theâslovakârepublic,âslovenia,âspainâandâturkey.âtheâresultsâderivedâfromâtalisâareâbasedâonâself-reportsâfromâteachersâandâprincipalsâandâthereforeârepresentâ theirâviews,âperceptions,âbeliefsâandâaccountsâofâ theirâactivities.âthisâ isâ importantâ information,âasâ itâgivesâinsightâ intoâhowâteachersâperceiveâ theâ learningâenvironmentsâ inâwhichâ theyâwork,âwhatâmotivatesâ them,âandâhowâpoliciesâandâpracticesâthatâareâputâinâplaceâareâcarriedâoutâinâpractice.âBut,âlikeâanyâself-reportedâdata,âthisâinformationâisâsubjectiveâandâthereforeâdiffersâfromâobjectivelyâmeasuredâdata.âtheâsameâisâtrueâofâschoolâprincipalsââreportsâaboutâschoolâcharacteristics,âwhichâmayâdifferâfromâdescriptionsâprovidedâbyâadministrativeâdata.âforâmoreâdetails,âseeâoecdâ(2009),âCreating Effective Teaching and Learning Environments: First Results from TALIS,âoecdâPublishing,âParis.
2.â Participantsâ forâ theâ summitâ wereâ chosenâ onâ theâ basisâ ofâ theâ performanceâ ofâ 15-year-oldâ studentsâ inâ reading,âmathematicsâandâscienceâonâoecdâsâPisaâ2009âassessment.âtoâthisâend,âtheâperformanceâofâtheseâcountriesâwasâaveragedâacrossâtheâthreeâsubjectâareas.
3.â seeâoecdâ(2010),âPISA 2009 Results â Volumes I-V, oecdâPublishing,âParis.
4.â seeâoecdâ(2009),âCreating Effective Teaching and Learning Environments: First Results from TALIS,âoecdâPublishing,âParis.
5.â seeâoecdâ(2005),âTeachers Matter â Attracting, Developing and Retaining Effective Teachers,âoecdâPublishing,âParis.
6.â seeâ oecdâ (2010),â Strong Performers and Successful Reformers â Lessons from PISA for the United States, oecdâPublishing,âParis.
7.â forâdetailsâseeâhttp://www.oecd.org/document/24/0,3746,en_2649_39263231_44567960_1_1_1_1,00.html.â
8.â seeâoecdâ(2009),âEvaluating and Rewarding the Quality of Teachers â International Practices, oecdâPublishing,âParis.â
9.â seeâoecdâ(2010),âMaking Reform Happen,âoecdâPublishing,âParis.
10.âforâanâanalysisâofâteacherâdemographics,âseeâindicatorâd8âinâtheâ2003âeditionâofâoecdâsâEducation at a Glance. forâupdatedâdataâonâtheâsameâtopic,âseeâtheâoecdâonlineâdatabaseâatâwww.oecd.org/education/eag2010.
11.âanâimportantâconsiderationâhereâisâtheâconsistentâfindingâinâoecdâcountriesâthatâtheâresponsivenessâtoâincentivesâdependsâonâ theâcharacteristicsâofâ individuals.â forâexample,â individualsâ inâcertainâacademicâdisciplines,â suchâasâscience,âandâteachersâwithâhigherâacademicâcredentialsâareâlessâlikelyâtoâbeâattractedâtoâteachingâinâtheâfirstâplace,âandâareâlessâlikelyâtoâreturnâtoâteachingâonceâtheyâleave.âWomenâoftenâvalueâtheâpotentialâflexibilityâthatâteachingâcanâoffer,âsoâimprovedâleaveâprovisions,âopportunitiesâforâpart-timeâemploymentâandâcareerâbreaks,âandâchildâcareâareâlikelyâtoâbeâparticularlyâimportantâtoâtheirâcareerâchoicesâ(forâdetails,âseeâoecdâ[2005],âTeachers Matter â Attracting, Developing and Retaining Effective Teachers,âoecdâPublishing,âParis).
12.âforâdata,âseeâoecdâ(2010),âPISA 2009 Results: What Makes a School Successful? Resources, Policies and Practices,âoecdâPublishing,âParis.
13.â itâshouldâbeânotedâthatâautonomyâofâschoolsâinâmanagingâtheirâresourcesâisâpositivelyârelatedâtoâschoolâperformanceâinâPisaâ2009âonlyâinâconjunctionâwithâestablishedâaccountabilityâarrangements.âinâtheâabsenceâofâaccountabilityâarrangements,âschoolâautonomyâisârelatedânegativelyâtoâschoolâperformanceâ(forâdata,âseeâoecdâ[2010],âPISA 2009 Results: What Makes a School Successful? Resources, Policies and Practices,âoecdâPublishing,âParis).
14.âtheâadmissionsâprocessâoccursâinâtwoâstages.âtheâinitialâpaperâscreenâisâbasedâonâtheâapplicantâsâmatriculationâexamâscore,âupperâsecondaryâschoolârecord,âandâout-of-schoolâaccomplishments.âthoseâwhoâpassâ thatâscreeningâmustâthenâ takeâaâwrittenâexam,âbeâobservedâ inâaâ teaching-likeâactivityâ inâwhichâ theirâ interactionâandâcommunicationâskillsâcanâbeâassessed,âandâbeâinterviewedâtoâassess,âamongâotherâthings,âtheâstrengthâofâtheirâmotivationâtoâteachâ(forâdetailsâseeâoecdâ[2010],âStrong Performers and Successful Reformers â Lessons from PISA for the United States, oecdâPublishing,âParis).
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64© OECD 2011âBuildingâaâHigH-QualityâteacHingâProfession:âlessonsâfromâaroundâtHeâWorld
Notes
15.âforâdata,âseeâoecdâ(2010),âPISA 2009 Results: What Makes a School Successful? Resources, Policies and Practices,âoecdâPublishing,âParis.
16.â inâ upperâ secondaryâ generalâ education,â inâ 2009,â theâ lowestâ ratiosâ areâ foundâ inâ theâ czechâ republicâ (0.53)â andâtheâpartnerâcountriesâisraelâ(0.56)âandâsloveniaâ(0.55).ârelativeâteachersââsalariesâinâprimaryâandâlowerâsecondaryâeducationâareâhighestâinâaustraliaâ(0.93âinâprimary,â0.94âinâlowerâsecondary),âBelgiumâ(flemishâcommunity)â(0.90),âgermanyâ(0.89âinâprimary,â0.97âinâlowerâsecondary),ânewâZealandâ(0.97),âscotlandâ(0.89),âspainâ(1.12âinâprimary,â1.26âinâlowerâsecondary)âandâswedenâ(0.90âinâprimary,â0.93âinâlowerâsecondary).âinâupperâsecondaryâeducation,âtheâratiosâareâhighestâinâBelgiumâ(flemishâcommunity)â(1.14),âBelgiumâ(frenchâcommunity)â(1.10),âdenmarkâ(1.06),âfinlandâ(1.02),âgermanyâ(1.04),âtheânetherlandsâ(1.07)âandâspainâ(1.28)â(forâdata,âseeâtheâoecdâsâ2010âeditionâofâEducation at a Glance, tableâd3.1).
17.â seeâoecdâ(2005),âTeachers Matter â Attracting, Developing and Retaining Effective Teachers,âoecdâPublishing,âParis.
18.âseeâ oecdâ (2010),â Strong Performers and Successful Reformers â Lessons from PISA for the United States, oecdâPublishing,âParis.
19.âseeâpageâ4âofâtheâJointâilo/unescoâcommitteeâofâexpertsâonâtheâapplicationâofâtheârecommendationsâconcerningâteachingâPersonnelâ(ceart),âParis,âoctoberâ2009.
20.â seeâoecdâ(2005),âTeachers Matter â Attracting, Developing and Retaining Effective Teachers,âoecdâPublishing,âParis.
21.âtalisâ askedâ teachersâ aboutâ theirâ professionalâ developmentâ activitiesâ duringâ theâ 18â monthsâ priorâ toâ theâ survey.âthisâperiodâofâtimeâwasâchosenâinâorderâtoâcoverâactivitiesâoverâalmostâtwoâschoolâyearsâinâorderâtoâgiveâaâmoreârepresentativeâpictureâandâlessenâpossibleâdistortionsâdueâtoâunusuallyâbusyâorâleanâperiodsâofâdevelopment,âandâtoâensureâaâmanageableâperiodâforâteachersâârecall.âteachersâwereâfirstâaskedâtoâindicateâwhetherâorânotâtheyâhadâparticipatedâinâeachâofâtheâfollowingâactivities:â(1)âcourses/workshopsâ(e.g.âonâsubjectâmatterâorâmethodsâand/orâotherâeducation-relatedâtopics);â(2)âeducationâconferencesâorâseminarsâ(atâwhichâteachersâand/orâresearchersâpresentâtheirâresearchâresultsâandâdiscussâeducationâproblems);â(3)âqualificationâprogramâ(e.g.âaâdegreeâprogram);â(4)âobservationâvisitsâtoâotherâschools;â(5)âparticipationâinâaânetworkâofâteachersâformedâspecificallyâforâtheâprofessionalâdevelopmentâofâteachers;â(6)âindividualâorâcollaborativeâresearchâonâaâtopicâofâprofessionalâinterest;âandâ(7)âmentoringâand/orâpeerâobservationâandâcoaching,âasâpartâofâaâformalâschoolâarrangement.âteachersâwereâableâtoâindicateâparticipationâinâmultipleâactivities.âtalisâthenâaskedâteachersâhowâmanyâdaysâofâprofessionalâdevelopmentâtheyâhadâattendedâinâtheâ18âmonthsâpriorâtoâtheâsurveyâandâhowâmanyâofâtheseâdaysâwereâcompulsoryâ(forâdetails,âseeâoecdâ[2009],âCreating Effective Teaching and Learning Environments: First Results from TALIS,âoecdâPublishing,âParis).
22.âtheâintensityâofâteacherâparticipationâinâprofessionalâdevelopmentâvariesâconsiderablyâacrossâcountries,âwithâKoreaâandâmexicoâseeingâteachersâparticipatingâonâaverageâforâoverâ30âdaysâinâ18âmonths,âtwiceâtheâaverageârate.âWithin-countryâvariationâinâtheâintensityâofâprofessionalâdevelopmentâcanâalsoâbeâhigh,âmostânotablyâinâitaly,âmexico,âKorea,âPolandâandâspainâ(forâdataâseeâoecdâ[2009],âCreating Effective Teaching and Learning Environments: First Results from TALIS,âoecdâPublishing,âParis).
23.âforâ data,â seeâ oecdâ (2009),â Creating Effective Teaching and Learning Environments: First Results from TALIS,âoecdâPublishing,âParis.
24.âforâdata,âseeâfigureâiV.3.3aâinâoecdâ(2010)âPISA 2009 Results: What Makes a School Successful? Resources, Policies and Practices,âoecdâPublishing,âParis.
25.âforâdata,âseeâindicatorâd3âinâtheâ2007âeditionâofâoecdâsâEducation at a Glance.
26.âsee,â forâexample,â theâcommonwealthâteachersârecruitmentâProtocolâofâ2004,âdevelopedâatâ theârequestâofâ theâ15thâconferenceâofâcommonwealthâeducationâministers,âedinburgh,âuKâ2003.
27.âforâanâanalysis,â seeâoecdâ(2005),âTeachers Matter â Attracting, Developing and Retaining Effective Teachers,âoecdâPublishing,âParis.
28.âforâ data,â seeâ oecdâ (2009),â Creating Effective Teaching and Learning Environments: First Results from TALIS,âoecdâPublishing,âParis.
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65© OECD 2011âBuildingâaâHigH-QualityâteacHingâProfession:âlessonsâfromâaroundâtHeâWorld
Notes
29.âforâ data,â seeâ oecdâ (2009),â Creating Effective Teaching and Learning Environments: First Results from TALIS,âoecdâPublishing,âParis.
30.âforâdataâonâstarting,âaverageâandâendingâsalaries,âseeâoecdâsâ2010âeditionâofâEducation at a Glance.
31.âforâdata,âseeâoecdâsâ2010âeditionâofâEducation at a Glance.
32.âtheâoecdâdoesânotâcollectâdataâonâpaymentâamountsâbutâonâwhetherâtheâadditionalâpaymentsâareâavailableâandâonâtheâlevelâatâwhichâtheâdecisionâtoâawardâsuchâpaymentsâisâtakenâ(forâdata,âseeâtableâd3.3aâandâtablesâd3.3b,âd3.3câandâd3.3dâavailableâonâline,âasâwellâasâannexâ3âatâwww.oecd.org/edu/eag2010).
33.âforâ anâ analysis,â seeâ oecdâ (2009),â Evaluating and Rewarding the Quality of Teachers â International Practices, oecdâPublishing,âParis.
34.âdataâQualityâcampaign,â2009,âhttp://www.dataqualitycampaign.org/survey/elements.
35.â itâshouldâbeânotedâthatâ itâ isâdifficultâ toâ isolateâ theâcostsâandâbenefitsâofâparticularâmeasuresâbecauseâofâ theâlargeânumberâofâsimultaneousâinfluencesâonâoutcomes.âthus,âitâisârarelyâpossibleâtoâpredictâclear,âidentifiableâlinksâbetweenâpoliciesâandâoutcomes,âespeciallyâgivenâtheâtimeâlagsâinvolved.âitâcanâtakeâyearsâtoâdesignâandâadoptâaâreform,âandâitâmayâbeâaâdecadeâorâmoreâbeforeâitsâimpactâisâreallyâfelt.âthisâweakensânotâonlyâincentivesâforâelectedâpoliticiansâwithâlimitedâtimeâhorizonsâtoâadoptâreforms,âbutâalsoâtheâengagementâofâteachersâwhoâneedâtoâdeliverâthem.âinâmanyâcountries,âtheseâissuesâareâcomplicatedâbyâtheâdifficultyâofâcoordinatingâreformâacrossâdifferentâlevelsâofâgovernmentâandâacrossâmultipleâregionalâandâlocalâjurisdictions.âeducationâsystemsâextendâfromâlocalâschoolsâandâindependentâuniversitiesâtoânationalâministries.âtheâresponsibilitiesâofâinstitutionsâandâdifferentâlevelsâofâgovernmentâvaryâfromâcountryâtoâcountry,âasâdoâtheârelativeâimportanceâandâindependenceâofânon-publicâproviders.âreformsâneedâtoâtakeâintoâaccountâtheârespectiveâresponsibilitiesâofâdifferentâactors.
36.âseeâoecdâ(2010),âMaking Reform Happen,âoecdâPublishing,âParis.
37.âseeâdempsey,ân.â(2004),âchairâsâsummary,âmeetingâofâoecdâeducationâministers:âRaising the Quality of Learning for All,âdublin,âireland, www.oecd.org/edumin2004.
38.âseeâilo/unescoâ(2003)âcommitteeâofâexpertsâonâtheâapplicationâofâtheârecommendationsâconcerningâteachingâPersonnel,âilo/unescoâ(ceart),âgenevaâandâParis.
39.âseeâilo/unescoâceartâ(2006).
40.âoneâ reviewâ ofâ theâ researchâ onâ teachersââ organizationsâ asâ policyâ actorsâ hasâ beenâ publishedâ recentlyâ byâ ninaâBascia.âseeâalsoââreinventingâschools,âreformingâteachingâ,âbyâJohnâBangs,âJohnâmacBeathâandâmauriceâgalton,âcambridge,âuK,â2010.
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OECD PUBLISHING, 2, rue André-Pascal, 75775 PARIS CEDEX 16
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www.oecd.org/publishing
Building a High-Quality Teaching Profession Lessons from around the worLd
this background report for the International summit on the teaching Profession takes up the main themes of the summit, presents the best current evidence about what can make teacher-oriented reforms effective, and points to examples of reforms that have produced specific results, show promise or illustrate imaginative ways of implementing change.
the report underlines the importance of developing a positive role for teachers in educational change. If teachers are simply seen as âpart of the problemâ, having to be ordered to change their practices and improve their performance, teaching will not attract those with talent and ambition, teachers will not be encouraged to take responsibility, and those supporting teacher interests will tend to resist reform. rather, teachers need to become the central part of the solution, and given the tools and responsibility to lead change.
successful countries have shown how a teaching profession that assumes a high level of responsibility and is well rewarded can attract some of the best graduates into a teaching career. Indeed, a striking contrast between the teaching profession in different countries is its status and the caliber of its recruits. turning a relatively low-status teaching corps into the opposite is far from easy and cannot be done overnight. however, this report has illustrated some of the ways in which it is possible to move in this direction. they include measures at recruitment stage, but they also involve transforming the teaching profession from within. highly qualified graduates are unlikely to be attracted to teaching if they see an existing teaching corps with low skill levels that is not trusted to act as professionals.
the transformation of todayâs teaching force requires smarter development of professionals than is typical in most educations systems. while more resources need to go into such development, simply laying on more courses may not achieve much. above all, professional development needs to be integrated with both an individual teacherâs career and school and system change. at the career level, in-service education, appraisal and reward need to be closely aligned. at the same time, learning that improves individual competencies and collaboration among teachers to produce better instruction in the classroom must go hand-in-hand.
finally, in a process of educational reform that too often becomes politicized, it is essential to build a constructive political process in which teachers share with politicians and administrators the main goals of reform. this does not mean that the specific interests or concerns of particular groups can be ignored: there will always need to be compromise in making changes to well-established systems, particularly when some individuals are bound to be threatened by change. however, around the world, it has been shown that collaborative models of educational reform can be highly effective.