buddhist values and the religious tradition of jagannath temple at puri
TRANSCRIPT
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Buddhism as a Peace-Maker in Post-Modern SAARC
Sub-Theme: SAARC in search of Buddhist values
Title of the Paper:
Buddhist Values and the Religious Tradition of Jagannath Temple at Puri
Dr. Ramanuj Ganguly
Associate Professor, Dept. of SociologyWest Bengal State University, Barasat, Kolkata 700126
Former Senior Lecturer in Sociology,Maharani Kasiswari College, Kolkata
Address: A-106, Mall Enclave, 13, K. B. SaraniKolkata-700080, West Bengal
Phone: +91-3325593799/+91-9831623471Email: [email protected]
I
This article to a considerable extent is an offshoot of my doctoral work on the famous Jagannath
Temple at Puri. Since the mid-1990s I have been concerned with the connections between
religion, religious organizations, religious practices, and the emerging religio-spiritual market
place in India. The nature and scope of my work, however, has changed steadily over time. I
started my thinking with reference to the urban centers of India, and, more specifically, with
reference to the famous religious organization in Puri, in the state of Orissa in eastern part of
India. While working at Puri I realized that social scientists, while explaining Indian society,
have often been trapped by the whirlpool of diversities and inter-mixtures. On further study,
what came to light was the fact that in India a straight forward answer to any empirical reality is
almost impossible due its layered existence.
To grasp the Indian way of life, the scholars of western countries, with a few exceptions, and
following them the Indian scholars have drawn simplistic generalizations. In his extensive
critique of past scholarship in India, Inden(Oxford: 1990) claims that it has produced distorted
images, because of both the epistemological assumptions of Western scholarship and the
political biases inherent in the imperial formations of which this scholarship was a part. At the
core of Indens analysis is an attack on the notion of essences: attempts to reduce the
complexities of human life to a few factors that serve as the key to understanding a social reality.
His main objective to the search for such essences is that they eliminate human agency. History
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becomes the playing-out of various kinds of supposedly ageless forces whether it is caste
society, the Hindu mind, the Asiatic Mode of Production, Oriental Despotism or whatever
rather than the outcome of historical actions of complex human agents. (Milner: 1994, pg. 12-
13) In similar vein, much earlier, A.K. Coomarswamy (1948) and H. Zimmer (1952) countered
the overemphasis on spirituality and otherworldliness that was labeled on Indian society.
Drawing attention towards another aspect of scholarship on Indian society, Indradeva and
Shrirama (1999, pg.21-22) say that, a closer scrutiny would, however, show that the current
village studies based on the anthropological conceptual models and research techniques
developed in context of isolated and self contained communities fall far short of the requirements
of the study of the Indian peasant societyin so far as the peasant society is essentially a part-
society shaped by continued interaction with an elite tradition, the models built for the tribal
societies are hardly applicablein village studies, based on the assumption that it is a little
communityleads the social scientist to ignore the socio-cultural relationship which a peasant
village traditionally has with other villages and non-industrial urban centers (Deva,1969). Such a
village is an integral part of a civilizationPeasant villages cannot be regarded ahistorical like
primitive tribessuch basic aspects of the life of a village as the pattern of settlement of various
ethnic groups and the power structure can be properly comprehended only with reference to the
historical forces that have shaped themthe only justification for studying peasant villages on
the models of folk society and little community can be that they can be placed on a
continuum but its most serious difficulty seems to be that it leads to a comparison of entities
which do not belong to the same orderthe construction of a continuum with two polar types,
implies an unwitting faith in unilinear evolution a doctrine hardly acceptable to contemporary
social science.Similarly, Tulsi Patel (2007, pg. 44) says, Sociological discourse on South Asia
has not grasped the complexities of religion as it faces modernity. Seminal assumptions of
colonial modernity and knowledge created a matrix of binaries west and east, modernity and
tradition, materiality and religiosity that represented the modernity and were a colonial means
of domination. Anthropologists and sociologists accept these binaries, constructing theories of
imminent and continuous religious tradition without realizing that what they consider traditional
is actually a modern process. Binary language prevents them from penetrating the opaqueness
that binaries themselves construct.
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Indian society is estimably 5000 years old, which has a composite culture. The social and
ideological framework of Indian society has been shaped, during this long period, by diverse
cultural traditions, of the original inhabitants as well as by the immigrants. Feroz Kapadia andMandira Mukherjee (1999, pg. 3-5) very aptly put that, a peculiar combination of geographical
factors interacting with historical forces have marked out India as a distinct socio-political
entitycomposite culture in India originated in an environment of reconciliation rather than
refutation, cooperation rather than confrontation, coexistence rather than mutual
annihilation(that) would mean that peculiar brand of culture that represents the rejection of
mono-cultural domination and reaffirmation of pluralism and syncretisms, as valid, the stable
and desirable bases for cultural efflorescence in a mixed society and plural polity like India.
Interaction and accommodation among various diverse groups, though not smooth and complete,
gave rise to the beliefs and practices of Hinduism, a way of life that had a federal character,
allowing the local, regional and heterodox cultural traditions to thrive within its fold. Therefore,
in contemporary India society we witness the existence of reality on diverse plains. In the words
of Gerald James Larson (1997, pg. 2-3, 7) there is on one level (hidden or latent), one of the
world's oldest collection of cultures with its Kavya (formal poetry), vyakarana (science of
grammar), purana (old tales), itihasa (tradition), darsana (philosophical reflection), its Yogins
andsadhu-s (holy men) and pilgrims, and its plurality of tongues old and new, still abiding
on another level (apparent or manifest), that tongues old and new, still abiding on another
level (apparent or manifest), that same culture celebrating its identity by cloaking itself with the
symbols of imperial power, pageantry and ritual reenactment borrowed from the eventide of
Western civilization's expansion there are two levels of truth in contemporary India, one level
representing the changing, empirical dimensions of everyday life (samvrti-satya), another level
representing what truly is, or what truly is the case namely, the level of absolute truth
(paramartha-satya)whether one argues that the flux-level of India as a modern secular
nation-state is ultimately illusory or is, rather, a provisional, empirical formulation that has a
certain plausibility within an appropriate context, all would surely agree that it is crucial to take
full account of the permanence-level of Indic civilization within which the flux-level operates
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and to attempt to understand the manner in which the permanence-level and flux-level interact
historically, ontologically and epistemologically. In backdrop of the above, in the next section
we will briefly turn to see the tradition of the Jagannath temple at Puri, which is predominantly
known as a Hindu vaishnava dham all over the world.
II
The principles of any religious practice perhaps do not grow on their own; rather, they evolve
over a period of time, depending on the efforts of the (reflective members of the) society that
provides patronage to the religion concerned. Such efforts are for sure, collectively interactive;
the process of this evolution is therefore built upon a myriad of factors established and examined
by many hours of deliberations, observations, opinions, events and consequences, and finally,
political and social conditions. In search of more appropriate ideas, changes were continually
made, and further demands were forwarded to effect more changes. Sometimes these efforts
were even deliberate and calculative (as in cases of all other religions) to make the practice more
compatible with the pan-Indian Hindu philosophy. The obvious consequence of such a process
has thus led to an incorporation and amalgamation of various components and parameters from
diverse sources.
Puri, a quaint township on the East Coast of India, has been renowned for being the seat of Lord
Jagannath one of the incarnations of Lord Vishnu, thepreserverGod of the Holy Trinity. For
ages, the Temple has attracted devotees and pilgrims, from all over India in great numbers, to
seek and acquire merit, purity and expiation.
The present temple complex of Lord Jagannath at Puri was constructed after 1135 A.D. by the
Ganga King Anantavarman Chodagangadeva (1078-1147) on the ruins of an earlier temple built
by the Kesari King, Yayati Kesari. The Temple has survived the ravages of time and the
onslaught of different adversities, primarily because of the serious religious esteem with which it
has been regarded for over nine centuries. The Temple, having always occupied a significant
position in the religious life of the Hindus over a considerable period of time, has therefore also
played an eminent role in influencing contemporary religion, moral philosophies, economic and
social environment - interpretations, opinions, and practices, not only particularly in the region in
vicinity but across the world. Since thirteenth century A.D, this Temple has continuously played
a strategic role in the social, economic, and political sphere of the region. The traits of this
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temple, in fact reflect traces of different political reigns, socio-cultural movements and economic
transformations. This regional religious site of Shri Jagannath Temple at Puri mirrors the Indian
spiritual vision of'Sanatana Dharam' and 'Sarva Dharma Samanwaya Dharma'. It has absorbed
and assimilated all those various tenets that divides the Indians at mundane level, thus
envisioning us with the same Indian spirit that brings samanvwaya amongst aboriginal tribalism
to Vedic Hinduism, to Buddhism, to Jainism, to Shakta, Shaiva and Vaishnava mode of worship,
to advaitabadofShankara to dvaitabadofRamanuja to the bhakti ofChaitanya. This spirit of
India imbibes religiosity but sobers it with the idea of progress, tolerance and openness. The
spirit that this temple imparts is of federation of faith, harmonizing the heterogeneous cultural
geography of Indian, merging it in unity of faith, presenting a symbol of universal brotherhood
and a message of peace. The inclusive philosophy propagated by this temple organization is not
exclusivist in nature, rather is an expression of the articulation of discourses of all.
III
In this section, we will now turn to see the impact of Buddhism on this Hindu temple whose
following cuts across many archaic boundaries common in India.
History tells how Buddhism, more as a philosophy, in India has been used from its inception as a
survival strategy by the downtrodden, who were debarred by the ideologies of caste, class,
religion, region causing disparity in access to material conditions as well as status. At a later
stage, the Brahminical resurgence countered the challenge and struggle posed by the egalitarian
principles of Buddhism by co-opting and submerging Buddhism itself in its fold as a survival
strategy. Thus, the strength of Buddhism and its principles have acted saviour for both the
dominant as well as the underprivileged groups in India. Presently we may now aim to examine
the result of the aforementioned dialectics centred upon Buddhism evident in the famous
Jagannath Temple at Puri.
K.N. Mahapatra (1954, pg. 7) has pointed out traces of Buddhist element in the worship of
Jagannath. Various factors have been highlighted to establish this position.
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First, in the work 'Jananasiddhi' by Indrabhuti, the king of Uddiyana of 8th
Cen. A.D. who
was the founder of the Vajrayana system of Buddhism, Jagannath of Puri supposedly can
be identified to Jagannath, a manifestation of Buddha.
The Car Festival of Lord Jagannath has been identified with the Tooth Festival of the
Buddhists.
Third, the disregard of jati, dharma and commensality barrier in case of Mahaprasad of
Lord Jagannath also has been credited to the Buddhist practices and ethos.
Subhadra has been identified with Sangha, and Balaram with Dharma, in order to
maintain consonance with the concept of identifying Lord Jagannath with Buddha.
Kailash Chandra Singha (1923, p. 55) has argued that the fact that the eastern gate (the
Lions Gate), is the main entrance of the temple, proves the Buddhist origin further. It is
relevant that in Hindu temples, the main doors are usually located in the south or the west
while the main doors to Buddhist stupas are always in the east".
The 'ratnabedi' where the three idols stand is considered a stupa.
Finally, the existence of a temple without openings within the Jagannath Temple precinct
and the Bauddha Bijaya painting in the Lakshmi temple are also presumed to accentuate
the Buddhist connection to this cultural tradition.
It is assumed that by 7th
to 8th
Centuries A.D, Buddhism got overrun by Vaishnavism; the
domination was perpetuated and Buddhism got assimilated more and more into Brahminism
under the influence of Shankaracharya, by 9th
Century AD. Rajendralal Mitra in this regard
states, Looking moreover to the history of Buddhism in other parts of India and the way in
which the Buddhist doctrine of the identity of the human soul with the divinity was appropriated
by some of the Vedantists, the Buddist belief of the sanctity of the bo tree made a part of the
Hindu religion; the Buddhist repugnance to animal sacrifices taken up by the Vaishnavas; and
the Buddhist practices appropriated for Hindu usage; it is impossible to resist the conclusion that
Puri was like Gaya, a place of Buddhist sanctity and gradually converted to Hinduism. (1880,
pg. 107)
It is not sufficient only to relate the various factors that have been indicated above regarding the
connection between the Jagannath Temple at Puri and Buddhism. It is pertinent to briefly
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examine how the principles of Buddhism has influenced the state, justice, rights-duties-
obligations, and caste-class-gender hierarchy through its influence over the 900 year old Hindu
religious organization of Jagannath Temple at Puri.
The philosophical system of Buddhism for the first time tested and used an ethical system that
was hyperlinked with rationality, thus, human reasoning became accountable to their lived
experience, and the social existence was no longer detached the physical world. Though
Jagannath temple is part of mainstream Hindu practices, yet it is maybe the only religious space
where God is less godly, and more subsumed to human conditions of existence. The ritual
practices have two distinct shades at Puri, one brahminical rituals, and the other very local and
humane practices. Reasoning for such practices is given by the people as well as servitors as, if
the God does not experience what we humans undergo then how will he relive us from our
burden. This is a unique mixture of rationality and belief in omniscient god.
Impact of such practice is also evident in statecraft, where the king (Gajapati) was ascribed the
position of servitor to the lord Jagannath, thus positioning him equal with all other citizens of the
state. All through history, the local king is found to have limited autonomy as he had to function
as the representative administrator of the lord Jagannath. Even today, a democratically elected
state government can turn topsy-turvy if it is found to be out of tune with the practices of the
temple. However, it must be remembered here that the temple or all those who are involved with
it remain politically passive in day to day life. Similarly, the process of justice has been time and
again made humane by the legendary presence and even intervention by the lord Himself. A
student of sociology like me does not read much into the legendary tales except for the fact that
such tales are nothing but legitimization process devised by people themselves. The Jagannath
temple here does not propose ethics for a monolithic faith; rather, it provides space and
flexibility to the followers of multiple faiths to find their own ultimate truth. This latitude
preempts any form of contradiction from the marginalized groups to reach a conflict with the
type of services provided by the Sevayats of the Temple. It is for this reason that the Temple
with its inclusive philosophy, does not perpetuate any false consciousness or social construction
of superiority or inferiority among its believers in the name of caste, creed, race or religion, in
spite of being within the main fold of Hinduism; to be honest, the Sevayats also preach how to
reach the Lord by not strictly adhering (but not flouting) to the religious norms. In case of
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rights-duties-obligation, the limited impact of Buddhist philosophy is found in the family
practices (looking after the old and relieving pain of the commoner),sasana villages (established
with competent people as centre of knowledge), akkhara organizations (for health and security),
mukti-mandapa within the temple premises (forgyan-daan-dhyana), and the detailed division of
labour among the servitors of the temple (Cchatis Niyoga, currently sixty-three types of
functionaries). The division and hierarchy based on jati, class and gender has been absolved to a
great extent in the Temple of lord Jagannath at Puri. It was observed that the appeal of the
Jagannath temple at Puri continue to remain undiminished because of its setting, where
irrespective of divisions and hierarchies among people, the central deity reaches out to the
believer as well as non-believer rather than other way round. TheMahaprasada offering of the
Temple does not adhere to the rules of commensality and can be had irrespective of ones origin.
The Sevayats do not propagate a harsh negative judgment about all that lies outside the
boundaries of belief and belonging, nor are its upholders are constrained by its paternalism. The
Sevayats guide the pilgrim-patrons in attaining an outlook enmeshed in faith on the central deity
that dehegemonize history. Similarly during the famous Car festival of Lord Jagannath at Puri
the visitors coming from heterogeneous cultural geography of India participates on equal an
plain and footing. Inter-religious and intra religious contradictions apparently loose their
differences here. In a diversified society like ours where we see so much strain and stress based
on sex, religion, jati, language, class, etc., during this festival these distinctions become unreal,
merging them in the unity of faith. Car festival of Jagannath at Puri is an age-old practice
reinforcing unity among all where the deity comes out of His sanctum sanctorum to give darshan
to all. The egalitarianism evident in Jagannath temple has traces of Buddhist philosophy though
no where it is pronounced.
IV
To conclude, we may claim that though Buddhism started loose its strength and influence over
Indian society by 5th
-6th
Century A.D, yet it has left sufficient trace elements in the society.
Therefore, we see to blunt the edge and stem the liberating influence of Buddhism, mainstream
Hindu temples like Jagannath temple at Puri not only stop at adopting its philosophical traits but
also have assimilated Buddha as an avatara of Vishnu. In fact it is felt that in this way Buddhism
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has in fact provided the divided religious landscape of India an emergency escape-valve to
release the inter-group tensions. In places like Puri, it is important to remember that the access to
the God is not a controlled affair. The idol ofPatitpavana at the eastern gate of the Temple is
placed for all those who are not Hindus by birth. When asked to the Sevayats as to why these so
called others are not allowed inside the temple, they relate the historical story ofBhaktShal
Beg(of 13th-14
thCentury AD) for whom the Lord waited and moved, thus providing a legendary
justification that due to the cultural norms one may not be allowed inside the temple, but
irrespective of ones religion or faith the omnipresent God of Puri has devised ways to be
accessible to His devotees. Today knowingly a Sevayat will not allow a follower of another
religion inside the temple but will sing a janana (bhajan) written by Shal Beg. Within the
Hindu practices, Buddhism offers a middle path of integration where the religious contours are
blurred to a great extent by cultural values based on wisdom and moderation.
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