buddhism buddhist conflict resolution as found in the books of discipline march 2011

8/7/2019 Buddhism Buddhist Conflict Resolution as Found in the Books of Discipline March 2011

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Title of the PapperBuddhist Cultural Heritage: Conflict Resolution as found in theBooks of Discipline

Dr Thel Thong

In this paper, the author wishes to provide some insights of aCambodian traditional and cultural Buddhist heritage which hasbeen established for centuries. It has been kept in 13 volumes of thebook of discipline as a holy text. The first aim is to render it simpleand to vulgarize it for the benefit of the Cambodian public. Thesecond aim is to provide some suggestions in how it can be applied

within the Buddhist community of lay people. There are seven mainparts of the presentation which are: 1-Background of conflict withinthe context of a Buddhist discipline (Vinaya), 2-Buddhist categoriesof conflict, 3-Buddhist conflict resolution 4-Process of formalrevision of verdict, 5-Conflict at Kosambi, 6-Kosambi conflictresolution, 7-Suggested application of Buddhist conflict resolutionto Cambodian Buddhist followers. The paper excludes anyreferences to modern theories of conflict and conflict resolution,due to scope, focus, time, and space commitment.

1-Background of conflict1

within the context of a Buddhist

discipline (Vinaya)The two main traditions contributing to the theory of conflict arethose emanating from the work of the sociologists and thepsychologists. The sociologists emphasise the role of socialstructure, social interaction, and antagonistic groups in conflict,while the psychologists focus on individuals and group behaviour,and on the attitude and perceptions of group members. TheBuddhist theory of conflict embraces both aspect, because it dealswith individuals as well as with group. The conflict of Kosambi,given as a sample, reflected the attitude and perceptions of twoconflicting group members belonging to the same Sangha, samefaith, and same temple; and Lord Buddha was there too in his 9thRainy Season Retreat after his enlightenment.

Some definitions of important Buddhist terms in this area of topichave to be provided before the provision of the definition of a

1See Thong 1999 for details of study of conflict in Eastern and western tradition in his PhD Thesis

entitled Education, values and the management of conflict in Cambodia.It is available from MonashUniversity, Vic. Australia.
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Buddhist conflict. Those terms2 are Vinaya, Apatti, and the 227

Sikkhapada.

1.1-Vinaya

It is a collection of three main elements which are:1. Buddhist prescribed rules of conduct (Buddhapaatti - the

Dont)2. Buddhist prescribed allowable rules of conduct

(Buddhanuatta - the Do)3. Abhisamacarikavatta Firstly, it concerns about the yellow

robe dressing manner; secondly, the four mindfulnessactivities in relation to sleeping, walking, standing, and

seating; and thirdly, there are two proper ways of behaving:one in physical activity restraint- Kayakamma, and anotherone in verbal activity restraint Vacikamma3.

1.2-Apatti It is the violation or infringement of Buddhist prescribedrules of conduct (Buddhapaatti - the Dont). Apatti has manyvarieties and of two main categories, the non-serious and the seriousone, which requires the expulsion out of the Buddhist Order.According to the practice in Cambodia such a culprit, afterofficially disrobed by the Sangha, he will face the civil codes ofjustice. Samples of three kinds of Apatti are as follows4:

1. Apatti caused by physical and mental deeds are of six types:having affairs, buiding his own dwelling, reaching the stagefinishing of building, finishing the building by putting thelast mortar, knowing that it is not appropriate, but stillpursuing to have meal after mid-day, and knowing that it isnot appropriate to accept food from a non-related femaleBuddhist monk , but still pursuing to accept and consume it.

2. Apatti caused by verbal and mental deeds are of six types:proclaiming unfulfilled achievement for hegemonicintention, knowingly that it is not appropriate without a

permission, but still pursuing to ask other Buddhist monks tobuild a dwelling for him, finishing the building by puttingthe last mortar, after finishing the building by putting thelast mortar, knowingly that this element of Dhamma is notappropriate, but still pursuing to teach to novices, and not

2 3 4 -


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having any ill intention to swear and look down on novices,

but just a frivolous speech.3. Apatti caused by physical, verbal and mental deeds are of

six types: having kept generous donation and steal it,knowingly that it is not appropriate without the permissionto build a dwelling by his own effort, but still pursuing tobuild a dwelling which is beyond the requirement need,finishing the building by putting the last mortar, afterfinishing the building by putting the last mortar, knowinglythat it is not appropriate to ask for any excellent food, butstill accept it and consume it, a female Buddhist monkadmonishes male Buddhist monks, they know but do not pay

any attention to her advice.

1.3- Sikkhapada Vinaya or the 227 Sikkhapada is the lawgoverning the Sangha, Buddhist community. It has been the law andorder established by Lord Buddha. Any misconduct by Buddhistmonks affecting the Sangha during the life time of the Buddhawould be turned into a code of discipline for Buddhist monks andnuns in those days. Buddhist Sangha is a community of Buddhistmonks. Lay Buddhist community is composed of those who observethe Buddhist faith; therefore a general definition of conflict andconflict resolution may be applicable to both communities. Thedetail benefit of the Sikkhapada is given under the subtitle (1.5-Some characteristics of Buddhist conflict).

1.4-Definition of a conflict

Before going into the category of conflict, its causes and itsresolution, a definition of the conflict should be given. It is areconstruction from a data found in the Vinaya Pitaka vol. 10 onpage 60. It was a statement by Lord Buddha when he addressedBuddhist monks attending his preaching. There is no singledefinition of conflict as such; but it is understandable that any

definition of a conflict within the context of Buddhism has toinclude the characteristics containing in the four main categories ofconflict as they were enunciated in his teaching. The following is atentative definition in which I try to include the most importantfeatures found in that teaching. The first definition is a tentativeone:

Conflict, in the Buddhist context, is any contradiction inphysical, verbal and mental activities between two people orgroups in regards to infringement and transgression of


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Vinaya (Apatti), observing 227 Sekkhapada, view on

Dhamma (law), speech hurting the mind, conceit andstubbornness, Buddhist teaching contents in general,observation of Sila, ways of life, and view on the practice ofduty and obligation.

The second definition is the original (translation from Khmer) textcharacteristic of the four categories of conflict as taught by theBuddha. It is a conflict in itself. The full text is given under thesubtitle, categories of conflict.

The third definition is the distinction between what constitutes a

conflict and what doesnt. See details between Vivadadhikarana andAnuvadadhikarana under (2.1.5. Distinction between these fourcategories)

1.5-Some characteristics of Buddhist conflictIt is taken from a bilingual Pali-Khmer Tripitaka5 vol. 50 of theAnguttaranikaya, Upalivagga, pp. 154-166 and Akossavagga, pp.167-198. Upali and Ananda talked to the Buddha about this topic.Followings are the answers they got from Lord Buddha. What arethe benefit of having the Sikhapada (training or codes of ethics) andthe enunciation of Patimokkha containing 227 prescribed codes ofdiscipline (227 Sikkhapada). There are ten benefits:

1. For the excellence of member of the Sangha, community ofmonks

2. For a happy life of the member of the Sangha3. For guarding against wrong actions of the member of the

Sangha, deviation of rules4. For the well-being of dedicated members of the Sangha5. For guarding against this worldly Asavadhamma, mundane

defilements6. For guarding against supra-mundane defilements

7. For enhancing the participation of lay people with less faith8. For improving and empowering the faith of Buddhistfollowers

9. For securing a strong and long term existence of Dhamma10. For supporting the Vinaya, the codes of discipline

(Tripitaka, vol. 50, pp. 154-155).

5See also the English translation text In the Pali Text Society, The Book of Gradual Sayings, chap.iv

Upali and Ananda, vol. v, pp.50-65.


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The judging council is composed of learned-practised members ofthe Sangha, well-versed Buddhist monks in Discipline andPatimokkha. Patimokkha is defined in these terms the nature ofendowing with a perfect Brahmacariya Dhamma of restraining inphysical, speech and mental activities; the nature of excellentleadership; and the nature of the head of all wholesome Dhamma(Bikkhu Patimokkha Manual (text in Khmer), 1988, p. A).

Usually the chair is occupied by the Vinaya Dharma (second highranking position after the Buddhist head of the district. He and thepanel members should possess the 17 qualities required according

to the Vinaya. These qualities are taken from the commentary booknamed Samantapasadika. They are:

1. Nidana account of an event2. Puggala person or human being3. Vatthu thing or object4. Paa - wisdom5. Anatti account of an offence6. Apatti an offence7. Anapatti not an offence8. Vipatti - crisis9. Anga single item of Sikkhapada10. Samutthana origination or cause of an offence11. Kiriya doing resulting into an offence or an offence due to

not doing thing12. Saa e.g. cognizing that the water has invisible

microscopic living organ13. Citta mind14. Vajja fault or offence according to Dhamma or in

accordance to mundane life15. Kamma physical, verbal and mental activities16. Kusalattika

17. Vedanttika affected by the three feelingsThese 17 items are served also as a tool in analysing the Vinayaeffectively.

Upali persued his question with Lord Buddha about unity in theSangha. How Buddhist monks could be united. The Buddha repliedin those terms. Herein Upali:

1. Buddhist monks in this religion proclaim what is notDhamma as not Dhamma


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2. Proclaim Dhamma as Dhamma

3. Proclain what is not a Vinaya as not a Vinaya4. Proclaim a Vinaya as a Vinaya5. Proclaim Dhammavinaya which is not taught by the

Buddhha as a Dhammavinaya which is not taught by him6. Proclaim Dhammavinaya which has been taught by the

Buddhha as a Dhammavinaya which has been taught by him7. Proclaim Buddhist practices which are not accumulated by

Lord Buddha as a Buddhist practices which are notaccumulated by him

8. Proclaim Buddhist practices which are accumulated by LordBuddha as Buddhist practices which are accumulated by him

9. Proclaim Buddhist Sikkhapada which is not prescribed byLord Buddha as Sikkhapada which is not prescribed by him

10. Proclaim the Sikkhapada that Lord Buddha has prescribed asa Sikkhapada prescribed by him (Tripitaka, vol. 50, pp. 161-162).

Upali persued his question with Lord Buddha about disunity in theSangha. How Buddhist monks could not be united. The Buddhareplied in those terms. Herein Upali:

1. Buddhist monks in this religion proclaim what is notDhamma as Dhamma

2. Proclaim Dhamma as not Dhamma3. Proclain what is not a Vinaya as a Vinaya4. Proclaim a Vinaya as not a Vinaya5. Proclaim Dhammavinaya which is not taught by the

Buddhha as a Dhammavinaya which is taught by him6. Proclaim Dhammavinaya which has been taught by the

Buddhha as a Dhammavinaya which has not been taught byhim

7. Proclaim Buddhist practices which are not accumulated byLord Buddha as a Buddhist practices which are accumulated

by him8. Proclaim Buddhist practices which are accumulated by LordBuddha as Buddhist practices which are not accumulated byhim

9. Proclaim Sekhapada which is not prescribed by LordBuddha as Sekkha which has prescribed by him

10. Proclaim Sikkhapada that Lord Buddha has prescribed as aSekkhapada not prescribed by him (Tripitaka, vol. 50, pp.162-163).


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Upali continued his question with Lord Buddha about roots ofconflict among members of the Sangha. The Buddha replied inthose terms. Herein Upali:

1. Buddhist monks point out to an Anapatti (no offence) as anoffence

2. Point out to an offence as an Anapatti (no offence)3. Point out to a trivial offence as a serious offence4. Point out to a serious offence as a trivial offence5. Point out to an offence against chastity as no offence6. Point out to a no offence against chastity as an offence7. Point out to Savasesapatti, a bunch of six offences6 as no

offence8. Point out to Anavasesapatti (opposite to no. 7) as no offence9. Point out to a pardonable offence as a unpardonable offence10. Point out to an un pardonable offence as a pardonable

offence (Tripitaka, vol. 50, p. 168).Venerable Ananda, the second Buddhist attendant, expressed hisconcern directly to Lord Buddha in these terms:

Oh! Lord, I dont want to see any conflict within theBuddhist Sangha after you passed away, because such aconflict will destroy the goodness, the happiness, thebenefit, and the progress of the general populace. Conflictcauses suffering to Devas as well as to human beings7

2-Buddhist categories of conflict

2.1. Categories of ConflictKhmer Tripitaka vol. 13, pp. 141-169 deals in details aboutAdhikaranabheda (conflict category). There are four kinds ofconflict which are 1. Vivadadhikarana, 2. Anuvadadhikarana, 3.Apattadhikarana, and 4. Kiccadhikarana. The description of thesefour categories of conflict is found in Vinaya Tripitaka, vol. 10, pp.59-60.

2.1.1.Vivadadhikarana8

Buddhist monks in this faith are quarrelling saying that thisis Dhamma (Law) or it is not; this is Vinaya (Discipline) or

6The six offences are Sanghadisesa, Thollacaya, Pacittaya, Patidesaniya, Dukkata, and Dubbheasita.

7 8

See also in the section on Adhikarana Samatha (the seven conflict resolutions). Vivadadhikarana is aconflict which can be reconciled (See under Samutthapetivara Khmer text Vinaya tripitaka vol. 12,p.449.


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it is not; this is the words that the Buddha has spoken or it is

not; this is the allowed activities being approved andaccumulated by the Buddha or it is not so; this is theprescribed words of the Buddha or it is not; this is an Apatta(an infringement) or it is not; this is a light infringement or itis a serious one; this is an infringement with some remainingor it is an infringement with no remaining; this is a badinfringement or it is not. Among these four conflicts, anyincitement resulting in a quarrel, a discord of views, adispute, different statements, speaking differently from eachother, any speech provoking the mind to suffer; anystubborn and hot exchanges of speech; all these incitements

Tathagata (the Buddha) called them Vivadadhikarana.

2.1.2. AnuvadadhikaranaOh monks! Monks in this faith arguing against each other onobservance of Sila Vipatti (Precepts), on mannerism (AcaraVipatti), on wrong views (Ditthi Vipatta) and on wrongways of lifelihood Ajiva Vipatti). Among these fourconflicts, criticizing, repeating speeches, talking repeatedly,and inclining toward conflict, increasing effort, augmentingforces, all these deeds, Tathagata (the Buddha) called themAnuvadadhikarana.

2.1.3. Apattadhikarana (conflict arising from violation of theVinaya)

A collection of five Apatta9 (codes of ethic) as well as acollection of seven Apatta10 are designed by the Tathagataas an Apattadhikarana

2.1.4. Kiccadhikarana (Conflict in relation to task or obligation ofmonks)

Duties(ordinary task) or obligation(task that has to be

accomplished as prescribed by Lord Buddha) of Buddhistmonks that can be done, for example Apalokanakamma(information, act of informing or requesting permission fromthe Sangha) attikamma (recitation, act of reciting to

9These five Apatta are as follows: 1. Parajika (most serious transgression),2. Sanghadisesa (formal

meeting), 3. Aniyata (undetermined), 4. Nissaggiya Pacittiya (rejection-requiring expiation), and 5.Thullacaya (grave offence).10

The group of seven is made up of these five above in addition of another two which areSekheyavaka (requiring training), and Atthikarana Samatha (seven forms of conflict resolution).


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formally inform the Sangha), attidutiyakamma (reciting

for the 2nd

time), and atticatukamma (reciting for the 4th

time), all of these items, Tathagata calls it Kiccadhikarana.

2.1.5. Distinction between these four categoriesVivadadhikarana is not the root-cause of the other three conflicts;but it is a factor contributing to the other three to arise, for example,Buddhist monks can discuss and argue about Dhamma, discipline,proverbs, duties and obligations, Sikkhapada, offencesandcompeting ideas, arguments and counter-arguments.This is calledVivadadhikarana. Vivadadhikarana is the border line betweenopen discussion and conflict which involve court cases. Once any

Buddhist monk brings the accusations, hot speech exchangeshurting each other, disagreements, competing ideas, arguments andcounter-arguments to the knowledge of a judging panel (this actcalls atti); then there is a court case to be considered. Thisbecomes a category of conflict among the Sangha. This conflict iscalled Anuvadadhikarana (arguing and putting on the case forjudgment). (Vinaya Tipitaka vol. 12, pp. 449-453). There are twocases involved for this second conflict. The first case is the verdictfor the accused is appropriate and correct. In the second case theverdict for the accused has been proclaimed by the judging panel,but at a later stage with more evidences presented for revision fromthe accused, it is found that the accused is not guilty. The judgingpanel members become guilty of an offence for wrong doing. It iscalled Apattadhikarana. When the judging Sangha panel considersthe atti (case/cases); it is called Kiccadhikarana. This is what itmeans factor/factors contributing to conflicts. The explanation goeson in the same manner with different topics until it covers the otherthree categories of conflict. For more details read Vinaya Pitaka vol.12 from page 449 to 453 or the English text, the Book of thediscipline (Vinaya Pitaka, vol. vi on Synopsis of Decidings(Samathabheda) pp. 149-168, Tran. By I. B. Horner, 1966.

2.2. Causes of the four types of conflictCauses of these four types of conflict are explained in details inVinaya Tripitaka vol. 10, pp 61-122 (Pali and Khmer text).2.2.1-Vivadadhikarana

Vivadadhikarana has six Dhamma which are considered asits causes. Three Akusala Mula11, root, and three Kusala

11The six Mula or roots are greed and non greed, hatred and non hatred, and illusion and non illusion.


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Mula are the causes of this Vivadadhikarana. The six Mula

are the sources of the conflict. Oh monk! Monks in this faithwho have much of anger, the vengeful group. These types ofmonks do not pay respect to the Buddha, Dhamma andSangha. They have deficiency in observing the 227Sikkhapada. They cause the existing conflict to aggravateamong the Sangha. This conflict is not beneficial to peoplein general, not having peace and no progress, causingsuffering to Deva as well as lay people. Monks! you have toavoid this kind of unwholesome from your heart, and toavoid the conflict. This means that no future conflict is to bedeveloped.

2.2.2- AnuvadadhikaranaAnuvadadhikarana has also the above six causes, but there

are more extra-items on top of these causes. They are the mannersand temperament of those people who are not paying back thegratitude and competitive to chances. They are stingy and jealous.They are pedantic and cunning, ill-will and having wrong views(Vinya Tripitaka vol. 10, pp. 69-70).

2.2.3- ApattadhikaranaApattadhikarana has also six root-causes in Apatti. They are:

1. The root-causes created by physical body but not by speech.2. The root-causes generated by speech, but not by body and

mind.3. The root-causes generated from the body and speech, but not

from the mind.4. Root-causes by body and mind, but not from speech.5. Root-causes generated from speech and mind, but not from

the body6. Root-causes from body, speech, and mind (Vinya Tripitaka

vol. 10, p.70).

2.2.4- KiccadhikaranaKiccadhikarana has only one root-cause; that is the Sangha,

Buddhist monk community (Vinya Tripitaka vol. 10, p.70)

3-Buddhist conflict resolutions (Adhikaranasamatha)There are two main components of a conflict resolution, the judgingpanel and the seven types of conflict resolutions.3.1- The judging panel


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To be a member of the judging panel, Buddhist monks (Bikkhu)

must be endowed with the following ten virtues:1. Restraint according to Patimokkha, having good characters,

being fully aware of even minor unwholesome deeds , andin constant learning and observing mode of Patimokkha

2. Being Bahusutta, skillful in interpreting of the Buddhistteaching, and endowing with right views

3. Knowing by heart and understand very well the Patimokkha,and free of any transgression

4. Being confident and skillful in making the two parties inconflict to realize the truth, and come to terms with eachother

5. Being confident and skillful in solving the existing conflict6. Being someone knowing well about the conflict7. Knowing why the conflict has arisen8. Knowing the causes which fuel the conflict9. Knowing the Dhamma leading to solution of the conflict10. Knowing ways leading to solution of the conflict (Tripitaka,

vol. 50, pp. 156-157).

3.2-Seven types of conflict resolutions12

There are seven types of Buddhist conflict resolutions calledAdhikaranasamatha. It is also understood as a way of getting rid ofthe Apatti. These conflict resolutions are the legal processes ornames of either training rules or Dhamma meaning the resolution byways of reconciliation, win-win, effacing shame (saving face) orsubduing of conflict. They form the last part of the 227 codes of theDiscipline (227 items in Sikkhapada). These seven conflictresolutions are as follows:3.2.1-SammukhavinayaThis conflict resolution is applicable to the four categories ofconflict. It must be conducted in front of the Sangha, the conflictingparties, the object of the conflict, and in front of the Dhamma.

3.2.2-Sativinaya (Sati being mindful)This process is a not-guilty proclamation. The text is the decision ofthe judging panel read by the Buddhist monk representing the panelthe audience. It is a solemn statement clearing the accused personfrom any wrong doing.

12


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The accused person is someone who is pure, clean and perfect in the

practice and observance of the Sekkhapada. He asks for the verdictin accordance to the rules and regulation of the Sativinaya.

3.2.3-Amulhavinaya (clearing from mental insanity)This process is a not-guilty proclamation. The text is the decision ofthe judging panel read by the Buddhist monk representing the panelto the audience. It is a solemn statement clearing the accused personfrom any previous wrong doing while his was mad. The person issomeone who has been mad, and has been fully recovered from hisinsanity.

3.2.4-Patiatakarana (in accordance to the truth declared by theaccused)The judging panel relies on a kind of oath taking swearing to thetruth declared by the accused. It is related to minor offence. If it is aserious case, a formal investigation is required.

3.2.5-Yebhuyyasika (based on the opinion of the majority)The judging panel hands down the verdict based on the opinion ofthe majority people who are aware of the case.

3.2.6-Tassapapiyasika (guilty verdict)The judging panel hands down the guilty verdict accordingly.

3.2.7-Tinavatharaka (reconciliation process getting rid of shame forboth parties)The judging panel facilitates the reconciliation between the twoparties. It is a so-called win-win settlement in which both parties arecoming to term with each other. There will be no more accusationand counter accusation, no more animosity and hurt-feeling. Theterm used in the explanation is to cover a dirty ground spoiled withexcrement by putting a patch of grass over it.

There is another type of classification of conflict resolutionaccording to its four categories:

1-Vivada or contention concerning Dhamma and Vinaya(Discipline) is called Vivadadhikarana and a judgementshould be given whether right or wrong;2-The accusation of Apatti is called Anuvadadhikarana andjudgement should be given as to whether it is true or false,


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3-The matter of falling into Apatti or the Apatti awarded is

called Apattadhikarana and this should be cleared up, that is,for release from the penalty; (and)4-The duty which should be undertaken by the Sangha, suchas giving Upasampada, is called Kiccadhikarana and thisshould be completely carried out (Vinayamukkha, vol.1,p.226).

3.3-Application of Samatha (resolution) to each category of conflictFor short, the term Samatha is used instead of the full termAdhikaranasmatha.3.3.1- Vivadadhikarana requires two Samatha, Sammukhavinaya

and Yebhuyyasika (based on the opinion of the majority). Itexcludes the remaining five.

3.3.2- Anuvadadhikarana requires four Samatha, Sammukhavinaya,Sativinaya (Sati being mindful), Amulhavinaya (clearing frommental insanity), and Tassapapiyasika (guilty verdict). It excludesthe remaining three.

3.3.3- Apattadhikarana requires two Samatha, Sammukhavinaya,Patiatakarana (in accordance to the truth declared by theaccused). It excludes the remaining five.

3.3.4- Kiccadhikarana requires one Samatha, Sammukhavinaya. Itexcludes the remaining six (Vinaya Pitaka vol. 12, pp. 437-449).For more details read these pages.

3.3.5-Buddhist conflict resolution and sentencingThere is no such roles of judge, lawyer and Barrister in the conflictresolution within the Buddhist context of regulating law and orderbecause there is no Buddhist jail. The act of jailing is an offence;and it is against the teaching of non-violence. There is only an elder

Bikkhu with the title of Vinayadharma (someone who is endowedwith Dhamma or a living treasure of Dhamma) ,in every districtthroughout Cambodia. His role is to discuss about the Vinaya andits application, and taking part as a panel member in a Buddhistjudging panel for conflict resolution.

3.3.6-Infringement and regressionThe body is clean and hygienic, but the mind is dirty, polluted andnot purified. Imprisonment is inhuman because it goes again the


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notion of non-violence and the four sublime states of mind, the

Brahma Vihara Dhamma (loving-kindness, compassion, beingneutral and being sympathetic). The most vigorous punishmentinvolves in disrobing the culprit (the expulsion from the Sangha)and handing him to the authority. Regression requires the hearingagain or a revision of the case. There is an exception case if aBikkhu becomes mad again, because he loses his common senseand having no Sati.

4.Processes of formal revision of verdict

There are ten objections to revise these four conflicts. They are twoobjections for revision in relation to Vivadadhikarana, four

objections for revision in relation to Anuvadadhikarana, threeobjections for revision in relation to Apattadhikarana, and oneobjection for . Kiccadhikarana. The objection processes of eachconflict are as follows: Vivadadhikarana requires two revisions (twoSamatha); Anuvadadhikarana requires four revisions (fourSamatha); Apattadhikarana requires three revisions (three Samatha);and Kiccadhikarana requies one revision (one Samatha).

4.1-Cases of opening the casesThere are twelve objections in relation to these cases: The 12objections are:

1. The formal act is not carried out2. The formal act is badly carried out3. The formal act should be carried out again4. The formal act is not fixed5. The formal act is badly fixed6. The formal act should be fixed again7. The formal act is not decided8. The formal act is badly decided9. The formal act should be decided again10. The formal act is not settled

11. The formal act is badly settled, and12. The formal act should be settled again (Vinaya Tripitakavol. 13, pp. 142-143).

Cases number 1, 2, and 3 are applicable to Anuvadadhikarana.Number 4, 5, 6, are applicable to Vivadadhikarana, 7, 8, and 9 forApattadhikarana and the last three,10, 11, and 12 are forKiccadhikarana.


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4.2- Buddhist monks are allowed to act under ten requirements. The

ten requirements are:1. Opening the case of an existed conflict at a place2. Opening the case of an existed conflict at a place and settle

it3. Opening the case of a conflict that has happened at midway

of the journey4. Opening the case of a conflict that is settled at midway of

the journey5. Opening the case of a conflict at a place where he has

reached it6. Opening the case of a conflict settled at the place where he

has reached it7. Opening the case of a conflict of minded discipline (Sati

Vinaya)8. Opening the case of a conflict of a insanity in the past

(Amulaha Vinaya)9. Opening the case of a conflict of corrupted morality

(Tassapapiyasika)?10. Opening the case of a conflict of effacing shame

(tinavattharaka) (Vinaya Tripitaka vol. 13, pp. 142-143).Four categories of people can ask for a verdict to be revised if theyare inclined to partiality; and they are prone to anger, ignorance,and stupidity (unwholesome qualities).

5-Conflict at Kosambi during the time of Buddha

There were three conflicts, one in Kosambi, one in Savatthi; and thelast one was about the water of the Rohini river during the time ofthe Buddha. Only the conflict at Kosambi is considered here,because it was serious and escalating out of proportion. There arescenarios of the event and examples of conflict resolutionattempted.5.1-How the conflict was started?

The cause of the conflict was about the use of toilet. The Bhikkhuof Kosambi had formed into two opposing groups. One groupfollowed the master of Vinaya and the other followed the teacher ofthe Dhamma who used the toilet. They were quarrelling amongthemselves. It happened during the 9 th rainy season retreat after theenlightenment of the Buddha. There was an excommunicationprocess against the master of Dhamma, which aggravated theconflict because the opposing party was against such a move, theythought, it was not legal. A Buddhist monk brought the matter to the


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attention of the Buddha. Lord Buddha called in a Buddhist monk

and asked him to go around bring both party of the conflict to seehim.The conflict parties came to the meeting; and after paying homageto him, they sat down at one place Lord Buddha asked them toconfirm that there was a quarrel in which you insulted each other bysharp words like daggers. You could not come to term with eachother; and you could not agree to disagree and to live peacefully.You failed to maintain acts of loving-kindness by body, speech andmind in public and in private towards your spiritual companions inthe Buddhist holy life. They replied that there was indeed a conflict.Oh! stupid monks, what did you think of your actions? You could

neither convince each other nor be convinced by others. Youractions created unnecessary suffering and harmed yourselves aswell as the whole community of the Sangha for a long time. LordBuddha taught them the six Dhamma that could create harmony,love, respect and conduce to helpfulness, to non-dispute, to concordand to unity within the Sangha. What were those six dhamma:

1. Oh! monks you should cultivate your physical actions withloving-kindness towards your spiritual companions both inpublic and in private life. This would create love, respect,helpfulness, amity, concord and unity.

2. Oh! monks you should cultivate your verbal actions withloving-kindness towards your spiritual companions both inpublic and in private life. This would create love, respect,helpfulness, amity, concord and unity.

3. Oh! monks you should cultivate your mindful actions withloving-kindness towards your spiritual companions both inpublic and in private life. This would create love, respect,helpfulness, amity, concord and unity.

4. Oh! monks you should cultivate your altruistic generosity inpartaking what you earned according to the Dhammaincluding food in your bowl with your spiritual companions

in holy life. This would create love, respect, helpfulness,amity, concord and unity.5. Oh! monks you should maintain your Sila (moral precepts)

from being spoiled and kept it purified at the higheststandard, which is freed from desires and wrong views forthe pursuit of meditative practices. Your Sila practice shouldbe at a standard level with your spiritual companions both inpublic and in private life. This would create love, respect,helpfulness, amity, concord and unity.


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6. Oh! monks you should cultivate right views, which could

safeguard people who observed them from misery in life.Such right views, you should maintain and kept it in paritywith spiritual companions both in public and in private life.This would create love, respect, helpfulness, amity, concordand unity (Kosambiyasutta in Tripitaka vol. 22, pp. 346-360).

The following account is based on the text of the commentary of theDhammapada by E. W. Burlingame 1995, pp. 176-178.For the second time, Lord Buddha sent his words to the warringparties let them be united The reply from the parties in conflict

was that Venerable Sir, they refused to be united.For the third time, Lord Buddha exclaimed: The congregation ofmonks is rent asunder and Lord Buddha went to them. He pointedout that the excommunication was wrong; and those who did notrecognise their sin were also wrong. Lord Buddha enjoined uponthem the holding of fast-day; and laid down the rule that those whoquarrelled in refectories and else- where were to occupy separateseats in the refectory.Later on, Lord Buddha heard that they were quarrelling again; andfor the fourth time, he went to see them again; and taught them thestory of a tiny quail by exclaiming: Enough, monks! Noquarrelling He preached to them the story of a tiny quail, whocould destroy a noble and mighty elephant. He explained to themthat:

Monks, quarrels, strifes, contentions, disputes all these areunprofitable. For because of a quarrel even a tiny quailbrought about the destruction of a noble elephant.

Later on there was a certain heretical teacher who approached lordBuddha and requested him to retire and stayed at home. Taking thatopportunity, Lord Buddha told him the story of Prince Dighavu whocould reconcile with King Brahmadatta of Benares, who killed his

father.The Buddha could not stop them from quarrelling; and the situationat Ghositarama was no longer favourable for a peaceful rainyseason retreat; therefore he left the place without informinganybody. He spent the Vassa, residence period of the rainy seasonalone in Rakkhita Grove near Palileyyaka forest. There was anelephant, king of a herd, who was also dissatisfied with the life asleader of the herd. He wandered in the forest and came across LordBuddha seating under a large tree. The elephant-king was attracted


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to the Buddha; and he started serving Lord Buddha. Not so long

after that a monkey came to join the elephant too at the Palileyyaforest.

After the Buddha left the place, one resolution had been forcedupon the factions involved in the conflict by the lay Buddhists ofKosambi. The lay disciples of Kosambi, on learning the reason forthe departure of the Buddha, refused to make offerings to theremaining monks. This made them realize their mistake; and areconciliation took place among themselves. Still, the lay discipleswould not trust them again. They required them to get pardondirectly from Lord Buddha, but the Buddha was away and it was in

the middle of the rainy season retreat; so the bhikkhus of Kosambihad to spend their retreat in misery and hardship. This action iscommonly known as alms begging bowl bottoms up.

At the end of the Vassa, the Venerable Ananda and five hundredbhikkhus approached the Buddha and gave the message fromAnathapindika and other lay disciples imploring him to return. Indue course the Buddha returned to the Jetavana monastery inSavatthi. The bhikkhus followed him there, fell down at his feet,and owned up their fault. The Buddha rebuked them for disobeyinghim. He told them to remember that they must all die some day andtherefore, they must stop their quarrels and must not act as if theywould never die.

6-Kosambi conflict resolution

In the mind of ordinary people, the conflict of Kosambi is notsettled, because after the intervention of Lord Buddha, the conflictis still in full swing. Lord Buddha left Kosambi after realizing thatthe parties in conflict failed to come to any peaceful agreement.What was the intervention of the Buddha in that time. He intervenedto settle the conflict four times. The conflict resolution used by Lord

Buddha is found in his dialogue with a Brahman named Kesi, awell-known horse trainer. It is in the Kesi Vagga, Tripitaka vol. 42,pp.282-286.Once upon a time Kesi, a well-known horse trainer by profession,visited Lord Buddha. After paying homage to the Buddha and beingseated in an appropriate place; Lord Buddha welcomed him andaddressed him in these terms:


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Lord Buddha: Kesi, people recognise you as a good horse

trainer. How do you train those horses whichare worth to be trained?

Kesi: Oh! Lord, I train horses worth to be trainedby some good means, by some bad means,and by both means.

Lord Buddha: Kesi, what you do to those horses if you haveapplied all the three means above, but it doesnot work.

Kesi: I kill all of them. Why I do so? It is to avoidthe criticism of the family name of my

teacher. Lord! You are unsurpassed as atrainer of people worth to be trained. How doyou trained them?

Lord Buddha: For my part, Kesi, I train people worth to betrained by some good means, by some badmeans, and by both means. By good means, itrefers to good conduct in physical actions(Kayasucarita), thus is the result of goodconduct in body. By good means, it refers togood conduct in verbal actions(Vacisucarita), thus is the result of goodconduct in speech. By good means, it refersto good conduct in mental actions(Manosucarita), thus is the result of goodconduct in thought.

Kesi, by bad means, it refers to bad conductin physical actions (Kayaduccarita), thus isthe result of bad conduct in body. By badmeans, it refers to bad conduct in verbal

actions (Vaciduccarita), thus is the result ofbad conduct in speech. By bad means, itrefers to bad conduct in mental actions(Manoduccarita), thus is the result of badconduct in thought. The result in these threebad actions for people is to be born in theendless misery realms of existence in Hell(Naraka), in the world of animal, and in theworld of hungry ghost (Pittivisaya).


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Kesi: Oh! Lord, what do you do Lord if you fail totrain people by those two means (good aswell as bad)?

Lord Buddha: Kesi, I kill them too.Kesi: Oh! Lord, Panatipata is not good. (Panatipata

is the antidote of non-violence taught by LordBuddha).

Lord Buddha: Kesi, to kill here means do not teach oreducate them at all, because it does not worththe effort and time. It means that those people

have been killed according to the Buddhisthighest, noble, and adorable means of killingsuch people. (It is a non-cooperation13).

Kesi: Oh! Lord, it is very clear to my mind. It iscomparable to turn up things or undo thecover-up materials. Marvellous Lord! Maythe Exalted One accept me as a follower fromthis time onward.

7-Suggested application of Buddhist Conflict Resolution

The authors wish and intention are to see in the future someBuddhist education reforms in such a way that the teaching ofBuddhism in Khmer language contained in the books of Vinaya, isto be used outside the temple compound and applied it at the levelof villages and communes.The first step is to vulgarize the Khmer Vinaya text, especially, thetopic about conflicts and conflict resolutions in the Vinaya. This canbe done only if the village temple head and the Vinaya Dharma, andthe Buddhist head of the district are equipped with Bachelor degreein the Buddhist study of Vinaya. Vinaya and Buddhist leadershiphas to be studied and oriented toward a graduate degree in the

future. These three graduates will teach the village sages, the headof the villages, the sages of the commune, and the head of thecommune.The second step is to form a civil panel council composed of eldersages at the village, and of the commune. These two-tier levels havethe duty and obligation to consider conflict from the village up tothe level of the commune.

13Gandhi used this means too by way of Hunger Strike.


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The benefits are to solve the problems at the grassroot level in

which there are chances of reconciliation because problems arefamiliar to everybody; members of the conflict know quite well theroot of the problem as well as who are members on the councilpanel. It can reduce the intensity of the conflict, and prevents itfrom escalating out of proportion. It will reduce the cost because itis locally handled and may be free of charge because everybody isdedicated to work for the Buddhist faith. It will be fair and createdmore trust, because members of the panel are recruited on strictconditions regulated by Lord Buddha. The image of Buddhism willbe improved an it can become a religion of the new century toeducate people to face more adequately the increasing problems

caused by disoriented development programmes in the context ofnew age and modern technology and sciences.

The purpose of the study of Vinaya is firstly, for self-criticism andself-introspection and not for criticizing any people; and secondly,to apply the conflict resolution to solve conflict at the grassrootlevel. It will help to harmonize, to unite, and to foster spiritualdevelopment and friendship among villagers in the commune. Thisshort of programme will enhance the decentralized programme setup by the government in the area of law, order and justice forpeople at the grassroot level. It will alleviate the task of theprovincial court of justice.

The author wishes that one day Buddhist universities will have itsown Buddhist school of administration and teacher training invarious topics of the Buddhist teaching. It will train and equipBuddhist monks and lay elder disciples to take up responsiblepositions in Budhacakra and Anacakra (religious and civilgovernment).At the moment, Buddhist universities depend on part time stafffrom government and private universities as well as other tertiary

institutions. In the long run, the authors hope is to see the co-operation between this Buddhist system of conflict resolution withprivate law firms and the government judiciary system andinstitutions. If this Buddhist programme is successful, anotherprogramme should be put in place in the future. It will be the mentalhealth care that can be established based on the first model, and onthe Buddhist teaching too. Mental health imported from the Westlacks the cultural heritage of the local people. You can think of thepast French colonial system of administration and that of the


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traditional royal administration in place in those days. These kinds

of programme will make the Buddhist faith and teaching morerelevant to the contemporary and existing problems. The Buddhistfaith has three aims, solving the problems on earth, being born in agood realm of existence for next life, and Nibbana.

Conclusion

This Buddhist tradition of conflict resolution has been taught byLord Buddha while he was alive. Participants who are familiar withmodern concepts and conflict theories of the West can see thedifferences. The author hopes that these two traditions will enhanceeach other for the benefit of a better conflict resolution in the

present time as well as in the time to come. Buddhist conflictresolution has to be learned and study systematically for the well-being of Cambodians in Cambodia in the year to come. Cambodiashould catch up with the Buddhist faith and practices of Buddhismin the developed world.


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Bibliography

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buddhism buddhist conflict resolution as found in the books of discipline march 2011

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