bucchi et al 2014
TRANSCRIPT
-
8/13/2019 Bucchi Et Al 2014
1/21
-
8/13/2019 Bucchi Et Al 2014
2/21
In the present work we use a quantitative multivariate approach (Geometric
Morphometrics and Multiple Correspondence methods) to assess the relationship between
artificial cranial morphology and grave goods diversity. We studied the deformation
patterns of populations settled in Arica, the watershed of Loa River and the area of San
Pedro de Atacama during the Formative and Late Intermediate Periods. We used lateral-
view X-rays of 216 individuals belonging to 7 archaeological sites and, when possible,
these individuals were correlated with the corresponding funerary context. In this study,
the funerary context is represented in detail and the results indicate that the differences in
social identity between the individuals do not correlate with cranial morphology. However,
the deformation patterns do vary in relation with the networks of interaction among the
sites. These results support the first hypothesis and contradict the second.
1. INTRODUCTION
Artificial cranial deformation (henceforth ACD) is a cultural practice of corporal
modification worldwide distributed (Dembo & Imbelloni 1938; Weiss 1962; Stewart 1973;
Gerszten & Gerszten 1995), showing high demographic frequencies among pre-hispanic
South-American populations (Dingwall 1931; Perez 2007). Its main effect is the permanent
modification of the normal pattern of growth and development of the skull, by using
different deforming devices during the first years of post-natal life (Manrquez et al. 2006).
Although several causal explanations for ACD have been proposed, the question about
why humans deformed skull vaults remains still open (Gerszten & Gerszten 1995;
Schijman 2005). These answers certainly depend on the specific cultural history of each
group under study.
In the South Central Andes ACD appears early in the archaeological record (Munizaga,
1980; Torres-Rouff & Yablonsky, 2005) and spans in Northern Chile for around 4000years (Munizaga, 1980, 1987; Manrquez et al. 2006). Two main explanations have been
proposed to elucidate the origin of this practice in this area: i) ACD was an inter-group
identity symbol, therefore it was used as a social adscription sign to distinguish between
different groups of the region (Torres-Rouff 2002 and 2007) and ii) ACD was a symbol of
-
8/13/2019 Bucchi Et Al 2014
3/21
intra-group identity, used to denote the social position of an individual or group within the
social hierarchy (Cassels 1972; Munizaga 1987; Molleson & Campbell 1995).
Traditionally ACD has been studied in a descriptive-typological manner, classifying skulls
in a priori categories defined merely by eyeballing (e.g. Dembo & Imbelloni 1938;
Neumann, 1942; Weiss, 1962). Despite the straightforwardness and wide application of
this approach, this method has several limitations: i) the reduction of the total
morphological variance of the skulls into a discrete and limited number of categories that
supposedly can describe without any drawbacks the morphological continuum of
craniofacial variation, and ii) the difficulty to compare the results obtained by different
researchers, due the high subjectivity of the method and the lack of well-defined
classification criteria. In order to overcome some of these limitations, some researchershave applied linear morphometrics to classify ACD by applying multivariate statistics
(Clark et al. 2007). Despite the fact that these methodologies increase objectivity and
describe in a better way the subtleties of morphological variation, the absence of an
appropriate mathematical background to separate shape and size components of variation
led the application of geometric morphometrics to analyze ACD (Frie and Baylac, 2003;
Manrquez et al. 2006, 2011; Prez, 2007 and Prez et al. 2009). As compared with
traditional morphometrics, it is based in a coherent and well developed statistical theory of
shape and allows a direct visualization of the patterns of shape variation (Zelditch et al.
2004; Slice, 2007; Slice, 2010).
The Atacama desert, the area of this study, extends over 3500 km. between the 15S and
26 S (Rauh 1985). Despite the presence of scarce fertile and verdant oases in the area (eg.
San pedro de Atacama, Calama, Pica), it is considered as the driest desert in the world.
This severe environment has been the scenario of a long and fruitful history of settlement.
Numerous archaeological evidences demonstrate that oases has been occupied since theFormative period (ca. 3.000-1.850 B.P.) by agro-pastoralist groups passing through strong
processes of cultural influence and exchange with the Tiwanaku culture during the Middle
period (ca. 1.550-950 B.P.) (Berenguer & Dauelsberg 1989; Hubbe et al. 2012). Following
these periods, in a phase know as the Late Intermediate period (ca. 950-500 B.P.)
-
8/13/2019 Bucchi Et Al 2014
4/21
(Schiappacasse et al. 1989), this area has been characterized by the development of
regional identity traits divided in traditional grouping areas (ayllus).The last prehistoric
stage of Atacama desert populations is the Late period (550-600 B.P.), defined by the
arrival of the Inca culture and its decline and ending by the Spaniards invasion (Berenguer
et al. 1986).
Archeological sites from the region show ACD frequencies from 50% on average (SPA
oases) to even 90% (Chorrillos cemetery, Middle Loa Basin) (Gonzlez and Westfall 2006;
Torres-Rouff , 2007). These high ACD frequencies in the prehistoric populations from
Northern Chile, state the problem about the possible motivations underlying this body
modification practice. In order to address two possible explanations for this question
(inter-group vs. intra-group identity hypotheses), ACD patterns from different regionswere compared synchronically and diachronically by means of geometric morphometrics.
Associations between ACD patterns and differential funerary goods were established
applying a multiple correspondence analysis, which make it possible to retain all the
available information of grave goods.
2. MATERIALThe total sample was composed by 216 skull radiographies (aligned according to Frankfurtplane) from northern Chile archaeological sites of the Formative and Late Intermediate
periods (Table 1). These radiographic records are housed in the Program of Human
Genetics, ICBM, Faculty of Medicine, University of Chile. As adulthood criterion, the
closure of the spheno-occipital synchondrosis and/or third molar final eruption were used
(Powell & Brodie 1963; Hillson 1996). These radiographies correspond to four geographic
areas (Figure 1): San Pedro de Atacama, Superior Loa, Middle Loa and Arica (This last
region was incorporated in order to test the inter-group hypothesis). Besides this
radiographic record, archaeological information from the graves was included to test the
intra-group hypothesis. This information was obtained from the fieldwork report of the
Regimiento Chorrillos archaeological excavation and from the field logs of Tchecar and
Catarpe 2 sites written by Fr. Le Paige, S.J., during his surveys and excavations in San
-
8/13/2019 Bucchi Et Al 2014
5/21
Pedro de Atacama Oases. The remaining archaeological sites did not have available
funerary context information.
Table 1. Sample of archaeological sites used in this study.
Site Geographic
Area
Period N.R. N.G.
Regimiento
Chorrillos
Middle Loa
Basin
Formative 31 30
Chunchuri Middle Loa
Basin
Late
Intermediate
33 0
Caspana Superior Loa Late
Intermediate
39 0
Solor 3 San Pedro de
Atacama
Formative 17 6
Tchecar San Pedro de
Atacama
Late
Intermediate
46
Catarpe 2 San Pedro de
Atacama
Late
Intermediate
44 36
Playa
Miller 7
Arica Formative 6 0
N.R: Number of radiographies. N.G: Number of individuals with funerary context
information available.
Caption Figure 1. Map showing the approximate location of sites.
-
8/13/2019 Bucchi Et Al 2014
6/21
3. METHODThe radiographs were taken using tube voltage of 60 Kv, 2 mA and exposure time was of 2
seconds, with a 2 m target-film (Geo-Ray II)distance. Later these radiographic plates weredigitized using an Epson Expression 10000 XL scanner (300pp resolution).
Sex and deformation were estimated according to standard bioanthropological techniques
based on cranial morphology (Walrath et al. 2004).
After this first step, a standard workflow on Geometric Morphometrics was carried out.
This branch of shape analysis has been usually understood as the quantitative study of
shape and its covariates (Bookstein, 1991), mainly consisting in three steps: a) collectingprimary data through the acquisition of Cartesian coordinates, b) obtaining variables
describing shape change (shape components) after a generalized Procrustes analysis, and c)
the multivariate statistical analysis of the shape variables.
Landmark coordinates were collected using TPSdig 2.16 v. software (Rohlf 2010). On
each skull 12 landmarks were digitized (Table 2). Geometric morphometrics and statistical
analysis were carried out in MorphoJ (Klingenberg, 2011), and Past (Hammer, 2001).ACD and sex classifications were corroborated using a cross-validated discriminant
analysis and a Hotellings T2 test evaluating, the level of matching with the a priori
classification and the significance of the differences between group multivariate means,
respectively.
-
8/13/2019 Bucchi Et Al 2014
7/21
Table 2. Landmarks used in this study.
Number Landmark Reference
1 Glabella Martin y Saller (1957)
2 Bregma Martin y Saller (1957)
3 Frontal Martin y Saller (1957)
4 Lambda Martin y Saller (1957)
5 Boveda Manrquez et al.2006
6 Ophistion Martin y Saller (1957)
7 Occipital Salinas, 2010
8 Basion Martin y Saller (1957)
9 PosteriorClinoid
Process
Martin y Saller (1957)
10 Frontomaxilare Martin y Saller (1957)
11 Nasospinale Martin y Saller (1957)
12 Posterior Nasal
Spine
Martin y Saller (1957)
3.1 Intra-group Hypothesis testing:
Explorative analyses were carried out in the frequency data from the funerary contexts.
This qualitative data set was examined executing a multiple correspondence analysis
(MCA) in Xlstat (2012). This technique is a data reduction method that generates a
reduced number of new variables that maximize the total variance of the sample.
The MCA was applied to Tchecar and Catarpe 2 using their archeological context
information. The artifacts preservation in the Chorrillos site was not as good as for the
other archeological sites, therefore instead of using that information, the spatial distribution
of the graves within the cemetery was employed.
-
8/13/2019 Bucchi Et Al 2014
8/21
-
8/13/2019 Bucchi Et Al 2014
9/21
deformed individuals. In the case of the non-deformed, we considered the first 13 principal
components, while for the deformed individuals we considered 12 components, which
explain approximately 95% of the variance in each case. The significance of these
distances was evaluated by means of Hotelling's T2 Test with Bonferroni Correction.
The results of these two tests are set out in Table 3, which shows that no significant
differences were found among the non-deformed individuals, regardless of the site. In the
case of the deformed individuals, several comparisons showed significant differences, the
Chorrillos site being the one with the most different deformation pattern. The diachronic
comparisons of this test show that, for San Pedro de Atacama, there are no differences of
statistical significance between deformed individuals in any of the sites (Hotelling'sT2 test, p
-
8/13/2019 Bucchi Et Al 2014
10/21
Table 3: Mahalanobis Distance,pvalue (in parentheses), of the Hotelling T2 test between
deformed (lower left triangle) skulls of each site and not deformed skulls (upper right
triangle).Significant values are in bold.
Solor3
Tchecar Catarpe2
Caspana RegimientoChorrillos
Chunchuri
PlayaMiller 7
Solor 3 0 0,83(0,93)
1,57(0,57)
6,38(0,57)
ID 3,909(0,587)
ID
Tchecar 6,5(0,56)
0 1,54(0,3)
6,52(0,23)
ID 3,087(0,476)
ID
Catarpe
2
2,61
(0,99)
4,85
(0,28)
0 5,68
(0,27)
ID 9,452
(0,956)
ID
Caspana 6,61(0,08)
8,85
p
-
8/13/2019 Bucchi Et Al 2014
11/21
percentage of skulls correctly assigned in the cross-validation table (Table 4), the smaller
Mahalanobis distance compared to the other sites (Table 3), and the shared distribution
area in the PCA graphic (Figure 3) which is greater than the distribution areas shared with
other sites.
Caption Figure 2.UPGMA tree based on the geometric morphometrics distance
(Procrustes distances) between the consensuses configurations of the sample used in this
study.
Table 4. Cross-validation test of deformed skulls. The table list the percentage of
deformed skulls correctly assigned to each site according to the discriminant analysis. Itshould be read horizontally for correct interpretation.
Solor3
Tchecar Catarpe2
Caspana R.Ch. N.C. PM 7
Solor3
100 73,3 61,5 87,5 46,6 33,3 66,6
Tchecar 50 100 69,2 91,6 86,6 46,7 33,3Catarpe
2
33,3 66,7 100 78 93,3 60 100
Caspana 66,7 80 76,9 100 83,3 66,7 83,3R.Ch. 66,7 93,3 100 90,6 100 53,3 50N.C. 33,3 80 61,5 90,6 86,7 100 33,3PM 7 83,3 53,3 100 90,6 86,6 80 100
Caption Figure 3. Relative warp analysis (Principal component analysis and thin plate
spline) of all deformed skulls. The grids represent the magnitude and direction of the
variation in the skull form along the x and y axes of the bivariate graph (RW1 = 30.29%and RW2 = 17.6% of the total variance). The skulls of Regimiento Chorrillos are
represented with filled triangles, Chunchuri with circles, Caspana with crosses, Solor 3
with squares, Tchecar with filled diamonds, Catarpe with triangles and Playa Miller 7 with
stars.
-
8/13/2019 Bucchi Et Al 2014
12/21
In these same tests, the Tchecar and Chorrillos sites have the highest Mahalanobis
distances (Table 3) and, in the PCA graphic, they are the sites most distant from each other
along the first dimension (X-axis), which explains 30.29% of the total variance (Figure 3).
Morphologically, skulls located further to the right along the X-axis have a greater height
of the cranial vault and a smaller anteroposterior distance. In other words, skulls that are
more erect with respect to the Frankfurt plane are located further to the right of the graph,
while the more oblique skull shapes are located towards the left.
4.2 Intra-Group Distinctions
The following section shows the multiple correspondence graphics for Catarpe 2 andTchecar.
For Catarpe 2, the first two dimensions explain 36.99% and 19.93% of the total variance
(Figure 4). The graph shows that the biggest differences between individuals do not
correspond to the presence or absence of grave goods, but to the presence or absence of
certain types of objects in the graves. These major variances are explained by objects
having low frequencies in the graves, and especially by the association of these grave
goods with others that are also infrequent, for example bows and arrows, textiles,
iconographic drug consumption paraphernalia and cucurbits. These last three categories
also make a large contribution to the first two dimensions at Tchecar, explaining 23.75%
and 21.14% of the variance in grave goods (Figure 5). Nevertheless, grave goods as a
whole do make some contribution to the variance (the contribution to the first two
dimensions ranged between 0.010 and 0.25)
Caption Figure 4.Multiple correspondence analysis for the grave goods at Catarpe 2. B:
Presence of baskets. Bu-1 y E-2: Single and multiple burials. Cu: Curcubits. D.P.-1 andD.P-2: iconographic and undecorated drug consumption paraphernalia. Es-0, 1, 2 and 3:
Status levels (see below). Ha: Hats. M-1, M-2: beads and metal ornaments. P: pottery. S-
0 and S-1: Male and female. Te: Textile. T-1, T-2, T-3, T-4 and T-5: bows and arrows,
awls, tie hooks (used to tie bundles to llamas), spindles, and several tools in the same
-
8/13/2019 Bucchi Et Al 2014
13/21
grave, respectively. Gray labels represent the absence of the above grave goods. Light
gray labels are supplementary variables.
Caption Figure 5. Multiple correspondence analysis for the grave goods at Tchecar. B:
Baskets. Bu-1 and Bu-2: single and multiple burials. Cu: Curcubits. DP-1 and DP-2:
iconographic and undecorated drug consumption paraphernalia. M: beads. P: Presence of
pottery. T1, T2, T3, T4: bows and arrows, spindles, tie hook and several tools in the same
grave, respectively. Te: textile. Gray labels represent the absence of the above grave goods.
Light gray labels are supplementary variables.
In order to determine whether the main differences in grave goods correspond to gravegoods associated with status, we created a priorivariables of status in accordance with the
definitions given by archaeological literature (i.e. textiles (Murra, 1976), metals (Barn
and Serracino, 1980) and iconographic drug consumption paraphernalia (Llagostera et al.,
1988, and Torres, 1984). Individuals in the first (lowest) status level had none of these
objects (Es-0), while high-status individuals had a maximum of 3 of these objects (Es-3).
This analysis was done for Catarpe 2 (where there was presence of status objects in several
of the graves), but not for Tchecar.
Figure 4 shows that levels Es-2 and Es-3 are located at the extremities of the first two
dimensions, which mean they are indeed associated with grave goods that make a large
contribution to the variance.
These graphics also show that the supplementary variables sexand type of burialare
located near the center of both the X and Y axes, which means that they do not affect the
distribution of grave goods in the tombs.
Finally, the Mantel test computed between morphological (Procrustes) distances and the
Euclidean distances (calculated on the basis of the symmetric graph of the multiple
correspondence analysis), produced a non-significant correlation ( Solor 3 r: 0.12 andp
-
8/13/2019 Bucchi Et Al 2014
14/21
value 0.3. Tchecar: -0,08 and 0,76. Catarpe 2: -0.08 and 0.76). Similar results were
obtained by the Mantel test correlating the Procrustes distances and the quantity of objects
in the tombs (Tchecar r: 0.21 and p value: 0.11. Catarpe 2 0.16 and 0.84. The sample size
of Solor 3 was to small to run this test). The results of the Mantel test for the Regimiento
Chorrillos site were also not significant (r: 0.04,pvalue: 0.5).
5. DISCUSSION
5.1 The relation between ACD and grave goods (H2: Intra-Group Distinction
Hypothesis)
The analysis of the evidence does not support the Intra-Group hypothesis. Althoughmultiple correspondence analysis is capable of clearly distinguishing the identity of the
individuals, these differences do not correlate with the shape of the skull (Mantel test). Nor
is there a relation between Procrustes distances and the number of objects in the graves, or
between Procrustes distances and the location in which the individuals were buried
(Regimiento Chorrillos).
To test H2, we performed multivariate tests considering two factors simultaneously: the
variability of the grave goods as a whole, and the continuous variations of cranial shapes in
the sites (Procrustes distances). We concluded that the social identity of an individual has
to be defined by the grave goods as a whole, without discarding any of the objects a priori,
unless it has been shown that certain objects contribute very little to the variance of the
grave goods.
The contribution of the objects to the variance of the grave goods varies from site to site.
However, some of the objects have a similar marked influence on the variance in both
Catarpe 2 and Tchecar. At both sites, we find certain tools (spindles, shovels, axes), metalobjects and iconographic drug consumption paraphernalia, which make a big contribution
to the variance of the grave goods and to the identity of the individual. If future studies
were to show that this is a common pattern for different geographically-distant sites,
comparisons of identity could be made not just within the sites, but also between them.
-
8/13/2019 Bucchi Et Al 2014
15/21
5.2 Deformation patterns and their mutual relations (H1: Inter-Group Distinction
Hypothesis)
The results of this study indicate that during the two periods in question, there were two
quite different deformation patterns (erect and inclined). This is in agreement with the
observations made by Manrquez et al.(2006). However, the cranial shape of the great
majority of deformed individuals falls into a continuous range of variations between these
two extremes (Figure 3), making it difficult to assign these skulls a priori into either
category, as is done by the Dembo and Imbelloni method (1938), which is used in most of
the studies of ACD in the South Central Andes. Geometric morphometrics made it possible
to maintain the data of all the variations of cranial shapes without having to classify theminto apriori typological categories.
Based on the above data, we can say that the deformation patterns vary over time in certain
areas, while other areas show no significant changes: in San Pedro de Atacama there is
continuity in the deformation patterns between the Formative Period and later periods (end
of the Middle and Late Intermediate Periods), as shown by the Hotelling T2 test (Table 3)
and the principal component graphic (Figure 3).
The deformation patterns in the sites of the Middle Loa had not previously been compared
between themselves or with other areas. The results of this study indicate that, unlike San
Pedro de Atacama, the deformation patterns of the human groups living in the Middle Loa
vary significantly between the two time periods in question.
It is interesting to note that while Chorrillos has the largest Mahalanobis distances of all
the sites, Chunchuri (same area, different period) is more similar to the sites of San Pedro
de Atacama (with which it has no significant differences (Figure 3 and Table 3). The
smallest Mahalanobis distance of Chorrillos is with the Arica coastal site Playa Miller 7
(Table 3, Table 4 and Figure 3), which is from an equivalent time period, but located in thecoast of the Pacific Ocean at a distance of over 400 kms (Figure 1). Regarding this point it
is interesting to mention that the archaeological context at Chorrillos reveals the existence
of specialized exchange networks with the coast, San Pedro de Atacama, the southern
Altiplano, and northwestern Argentina (Gonzlez y Westfall, 2006).
-
8/13/2019 Bucchi Et Al 2014
16/21
The archaeological literature has concluded that transformation into a Formative society in
northern Chile was marked by interaction networks with foreign groups, especially with
the Altiplano, and in lesser extent with the Atacama Plateau and the nor-west Argentina
(Muoz, 1989). Regarding ACD patterns, Arica and the Altiplano have shown no
significant differences (Pschel, 2012). So, these interaction networks of these populations
may also explain the resemblance between Arica and Chorrillos ACD patterns.
As for the similarity between Chunchuri and the sites of San Pedro de Atacama during the
Late intermediate Period, the literature concludes thatwith some local exceptions- there
existed an Atacamea cultural unit during this period, which is expressed, for example, in
regional textile styles (Agero, 2000) and funerary ceramics (Uribe, 2002). To conclude,
these interaction networks may explain the similarities in the deformation patterns duringthis period and indicated the importance of San Pedro de Atacama in this common identity.
Briefly, our results show that ACD patterns vary in relation with interaction networks and
supra-regional identities.
6. CONCLUSIONSThe results of this study do not support the Intra-Group Distinction Hypothesis. The
differences in social identity between individuals of each site were represented in great
detail. However, these variations do not correlate with the morphology of the deformed
and non-deformed skulls.
On the contrary, the deformation patterns could be related with ethnic ascriptions and
interaction networks between geographically distant groups as has been described in the
literature. The deformation patterns may vary over time, and when they do so, they are
influenced by deformation patterns of other groups in the interaction network. These
conclusions support the Inter-Group Distinction hypothesis.This study evidenced the need to represent grave goods and cranial morphologies as
objectively and precisely as possible. Future studies should consider large numbers of
synchronous archaeological sites over extensive geographical areas, in order to observe
-
8/13/2019 Bucchi Et Al 2014
17/21
relations between deformation patterns and interaction networks in South America, where
ACD was extensively practiced.
Acknowledgements.
We wish to give special thanks to Juan Carlos Salinas and Alejandro Daz, who took the
X-ray images used in this study, and for his valuable advice. We also wish to thank Diego
Salazar for his guidance and assistance in the archaeological analysis and Giancarlo Bucchi
for his held in writing this text. Finally, we wish to thanks to Manuel Arturo Torres from
Museo R. P. Gustavo Le Paige,Corporacin de Cultura y Turismo (Calama), to Bernardo
Arriaza from Museo San Miguel de Azapa (Arica) and to Philippe Mennecier, Vronique
Laborde and Aurelie Fort fromMuse de l'Homme (Paris) for the access to thebioanthropological collections.
This study was financed by Proyecto Anillo ACT-96, Programa de Investigacin
Asociativa, Conicyt, Chile (G. M.).
REFERENCES.
Agero, C. 2000. Fragmentos para armar un territorio. La textilera en Atacama durante
los perodos Intermedio Tardo y Tardo. Estudios Atacameos 20: 7- 28.
Baron, A. and G. Serracino. 1980. Rol social de los metales en San Pedro de Atacama.
Trabajo presentado en el VI congreso Nacional de Arqueologa Argentina. Juyjuy.
Argentina.
Berenguer, J. and Dauelsberg, P. 1989. El norte grande en la orbita de Tiwanaku (400 a
1200 d.C.). In Culturas de Chile. Prehistoria: desde sus orgenes hasta los albores de la
conquista, Hidalgo J, Schiappacasse V, Niemeyer H, Aldunate C and Solimano I (ed.).
Editorial Andrs Bello, Santiago; 129-180.
Cassels, SE. 1972. A Test Concerning Artificial Cranial Deformation and Status from the
Grasshopper Site, East-Central Arizona. Kiva 37(2): 8492
http://www.calamacultural.cl/http://www.museums-of-paris.com/musee_fr.php?code=342http://www.museums-of-paris.com/musee_fr.php?code=342http://www.calamacultural.cl/ -
8/13/2019 Bucchi Et Al 2014
18/21
Gerszten, P. and Gerszten, E. 1995. Intentional cranial deformation: a disappearing form of
self-mutilation. Neurosurgery 37:374-382.
Gonzlez, C., and C. Westfall. 2006. Cementerio Regimiento Chorrillos de Calama:
testimonios funerarios Formativos en el Loa Medio, Regin de Antofagasta. Actas XVII
Congreso Nacional de Arqueologa Chilena, 95-105.
Dembo, A. and Imbelloni, J. 1938. Deformaciones Intencionales del Cuerpo Humano de
Carcter tnico. Humanior (Buenos Aires), Seccin A, Tomo 3:1-348.
Dingwall, EJ. 1931. Artificial Cranial Deformation: A Contribution to the Study of Ethnic
Mutilations. John Bale, Sons and Danielsson, Ltd: London.
Frie, M., and Baylac, M. 2003. Exploring artificial cranial deformation using elliptic
fourier analysis of procrustres aligned outlines. American Journal of Physical Anthropology
122: 11-22.
Hammer , Harper, DAT., and Ryan, PD-.2001. PAST: Paleontological Statistics
Software Package for Education and Data Analysis. Paleontologa Electrnica 4:9.
Hillson, S. 1996. Dental Anthropology. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.
Hubbe, M., TorresRouff, C., Neves, W.A., King, L.M., DaGloria, P., and Costa, M.A.
2012. Dental health in Northern Chiles Atacama oases: Evaluating the Middle Horizon
(AD 5001000) impact on local diet. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 148:62-
72.
Klingenberg, C. 2011. MorphoJ: an integrated software package for geometric
morphometrics. Molecular Ecology Resources 11: 353-357.
Llagostera, A., Torres, M. and Costa-Junqueira, M. 1988. El complejo psicotrpico
en Solcor 3 (San Pedro de Atacama). Estudios atacameos 9: 67-106.
-
8/13/2019 Bucchi Et Al 2014
19/21
Manrquez, G, Gonzlez-Bergas, F., Salinas , JC., Espoueys, O. 2006. Deformacin
intencional del crneo en poblaciones arqueolgicas de Arica, Chile: anlisis preliminar de
morfometra geomtrica con uso de radiografas craneofaciales. Chungar 38(1):13-34.
Manrquez, G., M. Moraga, C. Santoro, E. Aspillaga, B. Arriaza, F. Rothhammer.
2011. Morphometric and mtDNA analyses of archaic skeletal remains from
southwestern South America. Chungara 43: 283-292.
Muoz, I. 1989. El perodo Formativo en el Norte Grande. Culturas de Chile, Prehistoria.
J. Hidalgo, V. Schiappacasse, H. Niemeyer, C. Aldunate & I. Solimano (eds.). Andrs
Bello, Santiago.
Molleson, T. and Campbell, S. 1995. Deformed Skulls at Tell Arpachiyah: The Social
Context. In The Archaeology of Death in the Ancient Near East , Campbell S and Green A
(ed.). Oxbow Monographs: Oxford; 51:4555.
Munizaga, J. 1980. Esquema de la antropologa fsica del norte de Chile. Chungara 6:124-
136.
Munizaga, J. 1987. Deformacin craneana intencional en Amrica. Revista Chilena de
Antropologa 6: 113-147.
Murra, J. 1975. Formaciones econmicas y polticas del mundo andino. Instituto
de Estudios Peruanos. Lima.
Prez, SI. 2007. Artificial cranial deformation in South America: a geometric
morphometrics approximation. Journal of Archaeological Science 34 (10):1649-1658.
Rauh, W.1985. The Peruvian-Chilean deserts. In Hot Deserts and Arid Shrublands Evenary
M, Noy-Meir I and Goodall DW (ed.). Elsevier Science: 239-266.
Schiappacasse, V., Castro, V., and Niemeyer, H. 1989. Los desarrollos regionales en el In
Culturas de Chile. Prehistoria: desde sus orgenes hasta los albores de la conquista,
-
8/13/2019 Bucchi Et Al 2014
20/21
Hidalgo J, Schiappacasse V, Niemeyer H, Aldunate C and Solimano I (ed.). Editorial
Andrs Bello, Santiago;181220.
Schijman, E. 2005. Artificial cranial deformation in newborns in the pre-ColumbianAndes. Childs Nervous System 21: 945-950.
Slice, D. 2007. Geometric Morphometrics. Annual Review of Anthropology 36: 261-281.
Stewart, TD. 1943. Skeletal Remains from Paracas, Peru. American Journal of Physical
Anthropology 1(1): 4763.
Torres, M. 1984. Iconografa de las tabletas para inhalar sustancias psicoactivas de la
zona de San Pedro de Atacama, norte de Chile. Estudios Atacameos 7, 135-147.Torres-Rouff C. 2002. Cranial vault modification and ethnicity in Middle Horizon, San
Pedro de Atacama, Chile. Current Anthropology 43: 163-171.
Torres-Rouff , C. and Yablonsky, L. 2005. Cranial vault modification as a cultural artifact:
A comparison of the Eurasian steppes and the Andes. Journal of Comparative Human
Biology 56: 1-16.
Prez, I. 2007. Artificial cranial deformation in South America: a geometric
morphometrics approximation. Journal of Archaeological Science 34: 1649- 1658.
Prez, I., C. Della Negra, P. Novellino, P. Gonzlez, V. Bernal, E. Cuneo y A. Hajduk, A.
2009. Deformaciones artificiales del crneo en cazadores-recolectores del Holoceno
medio-tardo del noroeste de Patagonia. Magallania 37: 77-90.
Powell, TV. and Brodie, AG. 1963. Closure of the spheno- occipital synchondrosis.
Anatomical Record 147:15-23.
Pschel, T. 2012. Deformacin intencional del crneo en el oasis de San Pedro
de Atacama: un enfoque morfomtrico geomtrico. Thesis to obtain the degree of Physical
Anthropologist. Universidad de Chile.
-
8/13/2019 Bucchi Et Al 2014
21/21
Uribe, M. 2002. Sobre alfarera, cementerios, fases y procesos durante la prehistoria
tarda del desierto de Atacama (800-1600 DC). Estudios Atacameos 22: 7-31.
Walrath, D., Turner, P., and Bruzek, J. 2004. Reliability test of visual assessment of cranial
traits for sex determination. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 125: 132-136.
Rohlf, JF. 2010. 2.16 v. Ecology and Evolution, SUNY Stony Brook. New York.
(Software).
Weiss, P. 1962. Tipologa de las deformaciones ceflicas de los antiguos peruanos, segn
la osteologa cultural. Revista del Museo Nacional 31: 15-42.
Zelditch, M., Swiderski, H., Sheets, D., and Fink, W. 2004. Geometric Morphometrics for
Biologists: A Primer. Elsevier Academic Press: NewYork.