Broiling, Grilling, Roasting, Baking, and

Poêléing

Chapter 16

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this chapter, you will be able to:

• Describe and discuss the techniques of, and differences between, broiling

and grilling.

• List and describe the types of foods best suited for broiling or grilling.

• Identify the standards of quality for properly broiled or grilled food.

• Apply the principles of broiling and grilling to a variety of foods.

• Properly define and discuss the roasting method.

• List and describe the types of foods best suited for roasting.

• Properly execute the roasting method and identify the standards of quality

for a roasted item.

• Define and discuss poêléing.

• Demonstrate the technique of poêléing, meeting quality standards.

KEY TERMS

au jus

baking

barbecue

barding

broiling

crosshatch

marks

fat cap

glaçage

grilling

jus lié

marbling

matignon

paillarde

pan gravy

persillade

poêléing

rack

rest

roasting

sizzle platter

spit roasting

Broiling and grilling are both cooking methods that use direct radiant heat. Direct heat is intense, and its effect on food is dramatic.

•Grilling involves heat radiating from below the food and is typically done on a grate or rack or a flat-top griddle. •Broiling involves heat radiating from the top down onto the food item and may be done on a surface with rods or on a sheet pan or sizzle platter.

The benefits of using either method include a crisp caramelized exterior and a charred, somewhat smoky flavor.

Grilled and broiled items should have a highly flavored exterior and a moist interior. The smoky, slightly charred flavor is developed when the juices and fats drop onto the hot surface (charcoal, wood, etc.) and flare up.

These methods do not produce usable fond to make a sauce, so sauces must be separately derived.

Introduction

Roasting involves surrounding foods with dry air in a closed environment. The air is the cooking medium. As the hot air cooks the outer layers, the food’s natural juices turn to steam and penetrate the food, cooking it from the outside.

Roasting food offers several benefits to the chef. Roasting large pieces of meat rather than individually sautéing or frying portion cuts may be more efficient when serving large numbers.

Roasting also yields an incredible flavor and texture when the meat has been properly seared and slowly cooked to the proper degree of doneness.

Sauces prepared from the juices of roasted foods have a deep, rich full-bodied flavor from the concentration and caramelization of the fond.

Poêléing is a dry-heat cooking method in which the item is cooked in its own juices in a covered pot, usually in the oven. Poêléing is also known as butter roasting.

Introduction (cont.)

Meats suitable for dry cooking: (left to right, row 1) Lamb rack, lamb chops; (row 2) flank steak, skirt steak; (row 3) beef tenderloin, boneless pork loin; (row 4) boneless chicken breast, rabbit tenderloin.

BROILING AND GRILLING

Although the direction of the heat source for broiling and grilling will yield slightly different qualities, the information for both methods is included together because in general they are the same. Differences will be noted.

MAIN ITEMS

The main items for broiling and grilling are naturally tender meats. Grilling is basically a quick technique, using portion control cuts or smaller cuts of meat, poultry, or fish. The intense high, dry heat involved does not allow tougher cuts to tenderize. The meats should have an appropriate amount of marbling to help maintain moisture and juiciness.

The main item for grilling should also be somewhat thick and sturdy. How thick? A good range is 1 1/4 inches to 2 1/4 inches (31.75 millimeters to 57 millimeters). One inch (25.4 millimeters) should be the minimum thickness for a grilled steak. Steaks thinner than this can't develop a crisp or caramelized exterior without overcooking. Steaks an inch thick or thinner don’t grill well. Broiled items may be thick and sturdy; however, thinner and more delicate items such as lean fish may also be broiled effectively.

Although marbling is helpful in a grilled or broiled food, the presence of external fat is not. External fat on a chop or a steak, for instance, simply melts during cooking and may cause a flare-up. Flare-ups cause the product to be coated with an oily, black, sootlike residue that tastes bitter and acrid. Additionally, flare-ups are dangerous from a kitchen safety perspective. A thin coating of oil on a product is helpful to evenly transfer heat and ensure even browning on the product, but excess oil should be drained off.

MARINADE

Aside from wood and other natural elements that produce smoky flavors, taste is primarily imparted to grilled foods with marinades, dry rubs, bastes, and sauces. Dry rubs, which are southwestern specialties, are mixed seasonings that are literally rubbed on the surface of the meat before it hits the grill. Rubs are often used in conjunction with bastes. Bastes are any liquid that adds moisture to food as it cooks over open fire. A baste may be as simple as melted butter or oil brushed onto food during cooking.

There are differing opinions on the effects of using a marinade. Some say that the acid in a marinade will help tenderize meat. Acid is similar to heat in its effects on proteins. These effects include the denaturation and coagulation, and therefore firming, of proteins. Although it is true that in the presence of moist heat, acids help soften tough muscle tissue, that fact is irrelevant in this cooking method because the meats are already tender.

All main items should be seasoned, and marinating is a good method of ensuring a well-seasoned product, among other benefits.

CHEF’S TIPThe amount of marbling will affect the cooking time; the higher the fat content in a cut of meat, the faster it will cook, because fat is a heat conductor. Also, aged beef will cook much quicker than fresh meat, because of the lower moisture content.

CHEF’S TIPSalt should never be part of the formula for a dry rub, because it tends to draw out the juices.

Marinade Elements

A typical marinade contains the following elements:

Acid. When the chief function of a marinade was preservation, acid was a classical ingredient.Most pathogens cannot live in a highly acidic environment, so before refrigeration wascommon, marinating was one of the few ways to prevent spoilage. Today, acids are used toadd a flavor element to the marinade as well as balance to the dish.

Oils. Oils have two major functions in marinade: protection and tenderization. The intenseheat involved in broiling and grilling will quickly dry out a protein. By lightly coating it witha fat or oil before cooking, the product tends to retain more surface moisture and thereforedoes not get that dried-out look. The second function, although controversial, is tenderization.Theories suggest that when an extremely lean protein, such as a tuna steak or filetmignon, is marinated for a few hours in oil and then grilled or broiled, the item retains moreof its moisture than the same item that wasn’t marinated. Oils may also add a flavor element.

Be sure to drain the excess marinade from the product before cooking to avoid flare-ups.

Herbs, Spices, Aromatics, and Seasonings. Used as the major flavoring ingredients in a marinade, herbs, spices, aromatics, and seasonings are added to the marinade at the discretion of the chef. Many different flavoring combinations can be used; however, one must remember not to overpower the item being flavored.

Marinade Elements (cont.)

TimingMarinating should not be done for extensive amounts of time. Understanding your product and the amount of acid in the marinade will dictate how long the marinating process will take. Times vary from an hour or two for thin, delicate fish to overnight for thick steaks.

Don’t recycle used marinade. Used marinade is contaminated with raw meat juice and is therefore unsafe. If you want sauce to serve with the cooked meat, just make a little extra marinade and set it aside before adding the bulk of the marinade to the raw meat.

CHEF’S TIP• Score meat before marinating. To help the marinade penetrate as deeply as possible (especially thicker cuts such as flank steak. • Use oil-soluble herbs and spices. Herbs and spices added to marinades should be oil-soluble, which means they release their full flavor only when mixed in oil. So to get the most out of a marinade, always include oil. But note: These flavors will merely coat, not penetrate, the meat. Meat proteins are saturated with water, so they won’t absorb the oil or its flavors.

TOPPINGS/COATINGS

Some chefs may choose to top or coat a delicate protein, such as flounder, rack of lamb, or sole, with a mixture of fresh bread crumbs, butter, and herbs. This mixture, also known as a persillade, will help protect the flesh from direct heat at the same time it lightly browns and crisps. Other coatings such as a glaçage (made from hollandaise and whipped cream) may be used for the same purpose.

SAUCE

Because there is no usable fond left after broiling or grilling, the sauce must be made separately.Sauces for broiled or grilled items usually come under one of the following classifications:

• Butter-based sauces are sometimes used to moisturize the charred crisp exterior of the main item. These sauces may be more subtly flavored to complement the strong flavor of the main item, as in the case of a beurre blanc or compound butter, or more boldly flavored, such as a béarnaise sauce, to stand up to the main item.

• Boldly flavored sauces are used on more neutral-flavored items, such as chicken, where the smoky and charred flavors imparted by the method are dominant. To offset these flavors, sweet bold sauces such as barbecue sauce are used.

• A variety of cold sauces such as salsas, chutneys, or compotes are also used to provide a temperature balance as well as a textural difference.

EQUIPMENT

The broiler and grill are the main pieces of equipment used for broiling and grilling. Several other items such as a grill brush, spatula, basting brush, and hand rack are used in conjunction with these large appliances.

Grilling can also be done in heavy cast-iron grill pans or grill plates that go over open burners. Although items cooked using these products will mimic the appearance of truly grilled items, the food items will lack the depth of flavor produced by the extreme heat generated by a grill.

A grill basket can be used for awkward items such as split lobsters, small whole fish, or multiple portions of chicken parts. Using such a device may compromise the grill marks, but it will help maintain the item’s shape and prevent it from sticking to the grill or broiler rods.

Some delicate items such as lean fish benefit from being placed on an oiled sizzle platter before broiling. Sheet or hotel pans with appropriate racks are handy to have to hold and rest broiled or grilled items before service. A grill basket can be used for items such

as small whole fish. ShutterstockImages/Margrit Hirsch

Grill brush and basting brush. Shutterstock Images/Igor Kisselev

Procedure for Propane Grilling

1. Preheat and season the grill. Depending on the type of grill, you will need to preheat the grill for about 30 minutes before there will be enough heat buildup to properly cook the main item. Heat is absorbed from its source by diffusers made of cast iron or ceramic. These diffusers then radiate the heat up through the rods to the product. Sufficient time must be allowed for the rods to get hot to ensure proper marking of the surface of the main item. While the grill is heating, it must also be seasoned. This process involves scraping and oiling the rods and is important to prevent sticking and keep the main item free from soot and specks.

2. Prepare the main item. The product should be well seasoned and free of excess external fat. If you marinated the item, allow it to drain to remove excess oil. Too much oil or fat on the item will cause flare-ups, giving the product an oily, sooty appearance. Some chefs may opt to pound a product before grilling. A protein prepared this way is typically referred to as a paillard (pie-yar’) a lightly pounded and flattened cut of poultry or veal that is grilled quickly over a hot fire. Paillardes are almost always

cooked on a heavy cast-iron grill pan or grill plate.

3. Grill the main item. Place the item presentation side down on the grill. When the item has cooked approximately 25 percent and has good marks, rotate (do not flip) the item 90 degrees. Allow the item to cook approximately halfway or until it has good crosshatch marks, then flip the item over. Finally, rotate the item 90 degrees for the remainder of the cooking process. This rotation process will give the item crosshatch marks on both sides.

4. Finish in the oven if necessary. Doneness is determined by touch and internal temperature.

5. Let the meat rest. During the cooking process, the meat proteins constrict and essentially squeeze out their juices. Letting meat sit and rest after cooking partially reverses this process. If you let meat rest for 5 minutes on a separate plate, the liquid should redistribute throughout the meat. The meat will retain more flavors and be juicier. Cover loosely with foil to keep it warm.

CHEF’S TIPCut a high-starch potato in half lengthwise and rub the exposed side over the heated rods. The starch seals the rods and helps prevent sticking without adding additional fat.

GRILLING VS. BARBECUEAlthough many people associate the practice of outdoor grilling with the name barbecue, true barbecue is different. “Backyard barbecue” is simply outdoor grilling using gas, wood, charcoal, or a combination of the three.

True barbecue is actually a slow moist-heat cooking method, typically performed on beef briskets, beef or pork ribs, and pork shoulders, although other cuts can be used as well. The moisture in the method comes from the moisture found in the meat itself.

True barbecue is done for very long periods over moderate to low heat. The heat source is smoldering wood, which produces products with a rich, smoky flavor. A basting or mopping sauce may or may not be involved, depending on the type of barbecue being prepared. Barbecue styles vary throughout regions of the United States. Each is distinctly different in flavor, style, and sauce.

Procedure for Broiling

1. Preheat and season the broiler. Follow the same steps as for grilling.2. Prepare the main item. Again, use the same procedure as for grilling.3. Broil the main item. If the broiled item is sturdy, cook it directly on the broiler rods with the same procedure as for grilling.

If the main item is more delicate, place it on a lightly oiled sheet pan or sizzle platter, presentation side up. Start the item close to the heat source until it becomes golden-brown, then lower it and finish it slowly, or place it in an oven to finish.

Items broiled on sheet pans or sizzle platters do not need to be flipped during cooking and will not get crosshatch marks.

DETERMINING DONENESS

Doneness is most properly determined by ascertaining internal temperature; however, because broiled and grilled items are typically thin enough, an experienced chef can determine doneness by touch. The chef can use several techniques to identify doneness without relying on internal temperature.

Testing a Steak’s Doneness Visually

Cutting into a steak that’s still cooking releases all of its juices, which pull toward the surface while cooking. This is why you should always let steaks rest for a few minutes after taking them off the grill and should always use tongs rather than a fork when handling them. The different levels of doneness are as follows:• Very rare steak—blood red in the center and barely warm. My cowboy friends say a good vet could still save the cow.• Rare steak—red in the center and warm throughout.• Medium-rare steak—pinkish-red in the center and fairly hot.• Medium steak—pink in the center, grayish-brown surrounding, hot throughout.• Medium-well steak—grayish-brown center, only a trace of pink.• Well-done steak—gray in the center.

Some of the levels of doneness: (top to bottom) Rare, medium rare, medium, and medium well. Pearson Education/PH College

CHEF’S TIPOne note of caution with regard to the crosshatch marks: Start the main item presentation side down, with the broiler shelf up close to the heat source. When you flip the item, lower the shelf or the marks will become charred over.

Testing a Steak’s Doneness by Temperature

This is the scientific approach and probably the most accurate. Poke an instant-read digital thermometer into the center of the steak and take a reading. Based on the internal temperature, you can tell when the steak is done to your liking:

• Very rare steak—120°F (49°C)• Rare steak—125°F (52°C)• Medium-rare steak—130°F to 135°F (54°C to 57°C)• Medium steak—140°F to 145°F (60°C to 63°C)• Medium-well steak—150°F to 155°F (66°C to 68°C)• Well-done steak—160°F (71°C)

Carryover cooking must be considered when using this method. Keep in mind that just because you take a steak off the grill doesn’t mean it’s through cooking. The heat built up in the steak will continue to cook the meat until it begins to cool off, adding up to an additional 5° or 10°F (15°to 12°C) of doneness.

Testing a Steak’s Doneness by Touch (the Poke Test)

Use the following list as a guide, but experience is the best teacher. As you test the temperature with your thermometer, give the steak a poke and note its firmness. This will help you develop a feel for doneness and you can eventually put the thermometer away.

• Very rare steak—feels soft and squishy.• Rare steak—feels soft to the touch.• Medium-rare steak—yields gently to the touch.• Medium steak—yields only slightly to the touch, beginning to firm up.• Medium-well steak—firm to the touch.• Well-done steak—hard to the touch.

Finger and Hand Method

Take your thumb and touch your middle finger. Then feel the fleshy part of your palm below the thumb. That’s rare. For medium, touch your ring finger. For well done, touch your pinky.

White meats such as veal, pork, poultry, and some game should be cooked just to à point, (cook just until almost done). Be careful not to overcook these items; there should be a slight “give” when the meat is pressed. Foods continue to cook after being removed from the heat. If the meat is not slightly underdone when removed, it may end up being overcooked when served.

Fish and shellfish are very easy to overcook because their connective tissues and proteins cook at a lower temperature. Fish cooked to where it flakes easily is overcooked and should not be served unless requested by the guest.

SERVICEGrilled items may be pre-marked and held warm, or cooled quickly for finishing at a later time, in order to facilitate a banquet situation or an extremely busy meal period. In this case, the items should be cooked just long enough to mark them, and then they should be held in a perforated pan until needed. When needed, they are finished in the oven to the desired degree of doneness.

Thick and sturdy broiled items may be treated the same way, but thinand delicate broiled foods should only be cooked to order.

Broiled and grilled items that are ready to be served should be plated with the sauce underneath, so that the crosshatch marks or golden-brown crust can be seen.

The only exceptions are for a well-done steak or when using a compound butter. In both of these cases, it is acceptable to put the sauce on top of the main item.

STANDARDS OF QUALITY

When judging a grilled or broiled item, several quality indicators can be used.

AppearanceThe main item should have distinct, clean, well-formed crosshatch marks or a crisp golden-browncrust, depending on the cooking method. There should be no rips, tears, or burned spots. There should be no oily sooty residue or ash.

TextureThe exterior of the item should be crisp but not overly chewy. The interior should be moist, tender, and juicy. The surface of a correctly grilled item should appear moist, with crosshatchmarks that have good color, depending on the item. Items that are rubbery or tough are overcooked or were allowed to cook too quickly.

FlavorThe item should have a pleasantly charred, somewhat smoky flavor, without being acrid or burned. The smoky flavor and aroma should not overpower the food’s natural flavor. Any rubs, bastes, or marinades should enhance, not hide, the item’s natural flavor.

SauceThe sauce should be well made and of good quality. It should be compatible with the main item.

PresentationThe plating should be neat and clean. The appropriate size plate should be used, especially with long steaks and chops with long bones.

ROASTING AND BAKING

ROASTING

A properly cooked roast is simple and satisfying. It is also a rarity. Roasting is an indirect heat method; the air captured in the oven is the cooking medium. The hot air circulating around the food cooks the outer layers; as these layers are heated, they heat the food’s natural juices, which turn to steam and penetrate the next layer until the item is cooked to the desired doneness. Roasting today is more similar to baking than to the original spit-roasting method.

There are two main methods of roasting: fast and high, and slow and low.

Fast and High Method

Lower oven temperatures generally guarantee more evenly cooked meat. Small, narrow roasts such as beef tenderloin and rack of lamb, as well as birds (such as Cornish hens), depend on a relatively quick cooking time to ensure thorough browning and juicy, tender meat. These types of roasts or cuts should be cooked at a high oven temperature, around 425°F to 450°F (218°C to 232°C). High-heat roasting (temperatures of 400°F [204°C] and higher) promotes exterior browning, which creates flavor, crisps the skin, and increases eye appeal.

Slow and Low Method

Large cuts of meat, such as prime rib, leg of lamb, and rack of pork, need to be cooked slowly. The heat takes a long time to penetrate into the center of large cuts of meat, making them susceptible to overcooking the outer portion. To prevent this problem, roast large cuts slowly between 250°F and 325°F (121°C and 163°C) for beef and 325°F (163°C) for pork. The roast is placed in the oven and then cooked at that initial oven temperature until the internaltemperature of the meat reaches the desired doneness. However, the exterior will remain pale, even after hours in the oven at low temperatures. High heat can be used at the beginning of the cooking time to brown a roast or at the end of the cooking time to crisp the skin on a bird.

The Main Item

The main item for roasting is typically a large, whole, or multiportion cut of meat (whole chicken, beef tenderloin, and so forth) that is naturally tender. Tying a roast forces it into a more even shape, ensuring that it will cook evenly. Tying also makes for a nicer presentation and easier slicing.

Abundant marbling (the fat on the interior of the meat) and a fat cap (the fat on the outside of the meat) of not more than 1/4 inch (0.6 centimeter) will help keep the main item tender and juicy throughout the cooking process. Leaner items may be barded. Items that are not well marbled may be larded, although most larded items are braised rather than roasted.

At one time chefs thought all items should be seared. Browning meat produces new flavor compounds that are essential to the success of a roast. However, now we know that the traditional method of starting a large roast at high temperature to sear the meat and finishing at a low temperature may not be the best process. Large roasts cooked at constant, low temperatures provide a better yield with less shrinkage.

Aromatics

Mirepoix adds flavor and color to the fond and eventually the resulting sauce. The mirepoix must be cut in a size relative to the main item (large items require large mirepoix). Even if you will be using a wire rack, mirepoix provides flavor for the sauce. In this case, use 1 ounce (28 grams) of mirepoix per pound (0.5 kilogram) of main item, adding the mirepoix toward the end of the cooking time.

Mirepoix may be used as a natural rack to elevate a roast off the bottom of the pan. When doing so, it is important to not allow the mirepoix to burn, or the fond and resulting sauce will taste bitter. To ensure browning, the mirepoix should be cut fairly large and be confined to the area under the meat.

Even if not using the mirepoix as a rack, there is a risk of burning it. To avoid this, the mirepoix can be added toward the end of the cooking time (the last 30 to 60 minutes of cooking).

Because the mirepoix is used to flavor the jus, not to provide moisture or flavor to the roast, it can also be added after the roast has been removed and is resting. The mirepoix should be caramelized in the fat and drippings from the roast.

Sauce

The best sauce served with a roasted item is one made by deglazing the fond. The sauce may be flavored a number of ways, including sautéing additional flavors while caramelizing mirepoix, infusing herbs during the simmering process, and altering the liquid base.

The sauce options are as follows:• Au jus: Made by deglazing the fond and mirepoix with stock or broth, reducing and straining it, and seasoning or flavoring it as desired. Herbs, mushrooms, or other aromatics can be used to flavor the jus.• Jus lié: Made by lightly thickening a jus with cornstarch or an arrowroot slurry.• Pan gravy: Made by caramelizing the mirepoix and clarifying the pan drippings, adding flour to the pan drippings to make roux, adding stock to the roux, and allowing the sauce to simmer. The sauce is then strained and seasoned or flavored as desired. Pan gravies may also be made by puréeing the mirepoix into the sauce. This will add another dimension of flavor to the sauce.

Adding Moisture during Roasting

Some people like to add a small amount of water to the bottom of a roasting pan before or during the actual roasting of a large piece of meat. The rationale is that the water keeps the meat from sticking or makes the gravy. In reality, the water adds moisture to the cooking environment, inhibiting browning and accelerating the cooking process. These effects will have a negative impact on the flavor and palatability of the finished roast.

Equipment

The roasting pan should be large enough to hold the meat item, without excessive room to spare. The sides of the pan should be low, straight, and sufficiently heavy to prevent burning the fond. The pan needs to be deep enough to keep fat from splattering. Plus, consider that many roasts are cooked on racks, so a shallow pan can be a problem.

A rack is necessary to elevate the product off the bottom of the roasting pan, allowing heat to surround the product. If the item sits on the bottom of the pan, that portion will cook at a different rate (sauté) than the rest, and therefore overcook. If a roast lies in the pan juices and grease, it may become soft or fatty. A rack can be the traditional wire variety, or for more flavor, a natural rack of mirepoix or bones can be used. There are several types of roasting racks, each with a different use:

• U-shaped basket racks should be solid and stable; they can cradle a chicken but are too small for larger birds, such as turkeys or geese.

• For larger birds, a nonadjustable V-rack works well. Both U-racks and V-racks keep the bird well elevated so that the skin on the underside browns well.

• Most other meats simply need to be elevated off the rendered fat and juices. A flat rack works well for most roasts.

VARIATIONS ON ROASTING

• Spit roasting: Spit roasting is perhaps the original roast. An item is tied or impaled on a long skewer or spit and rotated over an open flame Searing can be accomplished by lowering the item closer to the flame. After searing, the item is lifted farther above the heat and allowed to cook slowly. As there is no fond to deglaze or drippings to be had, the sauce for a spit-roasted item is always made separately. Note: Searing occurs early in the procedure for many dry-heat cooking methods. It is important to sear the item quickly and then cook it to the proper degree of doneness slowly to minimize shrinkage and maximize juiciness. If a food item is not seared quickly in the beginning of the cooking process, it may not be able to get the desired browning before it becomes fully cooked.

• Baking: One aspect of baking has to do with the cooking of breads or pastry items. The term is also used to identify a type of roasting that is done with individual portions of proteins, as opposed to larger cuts. For example, chicken quarters or salmon steak can be baked, as opposed to roasted. The general guidelines described for roasting apply to baked items, except the oven temperatures should be higher (375°F [177°C]) and their carryover time is not as long (about 5°F [15°C]).

Meat for gyros being spit roasted. Shutterstock Images/YiannisPapadimitriou

Determining Doneness

Doneness in roasting is determined by internal temperature (Table 16.1). Insert a sanitized instant-read thermometer into the thickest part of the item, away from pockets of fat and bones. Piercing the surface of the main item with a thermometer too often will open holes that will allow juices to escape. An educated judgment based on timing, color, and touch should be made before checking the temperature with a thermometer. The actual internal temperature should always be used as the final determining factor of when a roast should be removed from the oven.

Determining Doneness in Roasted Foods

Pre-seasoning

There are those who believe that seasoning a product in advance will cause it to dry out and lose moisture. This is only the case in extreme situations, when a large amount of salt is being added to a product. When seasoning a roast normally, not only will very little moisture be lost, but also many flavors will be gained. In addition, a better sear can be achieved because of the myosins (proteins) that are brought to the surface through the osmosis action of the seasoning.

Brining (soaking in a flavored saltwater solution) white meats, such as turkey, chicken, and pork, before cooking protects the meat from high temperatures and helps develop flavor. Brining also may give mushy poultry a meatier, firmer consistency. Brining promotes a change in the structure of the proteins in the muscle, which results in a much lower moisture loss.

Brining works in accordance with two principles, called diffusion and osmosis. The law of diffusion states that the salt and sugar will naturally flow from the area of greater concentration (the brine) to that of lesser concentration (the cells). There is also a greater concentration of water on the outside than the inside. When water moves in this fashion, the process is called osmosis. Once inside the cells, the salt and, to a lesser extent, the sugar causes the cell proteins to unravel, or denature. As the individual proteins unravel, they become more likely to interact with one another. This interaction results in the formation of a sticky matrix that captures and holds moisture. Once the matrix is exposed to heat, it gels and forms a barrier that keeps the moisture in the protein as it cooks.

A heavy-duty plastic tub, stainless steel bowl, or resealable plastic bag can work as a brining container as long as the meat is fully submerged. It may be necessary to weigh the food down to make sure it is fully immersed in the brine. To determine how much brine you’ll need, place the meat to be brined in your chosen container. Add water to cover. Remove the meat and measure the water.

Basic brine ratio: Cold water, 1 quart (32 ounces), 1 liter (960 milliliters) 1/4 cup (2 ounces, 56 grams) kosher salt or 1/8 cup (1 ounce, 28 grams) table saltplus 1/8 cup (1-1/4 ounces, 35 grams) sugar

• Bring liquid to a boil to dissolve the salt and sugar; chill. •Add meat to chilled brine and store under refrigeration for the time required. Rinse the meat twice after removing it from the brine solution; discard the brine.

•If you are not ready to cook the meat at the end of the brining time, remove and rinse the meat. Refrigerate until ready to use. •Do not salt brined meat before cooking.

Proteins that will be cooked using high heat require a brine with less sugar to ensure the skin or exterior will not burn Brining does prevent the skin from crisping when cooked. However, letting the brined item air dry uncovered in the refrigerator allows surface moisture to evaporate. This step is optional but it does promote crisp skin; typically, air-dry a whole turkey overnight and chicken parts or small birds for several hours.

Marinating is also an acceptable form of advance seasoning for a roast.

Preseasoning (cont.)

Procedure for Roasting

1. Prepare the main item, including trying to ensure even cooking and uniform slicing. The main item for roasting should be well seasoned in advance. If it does not have a fat cap, it should be barded or rubbed with vegetable oil before searing. Barding involves wrapping the item in a thin sheet of fatback or caul fat. When barding is used, the food item will not have a well-developed or flavorful crust, but the interior will be moister. Vegetables should also be tossed with seasoning and lightly oiled before roasting.

2. If appropriate, sear the main item. Searing is recommended to produce the characteristic brown crust, chewy exterior, and rich flavor. This can be accomplished one of two ways:

• Pan searing is done in the same pan the item will be roasted in. Heat the pan, add a small amount of fat, and brown the item on all sides. Remove the item, add the rack to the roasting pan, and place the main item on the rack. Place the roast in the oven at a moderate temperature (325°F to 350°F [163°C to 177°C]).

• High heat/low heat searing is done entirely in the oven and is used mostly for large or bulky items such as turkeys or prime ribs, or large quantities of roasts such as several beef tenderloins for a banquet. The item is placed on a rack in a pan in a hot (450°F [232°C]) oven for 20 to 30 minutes, or until the surface begins to turn brown and crackle. The oven temperature is then lowered to 300°F to 325°F (149°F to 163°C) for the remaining cooking time.

3. Place the item in the roasting pan on a rack or a bed of mirepoix to prevent scorching and promote even cooking.

Roasting continued• Redistribution of juices: As the roast cools, the

proteins will begin to relax, allowing moisture to be reabsorbed.

• Carryover cooking: As the roast sits, the internal and external temperatures will equalize. As the exterior cools, the interior continues to cook until the temperatures are the same. It is important to allow 10°F to 20°F (12°C to 7°C), depending on the size of the item, for carryover cooking. For example, if the desired temperature for a roast chicken is 160°F (71°C), remove it from the oven at 150°F to 155°F (66°C to 68°C). Larger items have more carryover cooking than smaller ones.

6. Prepare the pan gravy or sauce. The roast’s resting time is an excellent opportunity to make the pan sauce. Remember to make enough sauce for the main item (2 to 3 ounces per portion [56 to 84 grams]).

7. Slice the item and serve with the gravy or sauce.

4. Roast the item. Place the item in a moderate oven. The rule of thumb is low and slow, which means that lower temperatures over longer times will produce a better quality product with less shrinkage. Larger roasts should be roasted between 250°F and 325°F (121°C and 163°C), and smaller ones between 325°F and 350°F (163°C and 177°C). If using a convection oven, lower the temperature by 25°F or 3°C, because the forced air circulation has a tendency to dry products. Baste the item frequently with the drippings in the pan or with additional fat. Do not use water or stock to baste roasts, because they will dissolve the brown color on the exterior and create steam in the oven.

5. Rest the roast. When the appropriate internal temperature has been reached, remove the roast from the oven and allow it to rest in a warm place for at least 15 minutes before carving. Resting the roast before carving will allow several things to happen:

Standards of QualityWhen judging a roasted item, several quality indicators can be used.

Color. Roasted items should have a golden (white meats and poultry) to dark brown (red meats) exterior. There should not be burned or scorched areas. The color should be even around the product, without any streaks of darkness from where the roast may have come in contact with the roasting pan.

Texture. A characteristically firm and chewy exterior and a moist tender juicy interior should be present.

Degree of Doneness. White meats are cooked medium to medium well (veal) to well (pork). Poultry items except for duck should be cooked well. Red meats are done to the specifications of the customer. It is better to undercook red meats, as further cooking can always be applied. It is impossible to uncook something.

Flavor. Because of the searing involved, roasted items should have a flavor that is deeper and richer than their own natural flavor. There should be no off-flavors, bitterness, or overpowering of spices.Appropriate and Well-Made Sauce. A sauce based on the deglazing of the fond, either au jus, jus lié, or pan gravy, should be made to meet the specifications and standards of quality for all sauces.

Overall Plate Presentation. Roasted items should be sliced and served in a pool of sauce, without hiding the surface of the product. Poultry should be carved off the bone, or served semi-boneless. Appropriate accompaniments should be included as well.

POÊLÉING

Often known as “butter roasting,” poêléing is most often associated with white meats and game birds. Foods are liberally basted with butter, then allowed to cook in their own juices on a bed of aromatic vegetables and in a covered vessel.

1. Sear the main item by cooking it on all sides in hot butter or oil, just until the surface begins to turn color. Remove the item and allow it to rest slightly.

2. Sweat the matignon, or “edible mirepoix,” in butter until the onions are translucent. Vegetables for a matignon are peeled and cut into a uniform dice or julienne, and matignon traditionally includes ham. (To sweat or smother refers to slow cooking of aromatic vegetables in butter or other fat, usually in a covered vessel, until soft and tender, without any browning.)

3. Return the main item to the roasting pan and baste with additional butter, then cover and cook in the oven to the desired doneness. The cover can be

removed during the final cooking stage to allow the surface to brown and develop a crust. An instant-read thermometer, a warm skewer, or the clear color of cavity juices can all be used to indicate the level of doneness. Because the food’s surface is not browned as deeply as it would be in roasting, the flavor tends to be more delicate. Remove the item and keep warm.

4. Prepare the sauce as you would a pan gravy or jus, degreasing, deglazing, and thickening with either flour or a starch.

5. Carve the item and serve with the appropriate sauce and garnish.

Procedure for Poêléing

Summary

Grilling and broiling are dry-heat cooking methods. To maintain moisture and flavor, chefs can employ techniques such as marinating, applying coatings, or selecting sauces that add moisture and richness to compensate for any that may be lost to the main item during cooking. Because these techniques do not generate fond, the sauces are prepared separately, permitting and encouraging experimentation with a variety of bold sauces to keep broiled and grilled menu items contemporary and appealing.

Roasting is a basic cooking technique that can be applied to a wide range of foods. The chef who has mastered this fundamental skill can adapt it almost endlessly by applying a variety of seasonings, coatings, marinades, and rubs. Roasting can produce a range of textures and consistencies, depending on the qualities of the food being roasted, the level of the heat, and the length of time the food is permitted to cook.

Review Questions

1. Where is the heat source located for grilling? For broiling?2. How is a grill prepared before foods are added to the grill?3. What are two types of coatings used on broiled foods?4. How does the nature of the food you are grilling or broiling determine the equipment you use and the specific steps you follow?5. What are the main components in a marinade?6. What are the basic types of marinades? List an example of each.7. Why is a rack commonly used in roasting?8. How should the size of the mirepoix relate to the size of the item being roasted?9. Name and describe three types of pan sauces that can be made based on the fond in the roasting pan.10. What happens to a cut of meat as it rests, and how does this resting period improve the quality and flavor of roasted foods?