british council grammar
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Pronouns
Pronouns are words we use in the place of a full noun.
There are many different kinds of pronouns.
personal pronouns
it and there
you and they
possessive pronouns (see possessives:- pronouns)
this, that, these and those
one and ones
questions
reflexive pronouns
reciprocal pronouns: each other and one another
indefinite pronouns
relative pronouns
personal pronouns
HideTopic
ronouns - personal pronouns (!, me, you etc)
Pronouns are words we use in the place of a full noun."e have #oth subject and objectpronouns:
Subject Object
! me
you youhe him
she her
it it
we us
https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/pronouns/personal-pronounshttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/pronouns/it-and-therehttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/pronouns/you-and-theyhttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/pronouns/possessive-pronouns-see-possessives-pronounshttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/pronouns/that-these-and-thosehttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/pronouns/one-and-oneshttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/pronouns/questionshttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/pronouns/reflexive-pronounshttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/pronouns/reciprocal-pronouns-each-other-and-one-anotherhttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/pronouns/indefinite-pronounshttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/pronouns/relative-pronounshttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/pronouns/personal-pronounshttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/pronouns/personal-pronounshttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/pronouns/personal-pronounshttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/pronouns/it-and-therehttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/pronouns/you-and-theyhttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/pronouns/possessive-pronouns-see-possessives-pronounshttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/pronouns/that-these-and-thosehttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/pronouns/one-and-oneshttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/pronouns/questionshttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/pronouns/reflexive-pronounshttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/pronouns/reciprocal-pronouns-each-other-and-one-anotherhttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/pronouns/indefinite-pronounshttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/pronouns/relative-pronounshttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/pronouns/personal-pronouns -
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Subject Object
you you
they them
"e use he/him to refer to men, and she/her to refer to women. "hen we are not sure if we are
talkin$ a#out a man or a woman we use they/them.
This is %ack. He&s my #rother. ! don&t think you have met him.This is 'n$ela. he&s my sister. Have you met her#efore
Talk to a friend. 'sk them to help you.
*ou could $o to a doctor. They mi$ht help you.
Subject pronouns
"e use su#+ect pronouns as subject of the verb:
Ilike your dress.
Youare late.
He is my friend
It is rainin$
She is on holiday
We live in n$land.
They come from ondon.
Warning
emem#er: n$lish clauses always have a su#+ect:
His father has +ust retired. "as a teacher. / He was a teacher.!&m waitin$ for my wife. !s late. / She is late.
!f there is no other su#+ect we use it or there. "e call this a dummy subject.
Object pronouns
"e use o#+ect pronouns:
0 as the o#+ect of the ver#:
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1an you help meplease
! can see you.
he doesn&t like him.! saw her in town today.
"e saw them in town yesterday, #ut they didn&t see us.
0 after prepositions:
he is waitin$ for me.!&ll $et it for you.
2ive it to him.
"hy are you lookin$ at her3on&t take it from us.
!&ll speak to them.
it and there
n$lish clauses always have a su#+ect:
His father has +ust retired. "as a teacher. / Hewas a teacher.!&m waitin$ for my wife. !s late. / Sheis late.
ook at the time4 !s half past two./ !t&s half past two.
except for the imperative see more!
"o away.
Play it a$ain please.
If we have no other su#+ect we use thereor it.
there
"e use there as a dummy subjectwith part of the ver# befollowed #y a noun phrase. (see
1lauses, sentences and phrases):
0 to introduce a new topic:
There is a meetin$ this evenin$. !t will start at seven.
There has been an accident. ! hope no one is hurt.
0 with numbers or #uantities:
There was a lot ofrain last ni$ht.
There must have been more than five hundredin the audience.
0 to say where somethin$ is:
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There used to bea play$round at the end of the street.
There are fairies at the #ottom of the $arden.
! wonder if there will be anyone at home.
0 with an indefinite pronoun or expressions of #uantity and the to-infinitive:
There isnothin$ to do in the villa$e.
There wasplenty to read in the apartment
There wasnothin$ to watch on television.
There isa lot of work to do
!f we want to show the su#+ect of the to-infinitive we usefor:
There is nothingfor the children to doin the villa$e.
There was plentyfor us to read in the apartment
There was nothingfor them to watchon television.
There is a lotof work for you to do.
0 with an indefinite pronoun or expressions of #uantity and an -ingver#:
There issomeone waitin$ to see you.
There werea lot of people shoutin$ and wavin$.
"e use a singular ver# if the noun phrase is singular:
There isa meetin$ this evenin$. !t will start at seven.There was a lot of rain last ni$ht.
There is someone waitin$ to see you.
"e use a plural ver# if the noun phrase is plural:
There are more than twenty people waitin$ to see you.There were some #iscuits in the cup#oard.
There were a lot of people shoutin$ and wavin$.
It
"e use itto talk a#out:
0 times and dates:
It&s nearly one o&clock.It&s my #irthday.
0 weather:
It&s rainin$.
It&s a lovely day.
Itwas $ettin$ cold.
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0 to $ive an opinion a#out a place:
It$s very coldin here.
It will be nicewhen we $et home.
It$s very comfortablein my new apartment.
0 to $ive an opinion followed #y to%infinitive:
It$s niceto meet you.
It will be greatto $o on holiday.
It was interestingto meet your #rother at last.
0 to $ive an opinion followed #y an -ingverb:
It$s greatlivin$ in pain.
It$s awfuldrivin$ in this heavy traffic.
It can be hard wor&lookin$ after youn$ children.
'sing (it( to tal& about people
"e use itto talk a#out ourselves:
0 on the telephone:
Hello. It&s 2eor$e.
0 when people cannot see us:
56ary knocks on door7 It&s me. It&s 6ary.
"e use it to talk a#out other people:0 when we point them out for the first time:
ook. It$sir aul 6c1artney.
"ho&s that ! think it$s%ohn&s #rother.
0 when we cannot see them and we ask them for their name:
5telephone rin$s, we pick it up7 Hello. "ho is it
5someone knocks on door. "e say:7 "ho is it
this) that) these and those
pronouns: this, that, these and those
Why do we use thisand these*
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"e use this (sin$ular) and these (plural) as pronouns:
- to talk a#out people or thin$s near us:
This is a nice cup of tea."hose shoes are these
- to introduce people:
This is %anet.
These are my friends, %ohn and 6ichael.
"'8!82:"e don&t say These are John and Michael.
"e say This is John and this is Michael.
- to introduce ourselves to #e$in a conversation on the phone:
Hello, this is 3avid, 1an ! speak to ally
Why do we use thatand those*
"e use that (sin$ular) and those (plural):
- to talk a#out thin$s that are not nearus:
"hat&s that
This is our house, and that&s e#ecca&s house over there.
Those are very expensive shoes.
- "e also use thatto refer #ack to somethin$ someone said or did:
- hall we $o to the cinema
- *es, that&s a $ood idea. - !&ve $ot a new +o#.
- That&s $reat.
- !&m very tired.
- "hy is that
this) these) that, those with nouns
"e also use this, these, that and those with nounsto show proximity
"e use this and these for people or thin$s near us:
"e have lived in this house for twenty years.Have you read all of these #ooks
9 and that and those for people or thin$s that are not near us:
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"ho lives in that house
"ho are those people
one and ones
"e use one (sin$ular)and ones (plural) to avoid unnecessary repetition.
ee those two $irls Helen is the tall one and %ane is the short one.
"hich is your car, the red one or the #lue one
6y trousers are torn. ! need some new ones.
ee those two $irls. Helen is the one on the left.et&s look at the photo$raphs. The ones you took in aris.
"e often use them after Which ... in questions:
*ou can #orrow a #ook. "hich one do you want
There are lots of #ooks here. "hich ones are yours
#uestions
Which #uestion word to use*
"e use who to ask questions a#out people:
Who is that
Who lives here
Who did you see
"e use whose to ask a#out possession:
Whose coat is this 5or7 Whose is this coat
Whose#ook is that 5or7 Whose is that #ook
Whose#a$s are those 5or7 Whose are those #a$s
"e use what to ask questions a#out things:
What is that
What do you want
"e use which to ask someone to choose somethin$:
Which came first, the chicken or the e$$
!&ve $ot two #ooks. Which do you want
"e can also use what and which with nouns:
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What subjects did you study at school
What newspaper do you read
Which newspaper do you read the Times or the 2uardian
Which boo&do you want
Which one is yours
+uestions with prepositions,
;uestions endin$ in prepositions are very common in n$lish. 'fter Who, Which or What weoften have a preposition at the end of the sentence:
Who does this #ook #elon$ to
What are you lookin$ for
Which university did you $o to
What country do you come from
refle-ive pronouns
The reflexive pronouns are:
Singular, myself - yourself - himself - herself - itself
Plural, ourselves - yourselves - themselves
When we use a refle-ive pronoun
"e use a reflexive pronoun:0 as a direct object when the object is the same as the subject of the ver#:
Iam teachin$ myself to play the piano.
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! wish the children would #ehave themselves.
=I wish the children would behave well.
He found himself lyin$ #y the side of the road.
=He was surprised when he realised that he was at the side of the road.
! saw myself as a famous actor.=I imagined that I was a famous actor.
he applied herself to the +o# of mendin$ the li$hts.
= She worked very hard to mend the lights.
He #usied himself in the kitchen.
=He worked busily in the kitchen.
! had to content myself with a few uros.
=I had to be satisfied with a few uros.
"e do not use a reflexive pronoun after ver#s which descri#e thin$s people usually do forthemselves, such as wash,shave, dress:
He washed 5himself7 in cold water.
He always shaved 5himself7 #efore $oin$ out in the evenin$.
6ichael dressed 5himself7 and $ot ready for the party.
"e only use reflexives with these ver#s for emphasis:
He dressed himself in spite of his injuries.
She$s old enough to wash herself.
0 as indirect object when the indirect object is the same as the subject of the ver#:
"ould you like to pour yourself a drink."e&ve #rou$ht ourselves somethin$ to eat.
0 as the object of a preposition when the o#+ect refers to the subject of the clause:
They had to cook for themselves.
He was feelin$ very sorry for himself.
Warning
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Warning
and after withwhen it means>accompanied by>:
he had a few friends with her.
"e use a reflexive pronoun...
0 with the preposition by when we want to show that someone didsomethin$ alone and?or without any help:
He lived by himself in an enormous house.
he walked home by herself.The children $ot dressed by themselves.
! prepared the whole meal by myself.
0 to emphasise the person or thin$ we are referrin$ to:
.endal itself is quite a small town.
especially if we are talkin$ a#out someone very famous:
Sir Paul /c0artney himself san$ the final son$.
"e often put the reflexive pronoun at the end of the clause when we are usin$ it for emphasis:
I#aked the #read myself.She mended the car herself
indefinite pronouns
The indefinite pronouns are:
somebody someone something
any#ody anyone anythin$
no#ody no one nothin$
every#ody everyone everythin$
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"e use indefinite pronouns to refer to people or thin$s without sayin$ exactly who or what they
are. "e use pronouns endin$ in -bodyor -onefor people, and pronouns endin$ in -
thingfor things:
1verybody en+oyed the concert.
! opened the door #ut there was no one at home.!t was a very clear day. "e could see everything.
"e use a singular verb after an indefinite pronoun:
very#ody loves ally.verythin$ was ready for the party.
"hen we refer bac& to an indefinite pronoun we normally use a plural pronoun:
1verybody en+oyed the concert. They stood up and clapped.
! will tell somebody that dinner is ready. They have #een waitin$ a lon$ time.
"e can add -'sto an indefinite pronoun to make a possessive.
They were stayin$ in somebody$s house.
!s this anybody$s coat
"e use indefinite pronouns with no-as the subject in negative clauses (not pronouns with any.)
'ny#ody didn&t come // 2obodycame.
"e do not use another ne$ative in a clause with nobody, no one or nothing:
8o#ody came.8othin$ happened.
"e use else after indefinite pronouns to refer to people or thin$s in addition tothe ones we
already mentioned.
'll the family came, #ut no one else.!f 6ichael can&t come we&ll ask some#ody else.
o that@s e$$s, peas and chips. 3o you want anythin$ else
relative pronouns
The relative pronouns are:
Subject Object Possessive
who who(m) whose
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Subject Object Possessive
which which whose
that that
"e use who and whom for people, and which for thin$s.
Ar we can use that for people or thin$s."e use relative pronouns:
0 after a noun, to ma&e it clear which person or thin$ we are talkin$ a#out:
the house that %ack #uilt
the woman who discovered radiuman ei$ht-year-old #oy who attempted to ro# a sweet shop
0to tell us more a#out a person or thin$:
6y mother, who was #orn overseas, has always #een a $reat traveller.
ord Thompson, who is BC, has +ust retired."e had fish and chips, which is my favourite meal.
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! had an uncle in 2ermany who5m7 ! inherited a #it of money from.
"e #ou$ht a chainsaw, which we cut all the wood up with.
"e can use that at the #e$innin$ of the clause:
! had an uncle in 2ermany that ! inherited a #it of money from."e #ou$ht a chainsaw that we cut all the wood up with.
3eterminers and #uantifiers
2eneral and specific determiners
3eterminers are words which come at the #e$innin$ of the noun phrase.
They tell us whether the noun phrase is specific or $eneral.3eterminers are either specific or general
Specific determiners,
The specific determiners are:
the definite article: the
possessives: my,your, his, her, itsD our, their, whose
demonstratives: this, that, these, those
interro$atives: which
"e use a specific determiner when we #elieve the listener4reader &nows exactly what we are
referrin$ to:
1an you pass me the salt please
ook at those lovely flowers.
Thank you very much for your letter.
Whose coat is this
"eneral determiners,
The $eneral determiners are:
a; an; any; another; other; what
"hen we are talkin$ a#out thin$s in $eneral and the listener?reader does not know exactly whatwe are referrin$ to, we can use a uncount nounor a plural noun with no determiner:
/il& is very $ood for you. (= uncount noun)
Health and education are very important. (= E uncount nouns)
"irls normally do #etter in school than boys. (= plural nouns with no determiner)
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9 or you can use a sin$ular noun with the indefinite article a or an:
5 woman was lifted to safety #y a helicopter.
5 man clim#in$ near#y saw the accident.
"e use the $eneral determiner anywith a sin$ular noun or an uncount noun when we are talkin$a#out all of those people or thin$s:
!t&s very easy. 5ny child can do it. (= 'll children can do it)
"ith a full licence you are allowed to drive any car.
! like #eef, lam#, pork - any meat.
"e use the $eneral determiner anotherto talk a#out an additionalperson or thin$:
"ould you like another $lass of wine
The plural form of another is other:
! spoke to %ohn, Helen and a few other friends.
;uantifiers
"e use quantifiers when we want to $ive someone information a#out the num#er of somethin$:how much or how many.
interrogative determiners, which and what
"e use >which> as a determiner to ask a question a#out a specific $roup of people or thin$s:
"hich restaurant did you $o to
"hich countries in outh 'merica have you visited
"hen we are askin$ a general question we use >what> as a determiner:
"hat films do you like
"hat university did you $o to
indefinite article, a and an
F. "e use the indefinite article, a?an, with count nounswhen the hearer4reader does not
&nowexactly which one we are referrin$ to:
olice are searchin$ for aFG year-old $irl.
E. "e also use it to show the person or thin$ is one of a group:
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he is apupil at ondon oad chool.
olice have #een searchin$ for a FG year-old $irl who has #een missin$ sinceriday.
%enny
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definite article, the
The definite article the is the most frequent word in n$lish.
"e use the definite article in front of a noun when we #elieve the hearer4reader &nows exactly
what we are referrin$ to.0 #ecause there is only one:
The Popeis visitin$ ussia.
The moonis very #ri$ht toni$ht.
The Shah of Iranwas deposed in FLBL.
This is why we use the definite article with a superlative ad+ective:
He is the tallest boyin the class.
!t is the oldest buildingin the town.
0 #ecause there is only one in that placeor in those surroundin$s:
"e live in a small villa$e next to the
church.= (the church in our villa$e)
3ad, can ! #orrow the car =(the car that #elon$s to our
family)
"hen we stayed at my $randmother&s
house we went to the #each every day.=
(the #each near my
$randmother&s house)
ook at the #oy in the #lue shirt overthere. = (the #oy ! am pointin$ at)
0 #ecause we have already mentioned it:
' woman who fell FI metres from Hi$h eak was lifted to safety #y a helicopter. The
woman fell while clim#in$.
The rescue is the latest in a series of incidents on Hi$h eak. !n %anuary last year two men
walkin$ on the pea&were killed in a fall.
"e also use the definite article:0 to say somethin$ a#out all the thingsreferred to #y a noun:
The wolf is not really a dan$erous animal (= "olves are not really dan$erous animals)
The kan$aroo is found only in 'ustralia (= Nan$aroos are found only in 'ustralia)
The heart pumps #lood around the #ody. (= Hearts pump #lood around #odies)
"e use the definite article in this way to talk a#out musical instruments:
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%oe plays the piano really well.(= 2eor$e can play any piano)
he is learnin$ the $uitar.(= he is learnin$ to play any $uitar)
0 to refer to a system or service:
How lon$ does it take on the train.! heard it on the radio.
*ou should tell the police.
0 "ith adjectives like rich, poor, elderly, unemployed to talk a#out groups of people:
ife can #e very hard for the poor.! think the rich should pay more taxes.
he works for a $roup to help the disabled.
The definite article with names,
"e do not normally use the definite article with names:
"illiam hakespeare wrote Hamlet.aris is the capital of rance.
!ran is in 'sia.
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0 organisations:
the Onited 8ationsD the eamen&s Onion
0 hotels, pubs and restaurantsQ:
the itPD the itP HotelD the Nin$&s HeadD the 3R+S uQ8ote: "e do not use the definite article if the name of the hotel or restaurant is the name
of the owner, e.$.,
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a couple of hundreds of thousands of etc.
ome quantifiers can #e used only with uncount nouns:
a little (not) much a #it of
'nd, particularly with abstract nounssuch as time, money, trouble, etc:, we often use:
a $reat deal of a $ood deal of
/embers of groups
*ou can put a noun after a quantifier when you are talkin$ a#out members of a group in
$eneral9
6ew snakes are dan$erous.
7oth#rothers work with their father.
! never have enough money.
9#ut if you are talkin$ a#out a specific $roup of people or thin$s, use of the as well
6ew of thesnakes are dan$erous.
5ll of the children live at home.He has spent all of his money.
8ote that, if we are talkin$ a#out twopeople or thin$s we use the
quantifiers both, either and neither:
One supermar&et Two supermar&ets8/ore than two
supermar&ets
The supermarket
was closed
The supermarketwasn@t open
! don&t think the
supermarket was
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One supermar&et Two supermar&ets8/ore than two
supermar&ets
open.
!"ouns with either and neither have a singular verb.in$ular quantifiers:
"e use every or each with a sin$ular noun to mean all:
There was a party in everystreet.
= There were parties in all the streets.
1very shop was decorated with
flowers.=
'll the shops were decorated with
flowers.
1ach child was $iven a priPe. = 'll the children were $iven a priPe.
There was a priPe in eachcompetition.
=There were priPes in all the
competitions.
"e often use every to talk a#out times like days, weeks and years:
"hen we were children we had holidays at our $randmother&s every year.
"hen we stayed at my $randmother&s house we went to the #each every day.
"e visit our dau$hter every 0hristmas.
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These are men$s shoes.
0hildren$s clothes are very expensive.
"e can use a possessive instead of a noun phrase to avoid repeatin$ words:
!s that %ohn&s car 8o, it&s 6ary&s 5car7. / 8o, it&s 6ary&s.
"hose coat is this !t&s my wife&s 5coat7. / !t&s my wife&s.
possessives, adjectives
1an you match these possessive ad+ectives to the ri$ht personal pronouns
its, your, my, their, our, her, his
Subject Object Possessive
! me
*ou you
He him
he her
!t it
"e us
They them
"e use possessive ad+ectives:
0 to show something belongs to some#ody:
That&s our house.
/y car is very old.
0 for relations and friends:
/y mother is a doctor.
How old is your sister
0 for parts of the #ody:
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He&s #roken his arm.
he&s washin$ her hair.
! need to clean my teeth.
possessives, pronouns
0an you match these possessive pronouns to the right personal pronouns and possessiveadjectives*
yours) mine) theirs) ours) hers) his, its
Subject Object Possessive adjectivesPossessive pronouns
! me my
*ou you your
He him his
he her her
!t it its
"e us our
They them their
"e can use a possessive pronoun instead of a noun phrase:
!s that %ohn&s car 8o, it&s 5my car7 / 8o, it&s mine."hose coat is this !s it 5your coat7 / !s it yours
Her coat is $rey, 5my coat7is
#rown Her coat is $rey, mine is #rown.
"e can use possessive pronouns after of."e can say:
usan is one of my friends.
orusan is a friend of mine.#ut not
usan is a friend of me
or! am one of Susan:s friends.
or
! am a friend of Susan:s.
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#ut not
! am a friend of usan
possessives, #uestions
"e use whose to ask questions:
Pattern 5 Pattern 7
"hose coat is this or "hose is this coat
"hose #ook is that or "hose is that #ook
"hose #a$s are those or "hose are those #a$s
5djectives
"e use ad+ectives to describe nouns.
6ost ad+ectives can #e used in frontof a noun9:
They have a beautiful house."e saw a very e-citing filmlast ni$ht.
or after a lin& verblike be, look orfeel:
Their house is beautiful.
That film loo&s interesting.
adjectives, %ed and %ing
' lot of ad+ectives are made from ver#s #y addin$ %ingor %ed:
%ing adjectives,
The commonest #ingad+ectives are:
amusin$ shockin$ surprisin$ fri$htenin$
interestin$ disappointin$ excitin$ tirin$
worryin$ #orin$ terrifyin$ annoyin$
!f you call somethin$ interesting you mean it interests you.
!f you call somethin$frightening you mean itfrightens you.
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! read a very interesting article in the newspaper today.
That 3racula film was a#solutely terrifying.
%ed adjectives,
The commonest ed ad+ectives are:
annoyed #ored fri$htened worried
tired closed excited deli$hted
disappointed
!f somethin$ annoys you, you can say you feel annoyed. !f somethin$ interests you, you can say
you are interested.
The children had nothin$ to do. They were bored.
order of adjectives
ometimes we use more than one ad+ective in front of a noun:
He was a nice intelli$ent youn$ man.
he had a small round #lack wooden #ox.
Opinion adjectives,
ome ad+ectives $ive a general opinion. "e can use these ad+ectives to descri#e almost any
noun:
$ood #ad lovely stran$e
#eautiful nice #rilliant excellent
awful important wonderful nasty
ome ad+ectives $ive a specific opinion. "e only use these ad+ectives to descri#e particular
kinds of noun:
6ood: tastyD delicious
6urniture) buildings: comforta#leD uncomforta#le
People) animals: cleverD intelli$entD friendly
"e usually put a generalopinion in front of a specificopinion:
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8ice tasty soup.
' nasty uncomforta#le armchair
' lovely intelli$ent animal
Osually we put an ad+ective that $ives an opinion in front of an ad+ective that is descriptive:
a nice red dressD a silly old manD those horri#le yellow curtains
"e often have two ad+ectives in front of a noun:
a handsome youn$ manD a #i$ #lack carD that horri#le #i$ do$
ometimes we have three ad+ectives, #ut this is unusual:
a nice handsome youn$ manDa #i$ #lack 'merican carD
that horri#le #i$ fierce do$
!t isvery unusual to have more than three ad+ectives.
'd+ectives usually come in this order:
; < = > ? @ A B
2eneral
opinion
pecific
opinioniPe hape '$e 1olour 8ationality 6aterial
"e use some ad+ectives only after a lin& verb:
afraid alive alone asleep
content $lad ill ready
sorry sure una#le well
ome of the commonest -edad+ectives are normally used only after a lin& verb:
annoyed; finished; bored; pleased; thrilled
"e say:
Aur teacher was ill.6y uncle was very $lad when he heard the news.
The policeman seemed to #e very annoyed
#ut we do not say:
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"e had an ill teacher.
"hen he heard the news he was a very $lad uncle
He seemed to #e a very annoyed policeman
' few ad+ectives are used only in front of a noun:
north
southeast
west
northern
southerneastern
western
countlessoccasional
lone
eventfulindoor
outdoor
"e say:
He lives in the eastern district.
There were countlesspro#lems with the new machinery.
#ut we do not say:
The district he lives in is easternThe pro#lems with the new machinery were countless.
Try these tasks to improve your ad+ective orderin$.
0omparative and superlative adjectives
"e use comparative adjectives to descri#e people and thin$s:
This car is certainly better#ut it&s much more e-pensive.
!&m feelin$ happier now."e need a bigger $arden
"e use than when we want to compare one thin$ with another:
he is two years older than me.
8ew *ork is much #i$$er than
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"e often use the with comparative ad+ectives to show that one thin$ depends on another:
"hen you drive faster it is more dan$erous
/ The faster you drive, the more dan$erous it is."hen they clim#ed hi$her it $ot colder
/ The hi$her they clim#ed, the colder it $ot.
Superlative adjectives,
"e use the with a superlative:
!t was the happiest dayof my life.verest is the highest mountainin the world.
That&s the best film! have seen this year.
! have three sisters, %an is the oldestand 'n$ela is the youngest.
Intensifiers
Intensifiers,
Intermediate!
"e use words like very, really and e$tremely to make ad+ectives stron$er:
It%s a very interesting story
veryone was very e$cited.It%s a really interesting story.
veryone was e"tremely e$cited
"e call these words intensifiers. Ather intensifiers are:
ama&ingly e$ceptionally incredibly
remarkably particularly unusually
"e also use enough to say more a#out an ad+ective, #ut enough comes after its ad+ective:
If you are seventeen you are old enough to drive a car.I can%t wear those shoes. They%re not big enough.
Intensifiers with strong adjectives,
tron$ ad+ectives are words like:
enormous' huge= very #i$
tiny = very small
brilliant = very clever
awful( terrible( disgusting( dreadful = very #ad
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certain = very sure
e$cellent( perfect( ideal( wonderful( splendid = very $ood
delicious = very tasty
"e do not normally use very with these ad+ectives. "e do not say somethin$ is >very enormous>
or someone is >very #rilliant>.
"ith stron$ ad+ectives, we normally use intensifiers like:
absolutely completely totally utterly
really e$ceptionally particularly )uite
The film was absolutely awful.
He was an e"ceptionally brilliant child.
The food smelled really disgusting.
/itigators
6iti$ators are the opposite of intensifiers. "hen we want to make an ad+ective less strong weuse these words:fairly - rather - #uite
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"e use slightly and rather as miti$ators with comparative adjectives in front of a noun,This is a slightly more e-pensive model than that.
This is rather bigger one than that.
5djectives as intensifiers,
"e use some ad+ectives as intensifiers:
absolute
total - complete
utter - perfect
real
"e say:
He&s a complete idiot.
They were talkin$ utter nonsense.9 #ut we do not say:
The idiot was complete.
The nonsense they were talkin$ was utter.
noun modifiers
"e often use two nouns together to show that one thing is a part of something else:the village churchD the car doorD the &itchen windowD the chair legD
my coat poc&etD Condon residents
Warning
"e do not use a possessive form for these thin$s. "e do not talk a#out:
The car&s doorD the kitchen&s windowD the chair&s le$
"e can use noun modifiers to show what something is made of:
a gold watchD a leatherpurseD a metal#ox
"e often use noun modifiers with nouns endin$ in -erand -ing:
an office workerD a +ewellery makerD a potato peelerD a shoppin$ listD a swimmin$ lessonD a
walkin$ holiday.
"e use measurements, age or value as noun modifiers:
a thirty &ilogram suitcaseD a two minute restD a five thousand europlatinum watchDa fifty &ilometre+ourneyD
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"e often put two nouns to$ether and readers4listeners have wor& outwhat they mean. o:
an ice #ucket = a #ucket to keep ice in
an ice cu#e = a cu#e made of ice
an ice #reaker = a ship which #reaks ice
the ice a$e = the time when much of the arth was covered in ice.
ometimes we find more than two nounsto$ether:
ondon office workersD $rammar practice exercises
Position of noun modifiers
2oun modifiers come after adjectives,
The old newspaper seller
' tirin$ fifty kilometre +ourney
5dverbials
Why do we use adverbials?
"e use adverbs to $ive more information a#out the ver#.
"e use adverbials of mannerto say how somethin$ happens or how somethin$ is done:
The children were playin$ happily.
He was drivin$ as fast as possible.
"e use adverbials of place to say where somethin$ happens:
! saw him there.
"e met in Condon.
"e use adverbials of time to say when or how often somethin$ happens:
They start work at si- thirty.
They usually $o to work #y #us.
"e use adverbials of probability to show how certain we are a#out somethin$.
Perhaps the weather will #e fine.
He is certainlycomin$ to the party.
Try these tasks to practice your use of adver#ials.
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How we ma&e adverbials
An adverbial can be an adverb:
He spoke angrily.
They live here."e will #e #ack soon.
or an adverb with an intensifier:
He spoke really angrily.
They livejust here."e will $o #uite soon.
"e will $o as soon as possible.
or a phrase with a preposition:
He spoke in an angry voice.
They live in Condon."e will $o in a few minutes.
where they go in a sentence
Where do adverbials go in a sentence?
"e normally put adver#ials after the verb:
He spoke angrily.They livejust here.
"e will $o in a few minutes.
or after the object or complement:
He opened the door #uietly.
he left the money on the table."e saw our friends last night.
*ou are lookin$ tired tonight.
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Cast night we saw our friends.
In a few minutes we will $o.
Dery #uietly he opened the door.
!f we want to emphasise an adverb of manner we can put it in front of the main ver#:
He #uietly opened the door.
he had carefullyput the $lass on the shelf.
Try these tas adverbs of manner adv de mod !
Adverbs of manner are usually formed from adjectives by adding ly:
#ad / badlyD quiet / #uietlyD recent / recentlyD sudden / suddenly
#ut there are sometimes chan$es in spelling:
easy / easilyD $entle / gently
!f an ad+ective ends in%lywe use the phrase in a . wayto express manner:
illy / He #ehaved in a silly way.
riendly / he spoke in a friendly way.
' few adver#s of manner have the same form as the adjective:
They all worked hard.
he usually arrives late.! hate drivin$ fast.&ote* hardly and lately have different meanings:He could hardly walk = !t was difficult for him to walk.
! haven&t seen %ohn lately = ! haven&t seen %ohn recently.
"e often use phrases with like as adver#ials of manner:
he slept li&e a #a#y.He ran li&e a ra##it.
5dverbs of manner and lin& verbs
"e very often use adverbials with like after link ver#s:
Her hands felt li&e ice.
!t smells li&e fresh #read.
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They looked happily happy.
That #read smells deliciously delicious.
Try these exercises to practice your use of adver#ials of manner.
Try these tasks to practice your use of placement of adver#ials.ks to practice your use of placement of adver#ials.
adverbials of place
We use adverbials of place to describe,
Cocation
"e use prepositions to talk a#out where someone or somethin$ is.
$amples:
He was standin$ by the table.
*ou&ll find it in the cupboard.
i$n your name here at the bottom of the page.
3irection
"e use adver#ials to to talk a#out the direction where someone or somethin$ is moving.$amples:
"alk past the ban&and keep $oin$ to the end of the street.
The car door is very small so it&s difficult to $et into.
3istance
"e use adver#ials to show how far thin$s are:
$amples*
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#eside #etween #y in in #etween inside
near next to on opposite outside over
round throu$h under underneath
He was standin$ by the table.
he lives in a villa$e near "lasgow.
*ou&ll find it in the cupboard.
"e use phrases with of as prepositions:
at the #ack of at the top of at the #ottom of at the end of
on top of at the front of in front of in the middle of
There were some flowers in the middle of the table.
i$n your name here at the bottom of the page.! can&t see. *ou&re standin$ in front of me.
"e can use right as an intensifier with some of these prepositions:
He was standin$ right next to the ta#le.
There were some flowers right in the middle of the ta#le.There&s a wood right#ehind our house.
adverbials of direction
Direction
"e also use prepositional phrases to talk a#out direction:
across alon$ #ack #ack to down into
onto out of past throu$h to towards
he ran out of the house.
"alk past the ban&and keep $oin$ to the end of the street.
"e also use adver#s and adver# phrases for place and direction:
a#road away anywhere downstairs downwards
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everywhere here indoors inside nowhere
outdoors outside somewhere there upstairs
! would love to see aris. !&ve never #een there.
The #edroom is upstairs.!t was so cold that we stayed indoors.
"e often have a preposition at the end of a clause:
This is the room we have our meals in.
The car door is very small so it&s difficult to $et into.
! lifted the carpet and looked underneath
adverbials of distance
Distance
"e use adver#ials to show how far thin$s are:
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0 how often (frequency):
They usually watched television in the evenin$.
"e sometimes went to work #y car.
"e often use a noun phrase as a time adver#ial:
yesterday last week?month?year one day?week?month last aturday
tomorrownext
week?month?year
the day after
tomorrownext riday
today this week?month?year the day #efore
yesterday
the other
day?week?month
time and dates
We use phrases with prepositions as time adverbials:
0 "e use at with:
cloc& times: at seven o&clock - at nine thirty - at fifteen hundred hours
mealtimes: at #reakfast - at lunchtime - at teatime
9 and in these phrases:
at night % at the wee&end % at 0hristmas % at 1aster
0 "e use in with:
seasons of the year: in sprin$?summer?autumn?winter - in the sprin$
?summer?autumn?winter
years and centuries: in EIIL -in FLLJ - in the twentieth century
months: in %anuary?e#ruary?6arch etc.
parts of the day: in the mornin$ - in the afternoon - in the evenin$.
0 "e use on with:
days: on 6onday?Tuesday?"ednesday etc - on 1hristmas day - on my #irthday.
dates: on the thirty first of %uly - on %une FMth
8ote: "e say at nightwhen we are talkin$ a#out all of the night:
"hen there is no moon it is very dark at night.
He sleeps durin$ the day and works at night.
#ut we say in the night when we are talkin$ a#out a short time durin$ the ni$ht:
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He woke up twice in the night.
! heard a funny noise in the night.
"e use the adver# ago with the past simple to say how long before the time of speakin$somethin$ happened:
! saw %im a#out three wee&s ago.
"e arrived a few minutes ago.
"e can put time phrases to$ether:
"e will meet ne-t wee&at si- o$cloc&on /onday.! heard a funny noise at about eleven o$cloc&last night.
!t happened last wee&at seven o$cloc&on /onday night.
how long
"e usefor to say how long:
"e have #een waitin$ for twenty minutes.They lived in 6anchester for fifteen years.
"e use since with the present perfect or the past perfect to say when something started:
! have worked here since 3ecember.
They had #een watchin$ since seven o$cloc& in the morning.
"e usefrom to/untilto say when somethin$ starts and finishes:
They stayed with us from /onday to 6riday."e will #e on holiday from the si-teenth until the twentieth.
how often
The commonest adver#ials of frequency are:
always never normally occasionally often
rarely seldom sometimes usually
"e usually put adver#ials of frequency in front of the main ver#:
"e often spend 1hristmas with friends.! have never en+oyed myself so much.
#ut they usually come after the ver# be:
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He was alwaystired in the evenin$.
"e are never late for work.
"e use the adver#ial a lotto mean often or fre#uently. !t comes at the end of the clause:
"e $o to the cinema a lot.
#ut before another time adver#ial:
"e $o to the cinema a lot at the wee&end.
"e use much with a negative to mean not often:
"e don$t$o out much. (= "e don&t $o out often)
"e use how often or ever to ask questions a#out fre#uency.ow often comes at
the beginning of the clause:
How often do you $o to the cinema
How often have you #een here
ever comes before the main ver#:
3o you ever $o to the cinema at the weekend
Have you ever #een there
on$er frequency phrases, like every year or three times a dayusually come at the end of the
clause:
! have an n$lish lesson twice a wee&.
he $oes to see her mother every day.
already) still) yet and no longer
"e use still to show that somethin$ continues up to a timein the past present or future. !t $oes
in front of the main ver#:
The children still en+oyed playin$ $ames.
They are still livin$ next door."e will still#e on holiday.
9 or after the present simple or the past simple of be:
Her $randfather is stillalive.
They were stillunhappy.
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"e use already to show that somethin$ has happened sooner than it was expected to happen.
ike still, it comes #efore the main ver#:
The car is AN. !&ve already fixed it.!t was early #ut they were already sleepin$.
9 or afterthe present simple or past simple of the ver# be:
!t was early #ut we were already tired.
"e are already late.
"e useyet in a ne$ative or interro$ative clause, usually with perfective aspect (especially in
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! for$et thin$s more oftennowadays.
he #e$an to speak more #uic&ly.
They are workin$ harder now.
"e often use than with comparative adver#s
! for$et thin$s more often than ! used to.
2irls usually work harder than#oys.
Intensifiers,
"e use these words and phrases as intensifiers with these patterns:much - far - a lot - #uite a lot - a great deal - a good deal - a good bit - a fair bit
! for$et thin$s much more often nowadays.
/itigators,
"e use these words and phrases as miti$ators:a bit - $ust a bit - a little - a little bit - $ust a little bit - slightly
he #e$an to speak a bit more quickly
uncount nouns
ome nouns in n$lish are uncount nouns.
"e do not use uncount nouns in the plural and we do not use them with the indefinite article,
a?an.
"e ate a lot of foods / "e ate a lot of food
"e #ou$ht some new furnitures / "e #ou$ht some new furniture
That&s auseful information / That&s useful information
"e can use some #uantifiers with uncount nouns:
He $ave me some useful advice.They $ave us a lot of information.
Oncount nouns often refer to:
Substances: foodD waterD wineD saltD #readD iron
Human feelings or #ualities: an$erD crueltyD happinessD honestyD prideD
5ctivities: helpD sleepD travelD work
5bstract ideas: #eautyD deathD funD life
0ommon uncount nouns
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There are some common nouns in n$lish, like accommodation, which are uncount nouns even
thou$h they haveplurals in other languages:
advice #a$$a$e equipment furniture homework information
knowled$e lu$$a$e machinery money news traffic
et me $ive you some advice.
How much luggagehave you $ot
!f we want to make these thin$s counta#le, we use e-pressions like:
a piece of... pieces of... a #it of... #its of... an item of... items of...
et me $ive you a piece of advice.
That&s auseful piece of equipment."e #ou$ht a few bits offurniture for the new apartment.
he had six separate items of lu$$a$e.
#ut we do not use accommodation, money and traffic in this way.
common problems with count4uncount nouns
;, 'ncount nouns used as count nouns
'lthou$h substances are usually uncount nouns...
"ould you like some cheese
0offee keeps me awake at ni$ht.
Wine makes me sleep.
... they can #e also used as count nouns:
!&d like a coffee please. = !&d like a 5cup of7 coffee.
6ay ! have a white wine. = 6ay ! have a 5$lass of7 white wine.
They sell a lot of coffees. = They sell a lot of 5different kinds of7 coffee.
! prefer white wines to red. = ! prefer 5different kinds of7 white wine to red.
They had over twenty cheeses on sale. = They had over twenty 5types of7 cheese on sale.
This is an excellent soft cheese. = This 5kind of7 soft cheese is excellent.
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"e should always have hope.
2eor$e had hopes of promotion.
Travel is a $reat teacher."here did you $o on your travels
=, 2ouns with two meanings
ome nouns have two meanings, one count and the other non count:
His life was in danger.
There is a serious danger of fire.in$uistics is the study of language.
!s n$lish a difficult language
!t&s made of paper.The Times is an excellent paper.
Ather words like this are:
#usiness death industry marria$e power property
tax time victory use work
>, 'ncount nouns that end in #s
ome uncount nouns end in -sso they look like plurals even thou$h they are sin$ular nouns.
These nouns $enerally refer to:
Subjects of study, mathematics) physics) economics) etcG
'ctivities: $ymnastics, athletics, etc.
2ames: cards, darts, #illiards, etc.
3iseases: mumps, measles, ra#ies, etc.
conomics isa very difficult su#+ect.
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family flock $an$ $overnment $roup herd
media pu#lic re$iment staff team
"e can use these $roup nouns either as sin$ular nouns or as plural nouns:
6y family isvery dear to me.
! have a lar$e family. They arevery dear to me. (= The mem#ers of my family9)
The $overnment isvery unpopular.
The $overnment arealways chan$in$ their minds.
ometimes we think of the $roup as a sin$le thin$:
The audience always enjoysthe show.
The $roup consistsof two men and three women.
ometimes we think of the $roup as several individualsD
The audience clapped theirhands.
The lar$est $roup arethe #oys.
The names of many organisationsand teams are also $roup nouns, #ut they are usuallyplural in spoken n$lish:
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We$ve got three pairs of scissors) but they are all bluntG
I always carry two pairs of binocularsG
proper nouns2ames of people) places and organisations are called proper nounsG We spell proper nouns
with a capital letter,
6ohammed 'liD
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"e use these forms:
to talk a#out the present:
He wor&s at 6c3onald&s. He has wor&ed there for three months now.He is wor&ing at 6c3onald&s. He has been wor&ing there for three months now.
ondon is the capital of
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somethin$ that is fixed in the future.
The school term starts next week.
The train leaves at FLGM this evenin$."e fly to aris next week.
present continuous
The present continuous tense is formed from the present tense of the ver# beand the present
participle (-ingform) of a ver#:
'se
F. "e use the present continuous tense to talk a#out the present:
for somethin$ that is happenin$ at the moment of spea&ing:
!$m just leavingwork. !&ll #e home in an hour.
lease #e quiet. The children are sleeping.
for somethin$ which is happenin$ #efore and after a $iven time:
't ei$ht o&clock we are usually having#reakfast."hen ! $et home the children are doing their homework.
for somethin$ which we thin& is temporary:
6ichael is at university. He$s studyinghistory.
!$m wor&ingin ondon for the next two weeks.
for somethin$ which is new and contrasts with a previous state:
These days most people are using email instead of writin$ letters."hat sort of clothes are teenagers wearing nowadays "hat sort of music are theylistening to
to show that somethin$ is chan$in$, $rowin$ or developing:
The children are growing quickly.
The climate is changing rapidly.
*our n$lish is improving.
for somethin$ which happens again and again:
!t$s always rainingin ondon.
They are always arguing.2eor$e is $reat. He$s always laughing.
2ote: "e normally use always with this use.
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E. "e use the present continuous tense to talk a#out the future:
for somethin$ which has #een arranged or planned:
6aryis going to a new school next term.
"hat are you doing next week
K. "e can use the present continuous to talk a#out the past:
"hen we are tellin$ a story:
"hen we are summarisin$ the story from a #ook, film or play etc.:
present perfect
The present perfect is formed from the present tense of the verb haveand
the past participleof a verb:
The present perfect continuous is formed with have/has been and the -ingform of the ver#:
'se
"e use the present perfect tense:
for somethin$ that started in the past and continues in the present:
They$ve been marriedfor nearly fifty years.
he has livedin iverpool all her life.2ote,"e normally use the present perfect continuous for this:
he has been livingin iverpool all her life.
!t$s been rainingfor hours.
for somethin$ we have done several timesin the pastand continueto do:
!$ve playedthe $uitar ever since ! was a teena$er.
He has writtenthree #ooks and he is workin$ on another one.
!$ve been watchingthat pro$ramme every week.
"e often use a clause with since to show when somethin$ started in the past:
They$ve been stayingwith us since last week.! have wor&edhere since ! left school.
!$ve been watchingthat pro$ramme every week since it started.
when we are talkin$ a#out our e-perience up to the present:Note: We often use the adverb ever to talk about eperience up to the present:
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6y last #irthday was the worst day ! have ever had.
2ote: and we use never for the ne$ative form:
Have youevermet2eor$e*es, #ut I$ve never methis wife.
for somethin$ that happened in the past #ut is important at the time of speakin$:
! can&t $et in the house. !$ve lostmy keys.
Teresa isn&t at home. ! think she has goneshoppin$.!&m tired out. !$ve been wor&ingall day.
"e use the present perfect of bewhen someone has gone to a place and returned:
': "here have you been
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past tense
There are two tenses in n$lish past and present.
The past tense in n$lish is used:
to talk a#out the past
to talk a#out hypotheses thin$s that are ima$ined rather than true.
for politeness.
There are fourpast tense forms in n$lish:
Past simple, I wor&ed
ast continuous: ! was workin$
ast perfect: ! had worked
ast perfect continuous: ! had #een workin$
"e use these forms:
to talk a#out the past:
He wor&ed at 6c3onald&s. He had wor&ed there since %uly..
He was wor&ing at 6c3onald&s. He had been wor&ing since %uly.
to refer to the present or future in conditions:
He could $et a new +o# if he really tried.
!f %ack was playing they would pro#a#ly win.
and hypotheses:!t mi$ht #e dan$erous. uppose they got lost.
! would always help someone who really needed help.
and wishes:
! wish it wasn$t so cold.
!n conditions, hypotheses and wishes, if we want to talk a#out the past, we always use
the past perfect:
! would have helped him if he had as&ed.
!t was very dan$erous, "hat if you had got lost
! wish ! hadn$t spent so much money last month.
"e can use the past forms to talk a#out the present in a few polite e-pressions:
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xcuse me, ! was wondering if this was the train for *ork.
! +ust hoped you would#e a#le to help me.
ast imple
'se
"e use the past tense to talk a#out:
somethin$ that happened once in the past:
! met my wife in FLJK.
"e went to pain for our holidays.They got home very late last ni$ht.
somethin$ that happened again and again in the past:
"hen ! was a #oy ! wal&ed a mile to school every day.
"e swam a lot while we were on holiday.They always enjoyed visitin$ their friends.
somethin$ that was true for some time in the past:
! lived a#road for ten years.
He enjoyed#ein$ a student.
he played a lot of tennis when she was youn$er.
we often use phrases with ago with the past tense:
! met my wife a lon$ time ago.
past continuous
The past continuous is formed from the past tense of bewith the -ingform of theverb:
"e use the past continuous to talk a#out the past:
for somethin$ which continued before and after another action:
The children were doing their homewor&when ! $ot home.1ompare:
! $ot home. The children did their homework.
and
The children did their homework when ! $ot home.
's ! was watchin$ television the telephone ran$.
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This use of the past continuous is very common at the #e$innin$ of a story:
The other day I was waiting for a #us when 9ast week as I was driving to work 9
for somethin$ that happened before and after a particular time:
!t was ei$ht o&clock. ! was writin$ a letter.
1ompare:
't ei$ht o&clock ! wrote some letters.!n %uly she was workin$ in 6c3onald&s.
.to show that somethin$ continued for some time:
6y head was aching.veryone was shouting.
for somethin$ that was happenin$ again and again:
! was practising every day, three times a day.They were meeting secretly after school.
They were always #uarrelling.
with ver#s which show change or growth:
The children were growing upquickly.Her n$lish was improving.6y hair was going $rey.
The town was changing quickly.
past perfect
"e use the ver# hadand the past participle for the past perfect:
! had finished the work.he had gone .
The past perfect continuous is formed with had been and the %ingform of the ver#:
! had been finishingthe work
She had been$oing.
The past perfect is used in the same way as the present perfect, #ut it refers to a time in the past,not the present.
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"e use the past perfect tense:
for somethin$ that started in the past and continued up to a $iven time in the past:
"hen 2eor$e died he and 'nne had been married for nearly fifty years.
he didn&t want to move. he had lived in iverpool all her life.
"e normally use the past perfect continuous for this:
he didn&t want to move. he had been living in iverpool all her life.
verythin$ was wet. !t had been raining for hours.
for somethin$ we had done several times up to a point in the past and continued to
do after that point:
He was a wonderful $uitarist. He had been playing ever since he was a teena$er.
He had written three#ooks and he was workin$ on another one.! had been watching the pro$ramme every week, #ut ! missed the last episode.
"e often use a clause with since to show when somethin$ started in the past:
They had #een stayin$ with us since the previous week.! was sorry when the factory closed. ! had worked there since ! left school.
! had #een watchin$ that pro$ramme every week sinceit started, #ut ! missed the last
episode.
when we are reportin$ our experience and includin$ up to the (then) present:
6y ei$hteenth #irthday was the worst day ! had ever had.! was pleased to meet 2eor$e. ! hadn&t met him #efore, even thou$h ! had met his wife
several times.
for somethin$ that happened in the past #ut is important at the time of reportin$:
! couldn&t $et into the house.I had lost my keys.
Teresa wasn&t at home. She had gone shoppin$.
"e use the past perfect to talk a#out the past in conditions, hypotheses and wishes:
! would have helped him if he had as&ed.
!t was very dan$erous. "hat if you had gotlost
! wish I hadn$t spentso much money last month.
perfective aspect
"e use the present perfectto show that somethin$ has continued up to the present
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They$ve beenmarried for nearly fifty years.
he has lived in iverpool all her life.
9 or is important in the present:
!$ve lostmy keys. ! can&t $et into the house.Teresa isn&t at home. ! think she has goneshoppin$.
"e use the present perfect continuous to show that somethin$ has #een continuin$ up to the
present:
!t$s been rainingfor hours."e$ve been waitinghere since six o&clock this mornin$.
"e use the past perfectto show that somethin$ continued up to a time in the past:
"hen 2eor$e died he and 'nne had beenmarried for nearly fifty years.
... or was important at that time in the past:
! couldn&t $et into the house. ! had lostmy keys.
Teresa wasn&t at home. he had goneshoppin$.
"e use the past perfect continuous to show that somethin$ had #een continuin$ up to a time in
the past or was important at that time in the past:
verythin$ was wet. !t had been rainingfor hours.
He was a wonderful $uitarist. He had been playingever since he was a teena$er.
"e use will with the perfect to show that somethin$ will #e complete at some time in the future:
!n a few years they will have discovereda cure for the common cold.
! can come out toni$ht. !:ll have finishedmy homework #y then.
"e use would with the perfect to refer to somethin$ that did not happen in the past #ut would
have happened if the conditions had been right:
!f you had asked me ! would have helpedyou.
! would have helpedyou, #ut you didn&t ask me.*ou didn&t ask me or ! would have helpedyou.
"e use other modals with perfective aspect when we are loo&ing bac&from a point in time
when somethin$ mi$ht have happened, should have happened or would have happened.The point of time may #e in the future:
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"e&ll meet a$ain next week. "e might have finished the work #y then.
! will phone at six o&clock. He should have got home #y then.
the present:
!t&s $ettin$ late. They should have arrived#y now.He&s still not here. He must have missed his train.
or the past:
! wasn&t feelin$ well. ! must have eaten somethin$ #ad.
! checked my cell phone. he could have left a messa$e.
continuous aspect
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"e have moved from
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active passive
! $ave him a #ook for his #irthday //He was $iven a #ook for his#irthday.
omeone sent her a cheque for a
thousand euros //
he was sent a cheque for a
thousand euros.
"e can use phrasal verbs in the passive:
active passive
They called off the meetin$. // The meetin$ was called off.
His $randmother loo&edafterhim.
//He was loo&ed after#y his
$randmother.
They will send him away to
school.// He will be sent away to school.
ome ver#s very fre#uently used in the passive are followed #y the to%infinitive:
#e supposed to #e expected to #e asked to
#e scheduled to #e allowed to #e told to
%ohnhas been as&ed tomake a speech at the meetin$.
*ou are supposed towear a uniform.The meetin$ is scheduled tostart at seven.
to K infinitive
"e use the to-infinitive:
0 to express purpose(to answer >"hy...>):
He #ou$ht some flowers to giveto his wife.
He locked the door to &eep everyone out.
"e sometimes say in order to or in order not to:
"e set off early in order toavoid the traffic.
They spoke quietly in order not towake the children
9 or we can say so as to or so as not to:
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"e set off early so as toavoid the traffic.
They spoke quietly so as not towake the children.
0 after certain verbs (seever#s followed #y infinitive), particularly ver#sof thin&ing and feeling:
choose, decide, e"pect, forget, hate, hope, intend, learn, like,
love, mean, plan, prefer, remember, want, would like, would love
9 and ver#s of saying:
agree, promise, refuse
They decided tostart a #usiness to$ether.
emember to turn the li$hts out.
ome ver#s are followed #y a direct objectand the infinitive(see ver#s followed #y infinitive):
advise, ask, encourage, invite, order, persuade, remind, tell, warn,
e"pect, intend, would prefer, want, would like
he remindedme to turn the li$hts out.
He encouragedhis friends to vote for him.
0 after certain adjectives.
ometimes the to-infinitive $ives a reason for the ad+ective:
disappointed
$lad
sad
happy
anxious
pleased
surprised
proud
unhappy
"e were happy to come to the end of our +ourney
= "e were happy #ecause we had come to the end of our +ourney
%ohn was surprised to see me= He was surprised #ecause he saw me
Other adjectives with the to-infinitive are:
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a#le
una#le
due
ea$er
keen
likely
unlikely
ready
prepared
unwillin$
willin$
Onfortunately ! was unable to wor& for over a week.
! am really tired. !&m ready to go to #ed.
"e often use the to-infinitive with these ad+ectives after it to give opinions:
difficult
easy
possi#le
impossi#le
hard
ri$ht
wron$
kind
nice
clever
silly
foolish
!t&s easy to play the piano, #ut it&s very difficult to play well.
He spoke so quickly it was impossible to understand him.
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"e use the prepositionfor to show who these ad+ectives refer to:
difficult
easy
possi#le
impossi#le
hard
!t was difficult for us to hear what she was sayin$.
!t is easy for you to criticise other people.
"e use the preposition of with other ad+ectives:
!t&s &ind of youto help.
!t would #e silly of him to spend all his money.
0 's a postmodifier (see noun phrases) after a#stract nouns like:
a#ility
desire
need
wish
attempt
failure
opportunity
chance
intention
! have no desire to be rich.
They $ave him an opportunity to escape.he was annoyed #y her failure to answer the #uestion correctly.
0 "e often use a to-infinitive as a postmodifier after an indefinite pronoun (ee indefinite
pronouns):
"hen ! am travellin$ ! always take something to read.
! was all alone. ! had no one to talk to.There is hardly anything to do in most of these small towns.
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admit like hate start avoid
su$$est en+oy dislike #e$in finish
as the o#+ect of a preposition
ome people are not interested in learningn$lish.
The -ingad+ective can come:
in front of a noun:
! read an interesting article in the newspaper today."e saw a really e-citing match on unday.
The commonest in$ ad+ectives used in front of the noun are
amusin$ interestin$ worryin$ shockin$ disappointin$
#orin$ surprisin$ excitin$ terrifyin$ fri$htenin$
tirin$ annoyin$
after a noun:
"ho is that man standing over there
The boy tal&ing to 'n$ela is her youn$er #rother.
and especially after ver#s like see, watch, hear, smell etc.
! heard someone playing the piano.
! can smell somethin$ burning.
tal&ing about the present
;G We use the present simple,
to talk a#out somethin$ happenin$ regularly in the present:
The children come home from school at a#out four."e often see your #rother at work.
to talk a#out somethin$ happenin$ continually in the present:
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They live next door to us.
He wor&s for the ost Affice.
to talk a#out thin$s which are generally true:
"ater boils at FII de$rees 1elsius.The 8ile is the lon$est river in 'frica.
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very#ody wor&ed hard throu$h the winter.
"e stayed with our friends in ondon.
"hen we are talkin$ a#out somethin$ that happened several times in the past we use
the past simple:
6ost evenin$s we stayed at home and watched 33s.
ometimes they went out for a meal.
9 or used to
6ost evenin$s we used to stay at home and watch 33s.
"e used to $o for a swim every mornin$.
... or would
6ost evenin$s he would ta&e the do$ for a walk.
They would often visit friends in urope.
"'8!82: "e do not normally use would with stative verbs.
"e use the past continuous:
when we are talkin$ a#out somethin$ which happened before and after a $iven time in
the past
!t was +ust after ten. ! was watching the news on T.
't half-time we were losing F-I.
when we are talkin$ a#out somethin$ happenin$ before and after another action in the
past:
He #roke his le$ when he was playing ru$#y.
he saw %im as he was driving away.
< The past in the past
"hen we are loo&ing bac& from a point in the past to somethin$ earlier in the past we use
the past perfect:
Helen suddenly remem#ered she had left her keys in the car.
"hen we had done all our shoppin$ we cau$ht the #us home.
They wanted to #uy a new computer, #ut they hadn$t saved enou$h money.They would have #ou$ht a new computer if they had saved enou$h money.
= The past and the present,
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"e use the present perfect:
when we are talkin$ a#out the effects in the present of somethin$ that happened in the
past:
! can&t open the door. !$ve leftmy keys in the car.%enny has found a new +o#. he works in a supermarket now.
"hen we are talkin$ a#out somethin$ that startedin the past and still $oes on:
"e have lived here since EIIB. (and we still live here)
! have been wor&ing at the university for over ten years.
> The future in the past
"hen we talk a#out the future from a time in the past we use:
would as the past tense of will
He thou$ht he would buy one the next day.
veryone was excited. The party would be fun.
was4were going to
%ohn was going to drive and 6ary was going to follow on her #icycle.
!t was riday. "e were going to set off the next day.
the past continuous:
!t was eptem#er. 6ary was starting school the next week.
"e were very #usy. The shop was opening in two weeks time.
tal&ing about the future
F. "hen we &now a#out the future we normally use the present tense.
"e use the present simplefor somethin$ scheduled or arran$ed:
We have a lesson next 6onday.The train arrives at C.KI in the mornin$.
The holidays start next week.
!t is my birthday tomorrow.
"e can use the present continuousfor plans or arran$ements:
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I$m playing football tomorrow.
They are coming to see us tomorrow.
We$re having a party at 1hristmas.
E. "e use will to talk a#out the future:
"hen we make predictions:
It will be a nice day tomorrow.
! think 7rail will win the "orld 1up.
!&m sure you will enjoy the film.
To mean want to or be willing to:
! hope you will come to my party.
2eor$e says he will help us.
To make offers and promises:
I:ll seeyou tomorrow.
We:ll sendyou an email.
To talk a#out offers and promises:
Tim will be at the meetin$.
/ary will help with the cookin$.
K. "e use (be) going to:
To talk a#out plans and intentions:
I$m going to drive to work today.
They are going to move to 6anchester.
"hen we can see that somethin$ is li&ely to happen:
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I might stay at home toni$ht, or I might go to the cinema.
We could see 6ary at the meetin$. he sometimes $oes.
C. "e can use should if we think somethin$ is li&ely to happen:
We should be home in time for tea.The game should be over #y ei$ht o&clock.
B. 1lauses with time words:
!n clauses with time words like when, after, and until we often use a present tense formto talk
a#out the future:
!&ll come home when I finish work.
*ou must wait here until your father comes.
They are comin$ after they have had dinner.
J. 1lauses with if:!n clauses with ifwe often use a present tense form to talk a#out the future:
"e won&t #e a#le to $o out if it rains.
If 7arcelona win tomorrow they will #e champions.
W52I2": "e do not normally use will in clauses with ifor withtime words:
!&ll come home when I willfinish wor&."e won&t #e a#le to $o out if it will rainrains.
7ut we can use will if it means a promise or offer:
! will #e very happy if you will come to my party.
"e should finish the +o# early if "eorge will help us.
L. "e can use the future continuous instead of the present continuous or $oin$ to for
emphasis when we are talkin$ a#out plans, arran$ements and intentions:
They$ll be coming to see us next week.
I will be drivingto work tomorrow.
verbs in time clauses and if clauses
er#s in time clauses and conditionals follow the same patterns as in other clauses e-cept:
!n clauses with time words like when, after, until we often use the present tense forms
to talk a#out the future:
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!&ll come home when I finishwork.
*ou must wait here until your father comes.
They are comin$ after they have haddinner.
in conditional clauses with if or unless we often use the present tense forms to talk
a#out the future:
"e won&t #e a#le to $o out if it is raining.
If 7arcelona wintomorrow they will #e champions.! will come tomorrow unless I have to loo& after the children.
"e do not normally use will in clauses with if or with time words:
!&ll come home when ! will finishwork.
"e won&t #e a#le to $o out if it will rain. rains.
!t will #e nice to see eter when he will $et home gets home.
*ou must wait here until you father will come comes.
#ut we can use will if it means a promise or offer:
! will #e very happy if you will come to my party.
"e should finish the +o# early if 2eor$e will help us.
(if( clauses and hypotheses
ome clauses with if are like hypotheses so we use past tenseforms to talk a#out the present and
future."e use the past tense forms to talk a#out the present in clauses with if :
for somethin$ that has not happened or is not happening:
He could $et a new +o# if he
really tried=
He cannot $et a +o# #ecause he has
not tried.
!f %ack wasplayin$ they would
pro#a#ly win=
%ack is not playin$ so they will
pro#a#ly not win.
!f ! had his address ! could write
to him =
! do not have his address so ! cannot
write to him.
"e use the past tense forms to talk a#out the future in clauses with if:
for somethin$ that we #elieve or know will not happen:
"e would $o #y train if it wasn$t so = "e won&t $o #y train #ecause it is
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expensive too expensive.
! would look after the children for
you at the weekend if !was at home=
! can&t look after the children
#ecause ! will not #e at home.
to make su$$estions a#out what might happen:
!f he came tomorrow we could #orrow his car.!f we invited %ohn, 6ary would #rin$ 'n$ela.
"hen we are talkin$ a#out somethin$ which did not happen in the past we use the past
perfect in the if clause and amodal ver# in the main clause:
!f you had seen him you could
have spoken to him=
*ou did not see him so you could not
speak to him
*ou could have stayed with us if
you had come to ondon
=*ou couldn&t stay with us #ecause you
didn&t come to ondon.!f we hadn&t spent all our money
we could take a holiday.=
"e have spent all our money so we
can&t take a holiday
!f ! had $ot the +o# we would #e
livin$ in aris=
! did not $et the +o# so we are not
livin$ in aris.
!f the main clause is a#out the past we use a modal with have:
!f you had seen him youcould have spoken to him.
=*ou did not see him so you couldnot speak to him.
*ou could have stayed with us ifyou had come to ondon.
=*ou couldn&t stay with us #ecauseyou didn&t come to ondon.
!f you had invited me !mi$ht have come.
=*ou didn&t invite me so ! didn&tcome.
!f the main clause is a#out the present we use a present tense form or a modal without have:
!f ! had $ot the +o# we would belivingin aris now.
=! did not $et the +o# so we are not
livin$ in aris now.
!f you had done your homework
you would &nowthe answer.=
*ou did not do your homework so
you do not know the answer.
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wishes and hypotheses
Wishes
"e usepast tense forms to talk a#out wishes:
"e use past tense modals would and could to talk a#out wishes for the future:
! don&t like my work. I wish I could $et a #etter +o#.That&s a dreadful noise. I wish it would stop.
! always have to $et home early. I wish my parents would let me stay out later.
"e use past tense forms to talk a#out wishes for the present:
! don&t like this place. I wish I lived in somewhere more interestin$.
These seats are very uncomforta#le. I wish we were travelling first class.
1veryone wishes they had more free time.9ohn wishes he wasn$t so #usy.
I wish it wasn$t so cold.
"e use the past perfect to talk a#out wishes for the past:
I wish I had wor&ed harder when ! was at school.
/ary wishes she had listened to what her mother told her.
I wish I hadn$t spent so much money last month.
Hypotheses things that we imagine!
"hen we are talkin$ a#out hypotheses:
"e use present tense formsafter phrases like what if, in case and suppose to talk a#out
the future if we think it is li&ely to happen:
Those steps are dan$erous. Suppose someone hasan accident.
"e should leave home early in case we are late.
"e use a past tenseform to talk a#out the future after suppose and what if to su$$est
somethin$ is not li&ely to happen:
!t mi$ht #e dan$erous. Suppose they got lost.
What if he lost his +o#. "hat would happen then
"e use modals would, could for a hypothesis a#out the future:
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"e can&t all stay in a hotel. It would be very expensive.
3rive carefully. You could have an accident.
"e use would in the main clause and thepast in a su#ordinate clause to talk a#out
the imagined future:
I would always help someone who really needed help.
I would always help someone if they really needed it.
"e use modals with have to talk a#out somethin$ that did not happen in the past:
! did not see 6ary, or I might have spo&en to her.
!t&s a pity %ack wasn&t at the party. He would have enjoyed this party."hy didn&t you ask me. I could have told you the answer.
lin& verbs
ome ver#s are followed #y either a noun or an ad+ective:
he was a $ood friend. = 8 W W 8
he was very happy. = 8 W W 'd+.
He #ecame headmaster. = 8 W W 8
He #ecame an$ry. = 8 W W 'd+.
These ver#s are called lin& verbs. 1ommon ver#s like this are:
#e
#ecome
appear
feel
look
remain
seem
sound
he seemedan intelli$ent woman.he seemed intelli$ent.
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He loo&ed hun$ry.
He loo&ed a $ood player.
'fter appear and seem we often use to be:
he appeared to bean intelli$ent woman.He seemed to be an$ry.
ome link ver#s are followed #y an adjective. 1ommon ver#s like this are:
$et
$o
$row
taste
smell
He gothun$ry in the evenin$.
She grewstron$er every day.
dele-ical verbs li&e have) ta&e) ma&e and give
3ele-ical verbs,
have, take, make, give, go and do
"e often use common ver#s like have and ta&e with nouns like a shower, a drink:
I took a shower. = ! showered.She had a drink. = he drank somethin$.
"e call thesedele-ical verbs#ecause the important part of the meanin$ is taken out of
the verb and put into the noun.
"e often put adjectives in front of the noun:I took acoldshower.
She had a nice' refreshing drink.
The ver#s used most frequently in this way are:have take make give
have
"e use have with:
6ood and drin&: a meal, #reakfast, lunch, dinner, a snack, a cup of tea
Tal&ing: a chat, a conversation, a discussion, a talk
Washing: a #ath, a shower, a wash, a scru#
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esting: a #reak, a holiday, a rest
3isagreeing: an ar$ument, a dispute, a fi$ht, a quarrel
I had a good breakfast before I left home.Wehad a long talkabout the problem.
The kids shouldhave a bathbefore they go to bed.
She generallyhad a short holidayin July or /ugust.Theyhad a serious #uarrelabout their father%s will.
"e also use have with nouns formed from verbs:
I thin& you should have a loo& at thisG
She had a bite of the ca&eG
I$m thirstyG I$m going to have a drin& of waterG
I had a listen to that new 03 in the carG
They are going to have a swimG
/odal verbs
The modal ver#s are:
can could
may might
shall should
will would
"e use modal ver#s to show if we #elieve somethin$ is certain, pro#a#le or possi#le (or not). "ealso use modals to do thin$s like talkin$ a#out a#ility, askin$ permission makin$ requests and
offers, and so on.
certain, pro#a#le or possi#le
a#ility, permission, requests and advice
modals W have
can, could and could have
may, mi$ht, may have and mi$ht have
can or could
will or would
will have or would have
https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/verbs/modal-verbs/certain-probable-or-possiblehttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/verbs/modal-verbs/ability-permission-requests-and-advicehttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/verbs/modal-verbs/modals-havehttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/verbs/modal-verbs/can-could-and-could-havehttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/verbs/modal-verbs/may-might-may-have-and-might-havehttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/verbs/modal-verbs/can-or-couldhttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/verbs/modal-verbs/will-or-wouldhttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/verbs/modal-verbs/will-have-or-would-havehttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/verbs/modal-verbs/certain-probable-or-possiblehttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/verbs/modal-verbs/ability-permission-requests-and-advicehttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/verbs/modal-verbs/modals-havehttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/verbs/modal-verbs/can-could-and-could-havehttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/verbs/modal-verbs/may-might-may-have-and-might-havehttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/verbs/modal-verbs/can-or-couldhttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/verbs/modal-verbs/will-or-wouldhttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/verbs/modal-verbs/will-have-or-would-have -
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certain) probable or possible
The modal ver#s are can, could, may, might, shall, should, will and would.
The modals are used to show that we #elieve somethin$ is certain, pro#a#le or possi#le:
Possibility,
"e use the modals could, might and may to show that somethin$ is possi#le in the future, #ut
not certain:
They might comelater. +0 1erhaps2Maybe they will come later.,
They may come#y car. +0 1erhaps2Maybe they will come by car.,!f we don&t hurry we could be late. +0 1erhaps2Maybe we will be late,
"e use could have, might have and may have to show that somethin$ was possi#le now or at
some time in the past:
!t&s ten o&clock. They might havearrived now.
They could have arrived hours a$o.
"e use the modal can to make general statements a#out what is possi#le:
!t can be very cold in winter. +0 It is sometimes very cold in winter,
*ou can easily lose your way in the dark. +0 1eople often lose their way in the dark,
"e use the modal could as the past tense of can:
!t could be very cold in winter. +0 Sometimes it was very cold in winter.,*ou could lose your way in the dark. +0 1eople often lost their way in the dark,
Impossibility,
"e use the ne$ative can!t or cannot to show that somethin$ is impossi#le:
That can$t be true.
*ou cannot be serious.
"e us