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Fall 2009

Trends Analysis: The Digital Divide

A View of the Digital Divide in the Context of Young Latina Girls from Low-Income

Families

Michele Bennett

Lisa Cole

Marisa Tapia

Ellen Reeder

Digital Divide – Definition

As schools begin to fill their classrooms and libraries with computers, interactive white boards,

eLearning tools, and the world wide web, the rush to understand how technologies affect the

outcomes of student learning has created a platform for research. Naysayers and supporters alike

are pushing forward to understand the connections between technology/media in the classroom

and best practices in systematic applications.

A direct result from the close examination of this research, educational technology nomenclature

now includes the phrase digital divide. From its initial conception ―first coined by Lloyd

Morrisett‖ (Pirofski), the term strives to provide theories that support the benefits of technology

in the classroom by comparing students who have access to technology and students who don’t.

One interpretation of the Morrisett’s digital divide, according to Martin Ryder, author of the

essay titled ―The Digital Divide,‖ submits, ―The digital divide refers to the gap between those

who can effectively benefit from information and computing technologies (ICTs) and those who

cannot.‖

The UK website, ―Internet Rights and Internet Wrongs,‖ expands Ryder’s definition to include a

more specific population and factors that accompany the concept,

The 'digital divide' is the term used to describe the growing gap, or social

exclusion, between those who have access to the new services of the information

society, and those who do not. This can be for a number of reasons: access to

education or training, lack of money to buy the required equipment, or lack of

access because of the problems obtaining the required communications links or

services to get online.

In an article edited by Mauro Bieg, on behalf of the The Foundation for P2P Alternatives, Bieg

cites the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development definition of the digital

divide stating,

OECD... roughly frames the digital divide as: "the gap between individuals,

households, businesses and geographic areas at different socio-economic levels

with regard both to their opportunities to access ICT and to their use of the

Internet for wide variety of activities."

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Bieg continues to cite Professor TeunVan Dijk’s, a professor of discourse studies, inclusion of

specific barriers that accompany the socioeconomically factors that define the digital divide:

1. ―Mental access": This type of access is restricted by a lack of elementary digital

experience caused by lack of interest, computer anxiety, and unattractiveness of

the new technology.

2. "Material access": This is restricted if there is no possession of computers and

network connections.

3. "Skills access": A lack of digital skills caused by insufficient user-friendliness

and inadequate education or social support limit skills access.

4. "Usage access": Lack of significant usage opportunities restrict (sic) usage

access.

An evaluation of these definitions presents viewpoints that suggest the ―...digital divide is

not just about access to technology, nor necessarily of high cost, but has a socio-

economic component,‖ (Bieg). The disparity between the have and the have-nots is not

a new concept in the context of education and academic performance: Historically, the

attainment of knowledge and the opportunities gained by that knowledge are obtainable

to those who can afford it.

Correlation of Digital Divide and Student Performance

One analysis of data collected from technology in education research acknowledges a correlation

between the digital divide (students who are unable to access technology) and low academic

performance in economically challenged schools. According to research conducted by Kira Isak

Pirofski, in her essay Are All Schools Equally Wired: An overview of the digital divide in

elementary and secondary schools in the United States, the negative implications of this

technological divide between the haves and the have-nots results in student populations that do

not have the same educational opportunities as their counterparts. Pirofski explains how this

divide impacts student’s future in terms academic motivation and career potential:

Minority and low income students who are not provided programming,

networking, and word processing skills will have compromised educational,

economic, and employment possibilities. Post-secondary educational institutions

expect students to be computer literate, and almost all forms of employment have

placed an increasing premium on computer skills.

It seems logical to assume that schools who service demographics that include a majority of

underprivileged and underrepresented populations, minorities, areas of low-income housing and

homelessness, and rising rates of unemployment do not have the funds to provide innovative

technology in the classrooms. If the current research is correct in its assumption that students

who cannot readily access technology will struggle to succeed in school as well as in society,

then the digital divide also becomes an indicator of national economic progress. It is likely that,

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due to the nature of ever evolving innovations in the field of technology, the digital divide is

determined to widen as schools with monetary resources invest more in improving the quality of

educational technology. Ryder responds to such probabilities by stating,

For those who can both contribute and retrieve information from the Web, ICTs

hold the promise of broad collaborations in science and technology, transparency

in government, rationality of markets, and shared understandings between

peoples. Sadly, this utopian promise applies only to an elite few.

Understanding the predictors of educational and social inequities that allows the digital

divide to grow should aid in policy changes that present opportunities for all students to

achieve their fullest potential. ―Like access to food or clean water, access to essential

information has moral and ethical implications that merit consideration in the formation

of public policy,‖ (Ryder).

Gaps in Achievement - Narrowing the Focus

In the 2008 Immigration Report by the U.S. Department of Homeland Security, the

United State’s largest population of Legal Permanent Residents (LPR) originates from

Mexico:

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Figure 1

Focusing on the total of Latinos, in general, exceeds forty million residents:

United States

Estimate Margin of Error

Total: 301,237,703 *****

Not Hispanic or Latino 255,805,545 +/-5,825

Hispanic or Latino: 45,432,158 +/-5,828

Mexican 29,318,971 +/-52,779

Puerto Rican 4,127,728 +/-28,732

Cuban 1,572,138 +/-15,633

Dominican (Dominican Republic) 1,249,471 +/-19,018

Central American 3,592,810 +/-38,947

South American 2,544,070 +/-28,320

Other Hispanic or Latino 3,026,970 +/-31,123

Figure 2

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2006-2008 American Community Survey

Among these Latino residents, over 90% live at or below the nation’s poverty level (US

Census). In accordance, ―The schools many Latinos attend are more crowded, have

higher teacher turnover, and tend to have teachers with less experience. These schools’

limited resources may restrict Latino students’ access to rigorous academic programs or

after-school enrichment activities‖ (Listening to Latinas...).

The ability for young Latinos (specifically immigrants and first generation) to succeed in

school is challenged by several factors: language barriers, prejudice, poverty, and

famillia obligations, cultural values, etc. Investigating the gap in student achievement,

regardless of ethnicity, reveals the relationship between socioeconomic factors and

learning outcomes. Findings from a recent Washington Assessment of Student Learning

Test produced the following data:

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Figure 3

According to these findings, and other related research, poverty levels and learning

outcomes are directly related to one another. Adding an ethnicity component to the

student’s profile increases the risk of the student not graduating from high school.

In 2000, about 530,000 Hispanic 16-to-19-year-olds were high school dropouts,

yielding a dropout rate of 21.1 percent for all Hispanic 16-to-19-year-olds (U.S.

Census Bureau, 2003). The Latino youth dropout rate was more than three times

greater than the 2000 non-Hispanic "white alone" dropout rate of 6.9 percent. As a

measure of the future schooling and social and economic prospects among teen

populations, these aggregate status dropout rates clearly underline the

disadvantages that Latino youth have, on average, upon entry to adulthood

(ERIC).

The Latina Experience

Narrowing the focus of those affected by a growing digital divide, from the Latino experience to

the Latina experience, specifically, renders yet another factor to consider; gender. Latinas are the

Figure 4

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fastest growing group of female school-aged youth (Listening to Latinas...). In an attempt to

understand and authenticate the Latina experience, the National Women’s Law Center produced

a comprehensive publication in August of 2009, titled, Listening to Latinas: Barriers to High

School Graduation. According to the study,

Forty-one percent of Latinas—as compared to 22% of White girls—fail to

graduate from high school on time with a standard diploma. Failure to obtain a

high school diploma has life-long negative consequences for Latinas’ health and

economic well-being, as well as a long-term impact on the general strength of the

United States labor force. Almost half of Latinas between the ages of 25 and 64

who lack a high school diploma are unemployed. Those who are employed earn

an average annual income of only $15,030. These grim prospects have serious

consequences: for example, 35% of Latina high school dropouts are forced to rely

on Medicaid for health care services.

Although many Latina girls initially revealed high aspirations for their future; however,

after reflecting on the barriers they faced, too many reconsidered their possibilities and

changed their responses, indicating they probability wouldn’t meet their own

expectations (Listening to Latinas...).

Figure 5

Poverty, gender, ethnicity, and self-efficacy are the obstructions Latinas face when trying to

attain a high school diploma and then furthering their education and career opportunities. In

response to this data, research submits that

...minority and low income students (Latinas) who are given access to computer

technology have a better attitude towards school and a more positive self image.

Students who access said technology do better academically in school than

students who are not given access to computers (Kosakowski, 1998). These

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factors could translate into lower drop out (sic) rates for minorities and low

income elementary and secondary school students (Pirofski).

Creating environments that offer material access to technology allows Latina students to

engage in their education at levels equal to those of their digital-divide counter parts.

Utilizing technology tools as a part of their learning experience, Latinas are given the

mental skills to rise above the challenges they face in school and then again in their adult

lives. ―As one teacher explained, ―get[ting Latinas] into the real world‖ is key to giving

them hope for the future and role models with whom they can identify...‖ (Listening to

Latinas:...).

It is critical to America’s social and economic welfare that this problem be remedied, particularly

because Latinas are the fastest growing group of female school-aged youth (NWLC).

Connecting with Technology and Media – A Cultural Perspective

Connecting Latinas with usage access to media, eLearning, and technology experiences

in their educational environments can be the key to Latina women advancing into career

opportunities they would not have thought possible. One aspect of connecting Latinas to

technology is the relevance of the media to the Latina experience. Closing the

technology gap includes designing educational technology applications that speak to the

interests and values Latina girls. This consideration should be made during the analysis

phase of any instructional design development. It is also imperative that designers reflect

on their own cultural experiences and how they affect the design process.

How we learn, how we talk and graph and walk and dance, what we

believe and what we value, are all both unique to us and to each occasion,

but also usually somehow typical of people who have led lives like ours:

people of our time and place, of our 'gender' 'class' and 'race' (though with

the serious caveats described below), of our own age, our customary

education and religious training, our mixture of cultural heritages, and all

the cultures of all the communities small and large in which we have lived

(Lemke).

Without consideration of these cultural factors...

Such reinforcing factors contributing to the knowledge gap may also be

contributing to the racial divide on the Internet, in terms of both adoption and

usage. For instance, mass media coverage of the Internet is likely of greater

interest and relevancy to those who are already on the Internet and/or have family

and friends who are online than those who have not adopted. If we start with a

base rate of fewer minorities than whites using the Internet, then an information

gap may exist (and potentially widen) between the races in terms of how to

access, use and benefit from the Internet as mass media coverage of the Internet

increases (Listening to Latinas:...).

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Advice for program planners, offered by Peter J. Patsula divulges:

If instruction is to have its highest learning impacts and to the most good for

students, instructional designers must be cognizant of the cultures of their learners

and how those cultures manifest themselves in learning preferences (Patsula).

Culture includes, ―...how people express themselves (including shows of emotion), the way they

think, how they move, how problems are solved,as well as economic and government systems

are put together,‖ (Parrish,...). In conjunction with technology in the classroom, the instruction

and media presented must honor the cultural values and learning style needed to interest young

Latinas who will then identify with, and in turn, use the technology.

Historically, Latina women have been stereotyped as low performing in academics, viewed as

super sexual, and deemed uninterested in furthering their life-long learning. Eliminating these

stereotypes from the media and replacing them with positive role models and sites that encourage

Latina women to explore possibilities outside of their communities is a way designers and

instructor can play vital roles in bridging the digital divide.

Utilizing Website and Online sources of learning can offer Latinas an avenue in which they can

associate the content with their individual and cultural needs; this is important to their successful

acculturation of educational media and technology. Research suggests that users fully engage in

content that they can identify with. The question for designers is what does this look like for

Latinas who come from culturally traditional, migrant, or poverty level environments?

There may also be fewer cross-channel references across media for those in the

minority, especially for those in lower socioeconomic segments. For instance,

schools, churches, local retailers or other community services in urban poor

neighborhoods may not have Web sites or use the Internet for communication.

Consequently, Internet content may seem remote or irrelevant to the personal

lives of the majority of urban poor (NWLC).

If students do not have technology access in their home or social settings then it is up to the

educational system to contribute the tools Latinas (and all students) need to interact with

technology. The possibilities of underprivileged Latinas using computers and becoming

computer literate more than likely takes place in their educational settings as opposed to their

homes. Because of this, it is imperative that all schools have equal access to educational

technology and media – and enough computers for all students to explore at regular intervals in

their classrooms or on personal projects. Instruction can be made more efficient when learners

engage in activities within a supportive environment and receive guidance mediated by

appropriate tools (Patsula comment on Vytgovski). It is critical to America’s social and

economic welfare that this problem (equity in education) be remedied, particularly because

Latinas are the fastest growing group of female school-aged youth (NWLC).

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The Latino Family Dynamics: An Analysis of Cultural History, Causes and Interactions

Hispanic and Latino are both labels used to describe people who come from a variety of

countries and cultural backgrounds. According to Gonzalez and Gandara (2005) both Latin

Americans and Spaniards—like to call themselves "Latinos". ―Hispanic‖ is the official

designation of the United States Census used to track population changes or trends

(http://www.ianrpubs.unl.edu/epublic/archive/g1439/build/g1439.pdf). Hispanics or Latinos are

the latest and most recent group to enter the next so called "melting pot" in the United States as

they are the fastest growing minority in the United States (http://usa.usembassy.de/society-

hispanics.htm). This perception is mostly due to the media attention given to Hispanic groups in

the 1980's. People associated the growth with immigration, ignoring the long history of

Hispanics in the United States. Hispanic heritage in the U.S. goes back a long time. When

Plymouth was founded in 1620, Santa Fe was celebrating its first decade and St. Augustine its

55th anniversary. Spanish settlements developed in the southwest U.S. and also in the Gulf coast

and the Florida peninsula. Some Latinos can trace their ancestors back to those days.

http://usa.usembassy.de/society-hispanics.htm

Over the past 20 years there have been a growing number of immigrants from Latin American

countries to include Spain and its Spanish speaking islands of Mallorca, Minorca and Ibiza

migrating to the United States. The primary reasons for the influx of Latinos leaving their

countries and seeking a better life in the United States include political, social and economical.

According to Latino Eyes, a division of C and R Research Services (2006), currently, one out of

four children entering grade school is of Hispanic/Latin American decent. In 1950, fewer than

four million U.S. residents were from Spanish-speaking countries. Today that number is about 45

million. About 50 percent of Hispanics in the United States have origins in Mexico. The other 50

percent come from a variety of countries, including El Salvador, the Dominican Republic, and

Colombia. Thirty-six percent of the Hispanics in the United States live in California. Several

other states have large Hispanic populations, including Texas, New York, Illinois, and Florida.

In Florida hundreds of thousands of Cubans fleeing the Castro regime have settled

predominantly in the Southeastern portion of the state with a large proponent in the Broward-

Dade Counties from Fort Lauderdale and south to Miami. There are so many Cuban Americans

in Miami that the Miami Herald, the city's largest newspaper, publishes separate editions in

English and Spanish. http://usa.usembassy.de/society-hispanics.htm. The following graphic

depicts where Hispanics or Latinos reside in the United States:

http://usa.usembassy.de/society-hispanics.htm

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The term Hispanic was coined by the federal government in the 1970's to refer to the people who

were born in any of the Spanish-speaking countries of the Americas or those who could trace

their ancestry to Spain or former Spanish territories http://usa.usembassy.de/society-

hispanics.htm. This represents a wide variety of countries and ethnic groups with different

social, political and emotional experiences. Most Hispanics see themselves in terms of their

individual ethnic identity, as Mexican American, Puerto Rican, Cuban, Peruvian, Ecuadorian,

Argentine, Chilean, and Brazilian etc instead of members of the larger, more ambiguous term

Hispanic or Latino (http://usa.usembassy.de/society-hispanics.htm).

According to Latino Eyes a division of C and R Research Services (2006) Latinos have deeply

embedded roots in family unity and perspective family roles as well as Catholicism. The father

figure is to be the sole provider for the family. The wife is predominantly to be the silent partner

and uphold the husband’s household rules or wishes. Family unity is also part of daily life.

Children of the family have also distinct roles. The male children should uphold or emulate

paternal behaviors while the daughters are to uphold and be molded by their mothers yet uphold

their father’s wishes in regards to family, marriage and children. The male children are

encouraged to take an active role in their education as they are to be future husbands, fathers and

household providers. The daughters are encouraged to place more value on becoming wives,

raising children and maintaining the household. Latinas often internalize this submissiveness

and are thus characterized as underachievers. Although education is emphasized for the

daughters, home and family life is highly encouraged. In regards to family unity, respect should

not go unmentioned. Respect is the basis of all family and social interaction. Respect for their

elders, family unity, language, religion, culture and food.

Access and Funding

Many factors contribute to the digital divide. There are language barriers and inequities in

socioeconomic status, along with differences in attitudes, cultural mores, priorities, and

geographic location. According to Latino Eyes, a division of C & R Research, Latinos are the

fastest growing population and the largest minority in US. In terms of our educational system,

one out of four students entering grade school are of Latin decent. Open education is striving to

overcome these factors and make education available, and accessible to everyone. Open

education is an important first step, but open does not automatically mean accessible (Lane,

2009). Low–income families cannot afford personal computers. Many school districts in low–

income locations cannot afford updates in technology. In an attempt to make technology

available to underprivileged minority groups, Antonia Stone opened Playing to Win in New

York City's Harlem in 1983, creating the first center providing public access to personal

computers in a low-income neighborhood. The center served more than 500 people each week,

including children whose local schools lacked enough computers, and adults seeking new

technology skills for the labor market.

Technology centers received funding from the National Science Foundation to expand their

influence. Now there are many technology centers around the US, and they have partnered with

other members to include not only stand-alone technology access centers but also large

community organizations like the National Urban League, Boys and Girls Clubs, YMCAs, and

public libraries. Major funding for hardware, software, and training from the Bill and Melinda

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Gates Foundation have funded community technology centers in public libraries. Many other

programs have started to help bridge the digital divide. From the ThinkQuest program in

Massachusetts to the Plugged in Greenhouse program in Silicon Valley California. Innovation in

the form community technology centers and after school programs continues to meet the needs

of low-income communities (Sargent, 2002).

The Problem of Engaging Latina Girls – Gaming and Avatars

Having access to technology does not automatically mean there will be engagement. How can

the population of Latina girls be reached with technology? Researching and implementing ways

to engage students is having a systemic impact on education in the classroom and online.

There have been many programs started to address the issue of making technology engaging for

girls. The RAPUNSEL project developed a game world called Peeps, which is designed to

provide girls with opportunities to design parts of the game and, in the process, develop

computer-programming skills. Game-related quests and tutorials are designed to help players

learn programming concepts as they play the game. In the Peeps environment, all students play a

female character, which interacts with the inhabitants of the world by dancing with them.

Students create dances by using increasingly complex computer programming skills. Research

findings indicate that computer games designed with a focus on learning and literacy, such as

Peeps, may be ―able to influence motivation, self- efficacy, and self-esteem for populations of

students that have traditionally been ―turned away‖ from computer science-related fields‖ (Plass,

et. al. 2007).

Zoey’s Room is another program targeting girls. Behind the animated characters Zoey and her

Ecuadorian friend, Maya, are actual teens that serve as peer mentors to all members. One

challenge with a Latina focus, called ―Gimme Some Credit!‖ or ―Deme un Cierto Credito,‖

allows members to help Maya’s older sister figure out how to relieve credit card debt. ―The

founders of Zoey’s Room, Erin Reilly and Vinitha Nair, also created after school programs so

that middle school girls could have hands-on interaction with ideas from the Web site. So far, the

after school program is available in 113 locations in six Northeastern states‖ (Gonzales, 2009).

Students need to be challenged, not only entertained, when using computers to learn.

Video games are environments that allow for learning that enables students to acquire knowledge

that is personally meaningful, has real-world application, and that is associated with practice,

rather than rote memorization, games integrate ―knowing‖ with ―doing‖ (Plass et al, 2007).

According to Davis, it is effective to allow students to customize their online experiences by

letting them choose color backgrounds for the course interfaces, having them design avatars, or

virtual representations of themselves, to interact with content, and by letting them customize a

course setup to play to their preferences (Davis, 2009). Video games frequently allow players to

personalize their avatars and their environments which significantly increased intrinsic

motivation and learning outcomes for elementary school students ‖ (Plass et al, 2007).

Some educational programs are implementing Pedagogical Agents. According to Smith,

Pedagogical Agents can fill three roles:

As a facilitator, it helps direct the student through the learning environment in the manner

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best suited to each individual. As a tutor, it promotes active learning by offering facilities

and exercises, which help the student, learn to teach her- or himself. As an advisor, it

displays some emotional responsiveness and problem solving capability (Smith, Affleck,

Branki, 2009).

The use of these tools will impact our educational system in the very near future as they are

implemented more frequently in instructional designs. It is imperative that the education system

with all its tributaries reaches this growing people group. Their success and integration will

benefit society as a whole.

Implications for Professional Practice

Access to a computers and the internet is often the measurement of digital equity. ―More often

than not, access has been described narrowly as physical access – as living, working, or learning

in close physical proximity to these technologies (Gorski, 2008, p. 351). It doesn’t matter if the

connection is dial-up, the hardware is old, or how the computer is used. Bridging technical gaps

is insufficient if there is a failure to address the gaps in opportunity to use the technologies in

ways that empower people to participate more fully and equitably in society (Gorski, 2008, p.

352). These failures include inequitable access to the support needed to pursue educational and

professional interest in technology, affirming and non-hostile IT environments, and affirming

and non-hostile content (Gorski, 2008, p. 353). How are these failures being addressed in the

classroom and community for Latina girls?

Support and Encouragement to Pursue Technology Interests

Provide equal access to computers. Schedule time for every child to work with computer

programs either in regular classrooms or in specially designated computer classrooms (Cooper &

Weaver, 2003, p. 119). Attend to both boys and girls of all races equally. ―Because gender bias

in the classroom is almost always inadvertent, using self-rating scales and examining the

objective observations of others can help teachers respond with encouragement, enthusiasm, and

expectations to the boys and girls in their classrooms‖ (Cooper & Weaver, 2003, p. 120).

Another way to overcome stereotyping in the classroom includes the following suggestions:

1. Stress challenge over remediation. Give girls the same challenging work as boys.

2. Stress the expandability of IT ability. Girls need to know that their current abilities are

not the limit of what they can achieve.

3. Value multiple perspectives. There is more than one way to be successful at IT tasks.

4. Make relevant role models available (Cooper & Weaver, 2003, pp. 121-122).

Affirming and Non-hostile IT and Cyber-Cultures

―Nothing breeds a culture of greater distrust – than being rendered invisible. But this is what the

cultures surrounding computer and Internet technologies have done to already disenfranchised

groups in the United States. And it does not stop at race. These cultures, constructed by men and

for men, are at best unwelcoming to girls and women‖ (Gorski, 2008, p. 357). Tools that can

help facilitate a healthy environment for Latina girls who want to learn and engage in computers

and technology in the classroom include cooperative learning. Make boys and girls cooperate in

a problem-solving environment with a focus on teamwork and cooperation. Studies show that

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cooperative strategies can be effective not only in facilitating learning, but also in increasing

feelings of inclusion and cooperation among diverse groups of students (Cooper & Weaver,

2003, p. 125).

Single-sex technology education is another increasingly popular solution. For example,

the Young Women’s Leadership School in Harlem, started in 1996, where 95% of the girls are

Black or Latina, has been a great success (Cooper & Weaver, 2003, p. 130). To bridge the digital

divide, single-sex classes help girls get up to speed on technology in a less-stressful environment.

Affirming and Non-hostile Content

Research shows that even when disenfranchised groups gain access to technologies, they

struggle to find content that doesn’t reinforce gender and racial stereotypes (Gorski, 2008, p.

358). Schools should choose software wisely, avoiding IT programs that rely on activities that

only boys prefer such as competitive activities and story lines containing sports, space, or war.

Similar to boys, girls like problem-solving games that require strategy and skill, but with life-like

characters and real-world situations. In addition, girls seem to be more interested in process than

progress – in exploration rather than racking up points (www.womensmedia.com/new/girls-tech-

Gordon.shtml).

By exposing Latinas to material, mental, skills, and usage access to technology, they are able to

experience a new identity – a transformation that will add to their self-efficacy and self-worth as

autonomous individuals; and yet, maintain their cultural values. Awareness of how technology

is used enables young Latina women to gain confidence and skill that they can continue to use in

their adult careers. Utilizing the web to explore brings the world to their finger tips; uncovering

a global realm of potential and expanding their realities.

Including the excluded in the empowerment brought by knowledge and skills is

the most effective approach to harnessing technologies in the interests of the poor.

The divide may never be fully closed, but where a bridge is to be spanned, it will

be constructed by active participants from both sides (Ryder).

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Patsula, Peter J. (1999) Applying Learning Theories to Online Instructional Design.

http://www.patsula.com/usefo/webbasedlearning/tutorial1/learning_theories_full_version.html#v

ygotsky

Pirofski, Kira Isak. Are All Schools Equally Wired? An Overview of the Digital Divide in

Elementary and Secondary School in the United States.

http://edchange.org/multicultural/papers/disability.html

Plass, Jan, Goldman, Ricki., Flanagan, Mary , Diamond, James P., Dong, Chaoyan,

Looui, Suyin, Rosalia, Christine, Song, Hyuksoon , Perlin , Ken.(2007) Rapunsel: How a

computer game design based on educational theory can improve girls’ self–efficacy and self–

esteem. AERA 2007 Paper retrieved from

create.alt.ed.nyu.edu/courses/.../AERA_07_Rapunsel_Plass_etal.pdf accessed Nov. 13, 2009.

Ryder, Martin. The Digital Divide. University of Colorado at Denver, School of Education.

http://carbon.ucdenver.edu/~mryder/itc_data/dig_div.html

Sargent, M.. (2002). Community Technology Centers: A National Movement to Close the

Digital Divide. Working on closing the gap between the schools with technology and

those without. Retrieved from

http://www.edutopia.org/community-technology-centers-national-movement-close-digital-

divide. Accessed Nov. 14, 2009

Smith, T., Affleck, G., Lees, B. and Branki, C. Implementing a generic framework for a web-

based pedagogical agent. Computing and Information Systems University of Paisley Scotland,

UK www.ascilite.org.au/conferences/brisbane99/papers/smithaffleck.pdf. Accessed Nov. 14,

2009.

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Poverty in the Past 12 Months. American Community Survey. http://factfinder.census.gov

Recommended Reading:

Baylor, A. (2005). The Impact of Pedagogical Agent Image on Affective Outcomes.

Proceedings of Workshop on Affective Interactions: Computers in the Affective Loop,

International Conference on Intelligent User Interfaces, San Diego, CA.

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Retrieved from mailer.fsu.edu/~abaylor/PDF/image_iui.pdf accessed Nov. 14, 2009.

Furger, Roberta. (2003). Give Girls a Chance: Building a Bridge to Science and Technology.

Techbridge, in Oakland, California, is the culmination of a citywide effort to provide teenage

girls with hands-on high-tech experiences.

http://www.edutopia.org/techbridge-science-technology-girls accessed Nov. 14, 2009

What is an nteractive Animated Pedagogical Agent?

http://ldt.stanford.edu/~slater/pages/agents/main.htm

Marino, J. (2009). What can you learn from a Wizard? How pedagogical agents improve

Instruction. Encylcopedia of Educational Technology. Retrieved from

http://coe.sdsu.edu/eet/articles/pedagents/index.htm accessed

Current programs that support and empower Latina girls in learning and pursuing technological

interests are growing and include the following:

Latinitas – a non-profit organization that empowers Latina youth through media and technology

and provides a safe, health, and nurturing environment for Latina girls to express themselves.

They provide relevant and uplifting content through Latinitas Magazines, the first digital

magazines made for and by Latina youth. ( www.latinatismagazines.org)

Vida Digital Latina – an outreach program sponsored by Microsoft to help close the digital

divide and improve technology literacy through a series of programs that deliver free educational

sessions in several U.S. cities. (www.webwire.com/ViewPressRel.asp?aId=64567)

Latinas Building Bridges in Education Conference (Boulder, Colo.) included seminars and

mentors that helped build expertise in technology.

(http://bcn.boulder.co.us/community/latinaleague/)

Latinas in Computing – A group of Latina computer professionals who give Latinas support

while transitioning to work life. ―It was the conference calls that intimidated me,‖ says Dr. Claris

Castillo, a founding member. ―In the beginning, I could hardly talk on the phone.‖ The group

members also mentor young Latina girls who show an interest in technology.

(www.anitaborg.org/initiatives/systers/lic/)

Latina en Ciencia – Through a grant from National Science Foundation, the Oregon Museum of

Science and Industry launched ths program, designed to forge ties with Portland's growing

Latino community. Proposed programs include:

Expanding Club Ciencia, a science and technology club for Latina girls in grades 3-5,

held at Villas de Clara Vista, a North Portland housing center.

Establishing a science and technology class for girls at an elementary school in Tigred, a

suburb of Portland.

Beginning an after-school science and technology club for girls in White Salmon, a rural

community in Washington State.

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Organizing a museum camp-in for Latina girls and female mentors from around the

Portland community. (www.edutopia.org/making-science-technology-real-girls)

Techbridge was launched by Chabot Space & Science Center to encourage girls in technology,

science and engineering. Techbridge offers after-school and summer programs with hands-on

projects, career exploration opportunities, and academic and career guidance.

(www.google.com/corporate/diversity/rise/recipients.html)

TechGYRLS® -- a highly nation-wide YWCA after-school empowerment program that provides

girls ages 5-14 with the opportunities to increase their skills and confidence in the use of

technology and in engineering. TechGYRLS® was developed by the YWCA USA in 1997 after

seeing the need to strengthen girls’ interest and competency in computer literacy as it has

become a key job skill in nearly every profession today. The goal of TechGYRLS® is to provide

technology education in a supportive, all-girl environment where girls feel comfortable taking

risks and opening up to new learning opportunities.

(http://archives.chicagotribune.com/2007/feb/21/news/chi-0702200322feb21)