COMMERCIAL MEDIA VIEWING HABITS: DIGITAL NATIVES VS. DIGITAL IMMIGRANTS

Brian J. King

A Thesis

Submitted to the Graduate College of Bowling Green State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

MASTERS OF EDUCATION

August 2009

Committee:

Dr. Terry Herman, Advisor

Dr. Paul Cesarini

Dr. Gary Benjamin

ii

© 2008 - 2009

Brian J. King

All Rights Reserved

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ABSTRACT

Terry Herman, PhD, Advisor

Text of abstract

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ENTER DEDICATION TEXT

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Enter Acknowledgements text here.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................1

Background and Context of the Problem..................................................................................................1

Statement of the Problem..........................................................................................................................3

Objectives of Study...................................................................................................................................4

Hypothesis.................................................................................................................................................4

Significance of Study................................................................................................................................5

Assumptions..............................................................................................................................................5

Limitations.................................................................................................................................................5

Definition of Terms...................................................................................................................................6

CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW........................................................................................9

Introduction...............................................................................................................................................9

Technological Advancements and Impact to Commercials......................................................................9

Digital Immigrants vs. Digital Natives and Television Commercial Viewing Habits............................12

Literature Review Conclusions...............................................................................................................14

CHAPTER III: METHOD.............................................................................................................16

Restatement of Problem..........................................................................................................................16

Research Design......................................................................................................................................16

Characteristics of Study Population........................................................................................................17

Data Collection Instrument......................................................................................................................17

Protection of Human Subjects.................................................................................................................18

Timeline...................................................................................................................................................18

References...............................................................................................................................................19

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1

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

Background and Context of the Problem

Rapid technological development and the immersion of technology into the lives of

today’s consumers have created a digital divide between generations. Frand states “most students

entering our colleges and universities today are younger than the microcomputer, are more

comfortable working on a keyboard than writing in a spiral notebook, and are happier reading

from a computer screen than from paper in hand” (Frand, 2000, p15). According to Prensky this

gap is created by the rapid distribution and ubiquity of digital technologies in the last decades of

the 20th century (Prensky, 2001a). It is important to note that these technologies such as cable

television, the Internet, laptop computers, and mobile devices were not always readily available

for previous generations. Due to these technological advancements being ever-present in our

lives one may assume differences exist between those whom have grown up immersed in the

technologies and those whom have not been born into this technological immersion. In Digital

Immigrants, Digital Natives Prensky (2001a) notes people that are currently in kindergarten

through traditional college age have been immersed their entire lives using computers, playing

video games, using digital music players, video cameras, cell phones, and the Internet. Today’s

average college graduates have spent less than 5,000 hours of their lives reading, over 10,000

hours playing video games, and an incredible 20,000 hours viewing television within the first

twenty years of their lives (Prensky, 2001a). These readily available technological

advancements from a young age create different experiences, which lead to different brain

structures than previous generations that did not have these technological advancements

(Prensky, 2001a).

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Due to fundamental differences between generations as Prensky (2001a, 2001b) states

that those that are above 30 years old and not born into technological diffusion a different

classification for this group is necessary; after all Prensky mentions that non-digital natives do

inherently process information differently then their parents and grandparents. In searching for a

proper classification Prensky notes that some people refer to this generation as the net-gen or

digital generation although Prensky classifies this generation as Digital Natives. “Our students

are all “native speakers” of the digital language of computers, video games, and the Internet”

(Prensky, 2001a, p 1). Prensky classifies the remainder of the population as Digital Immigrants;

those who were not born into the technology immersion but at some point may adopt some

technologies into their lives. While Prensky discusses the topic of Digital Immigrants and Digital

Natives as students, for the context of this study the researcher will refer to these groups as

consumers; classified based on their age (under 30 and 30 and over years of age).

These two different groups of consumers have various television commercial media

viewing and use habits. The Digital Natives for instance have logged an incredible 20,000 hours

of watching television within the first 20 years of their lives. How they are viewing television

(either through the Internet or traditional television) as well as their viewing habits may be

different then the Digital Immigrants. Advertisers producing commercials may find it advisable

to address these groups and their unique media viewing habits. According to a 2008 United

States based Mintel study, “Age influences respondents’ attitudes towards Internet advertising,

respondents aged 18-24 are more likely than over-65s to “strongly agree” with the statement “I

use a pop-up blocker” (Attitudes Towards Advertising and Media – US – April 2008). This

finding from Mintel is important to advertisers trying to reach the Digital Natives whom appear

to be more likely to circumvent viewing of a commercial through the use of a pop-up blocker if

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they are viewing their television on the Internet through a streaming service such as Hulu.com or

a desktop application such as Miro or Boxee. The same Mintel study found that “age plays a role

in how respondents consume media, mainly over-65s [sic] are more likely than 18-24s to: watch

ten or more hours of network or cable television” (Attitudes towards Advertising and Media, US,

April 2008). Indicated by this data Mintel found in a study conducted by Reuters in March 2008

“that nearly half of Americans are turning to the Internet to get their news, and that those aged

18-29 “get most of their information online” compared to 35% of over 65s” (Attitudes towards

Advertising and Media, US, April 2008). The Internet is not the only force altering the media

habits of Digital Immigrants or Digital Natives. Their viewing habits of commercials or perhaps

avoidance habits of commercials through other technological advancements such as the DVR,

changing the channel, muting the television or computer also represent issues that advertisers

should consider in adjusting their strategies to reach these markets. “When it comes to skipping

commercials, age has little influence on a respondent’s response: approximately 66% in each age

group use a DVR for this purpose” (Attitudes towards Advertising and Media, US, April 2008,

Usage of DVR).

Statement of the Problem

The problem of this study is to analyze the difference in media and viewing habits of

Digital Natives versus Digital Immigrants. The study will include an analysis of viewing habits

for Digital Natives (under 30 years of age) and Digital Immigrants (those 30 years of age or

older) and how they respond to commercial television. Many options exist to consumers when

viewing television and commercials; this study aims to assess the options that consumers have in

media viewing mediums (Internet vs. traditional television broadcast) and specifically their

viewing habits of commercials.

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Objectives of Study

The objectives of this study are to assess the commercial viewing habits of Digital

Immigrants and Digital Natives; to identify trends between the two groups in relation to their

commercial viewing habits and the tools and technologies they use or do not use to view

televised media (specifically commercials – both traditional and online); and to what length the

two consumer groups will go to in order to not be subverted to viewing television commercials

as they are traditionally distributed. Circumvention methods used presently include TiVo,

iTunes Store, DVR technologies, web based viewing sites such as Hulu.com, desktop

applications such as Boxee and Miro, and downloading through BitTorrent or other peer-to-peer

distribution technology. For the purpose of this study the researcher has chosen not to evaluate

those means of distribution that exclude commercials from the program, thus BitTorrent, iTunes

Store purchases, and DVDs will not be analyzed; although it is important to note that these are

current options for the consumer to choose, opposed to traditional television or Internet based

streaming television commercials.

Hypothesis

The researcher hypothesizes that Digital Natives will show a trend of viewing television

commercials online through Hulu, Boxee, Miro, and others. According to Prensky (2001a,

2001b) Digital Natives are accustomed to using the Internet for their media viewing habits they

will tend to be online. The Digital Immigrants on the other hand will be more likely to view

traditional television with different commercial viewing habits than their Digital Native

counterparts. This is because “. . . like all immigrants, some better than others – to adapt to their

environment, they always retain, to some degree, their “accent” that is, their foot in the past”

(Prensky, 2001a, p2).

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Significance of Study

Current research shows DVR usage rates and endeavors to assess why the DVR is used;

although there are no studies that assess Digital Immigrants versus Digital Natives and to what

extent these groups will engage in activity to avoid a traditional television commercial viewing.

The only research in this topic shows consumer response mainly to what kinds of systems are

already implemented and how they co-exist with market forces such as DVR technologies versus

commercial viewing. The current state of research in this field reveals a high degree of

conflicting research. Evaluating the commercial viewing habits of Digital Immigrants versus

Digital Natives and their commercial viewing habits could have major implications and benefits

for the market, academic research, and for the consumer.

Assumptions

The following assumptions are inherent to this study:

1. All data collected from Mintel includes only respondents aged 18 and older

which includes both Digital Natives and Digital Immigrants age ranges. The

survey instrument will collect data from Bowling Green State University

undergraduate and graduate students as well as faculty and sort them into the

Digital Immigrant or Digital Native grouping.

Limitations

For the purpose of this study the researcher will limit the population that is sampled to

Bowling Green State University undergraduate and graduate students and faculty. Due to the

rapidly developing literature focused on this topic the literature review will be limited to research

and articles conducted prior to February 2009. For the purpose of this study the researcher has

chosen not to evaluate means of distribution that exclude commercials from the program, thus

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BitTorrent and other peer-to-peer technologies, iTunes Store purchases, and DVDs will not be

analyzed. However, it is important to note that these are current options for the consumer to

choose as opposed to traditional television or Internet based streaming television commercials.

Definition of Terms

The following terms and acronyms are operationally defined below for this study:

1. Digital Immigrant – Those above the age of 30, not born into widespread

technological immersion (Prensky, 2001).

2. Digital Native – Those under the age of 30 born into technology (Prensky,

2001).

3. To watch or view a commercial is operationally defined in this study to be

engaged in the advertisement through either hearing or vision.

a. This excludes any sort of circumvention mechanisms or strategies

(DVR fast forward, change the channel, close the browser window,

mute the television)

4. Traditional Commercial – For simplicity this term is operationally defined as

an advertisement shown in between a segment of traditional television viewed

on a television.

a. This does not include brief promotions shown at the beginning of a

television program promoting what is to be shown after the current

program or a promotion for an upcoming televised event or program.

5. Online commercial – This term is operationally defined as an advertisement

shown in between a segment of television viewed online through a web

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browser or desktop application. These advertisements are similar to

traditional commercials although are generally much shorter and less frequent.

a. This does not include any browser based banner advertisements,

simply the advertisements that are displayed between the viewing of a

television program viewed on the Internet through a web browser or

desktop based application.

b. This excludes any sort of circumvention mechanisms or strategies

(DVR fast forward, change the channel, close the browser window,

muting the television)

6. Advertisement – Operationally defined as a commercial (either online or

traditional television based unless otherwise noted).

7. DVR – “A digital video recorder (DVR) or personal video recorder (PVR) is a

device that records video in a digital format to a disk drive or other memory

medium within a device” (Digital Video Recorder, 2009).

8. VCR – “The videocassette recorder (or VCR, more commonly known in the

UK and Ireland as the video recorder), is a type of video tape recorder that

uses removable videotape cassettes containing magnetic tape to record audio

and video from a television broadcast so it can be played back later. Most

VCRs have their own tuner (for direct TV reception) and a programmable

timer (for unattended recording of a certain channel at a particular time).”

(Videocassette recorder, 2009).

9. CD/DVD Burner – “In computing, an optical disc drive (ODD) is a disk drive

that uses laser light or electromagnetic waves near the light spectrum as part

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of the process of reading and writing data. Some drives can only read from

discs, but commonly drives are both readers and recorders. Recorders are

sometimes called burners or writers. Compact discs, DVDs and Blu-ray discs

are common types of optical media which can be read and recorded by such

drives.” (Optical disc drive, 2009, paragraph 1)

10. TiVo – “TiVo [sic] is the pioneer of the digital video recorder (DVR). TiVo

was introduced in the United States, and is now available in Canada, Mexico,

Australia, and Taiwan. [sic] TiVo DVRs provide an electronic television

programming schedule, and provide features such as Season Pass recordings

(which ensure subscribers never miss an episode of their favorite shows) and

WishList searches (which allow the user to find and record shows that match

their interests by title, actor, director, category or keyword). TiVo also

provides a range of features when the TiVo DVR is connected to a home

network, including movie and TV show downloads, advanced search, personal

photo viewing, music offerings, and online scheduling.” (TiVo, 2009,

paragraph 1).

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CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction

The purpose of this literature review is multi-faceted; each particular section has a

particular purpose dedicated to the literature currently available. First, it examines the current

technological advancements in television (specifically commercials) distribution, viewing, and

now circumventing. Second it provides an evaluation of the differences in viewing habits for

television and commercials specifically between Digital Natives and Digital Immigrants. Third,

the literature review provides analysis and insight to marketers to more effectively target and

engage consumers through television commercial distribution.

Technological Advancements and Impact to Commercials

Technological advancements such as the invention of the VCR, CD and DVD burners,

the Internet, and DVRs all have had dramatic impacts to the market. These technological

advancements have altered media viewing habits and have troubled advertisers trying to reach

and engage their target market. According to a 2004 Mintel USA based study “Concerns over

skipping advertisements were raised with the emergence of the VCR, and the industry may see

changes in advertising with the proliferation of DVRs that are more consequential than the

impact of the VCR. DVRs are more user-friendly than VCRs and have enormous capacity”

(Digital Video Recorders, US, September 2004, Advertising & Promotion). In addition to DVRs,

other forces such as the Internet have altered the media habits of consumers. Websites such as

Hulu.com, desktop applications such as Boxee and Miro have full length television episodes

available free of charge on demand with short advertisement clips shown during the broadcast.

According to a 2007 USA Mintel study “86% of the sample stated that watching TV shows on

demand was a key reason why they wanted to purchase a DVR” (Online and Downloadable

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Video, US, October 2007). This statistic regarding why the consumer owns or plan to purchase a

DVR still forecasts that consumers’ media habits are altering and converging towards online

viewing of television programs on demand utilizing a DVR service or streaming service such as

Hulu. Additionally the Mintel study shown below (table 1) is significant because it conflicts with

the Mintel report Attitudes Towards Advertising and Media – US – April 2008 findings

regarding DVRs and why they are used. “A study released by Mediamark Research reports DVR

users are more affluent and consume more media” (Pavlik, 2008, p42).

Base: 1460 Internet users (18+) who own or plan to purchase DVRTotal %

Watch TV shows when I want 86Skip commercials 43Watch TV shows repeatedly 24Other 5Table 1. Online and Downloadable Video - US - 2007 – Mintel.

Pavlik (2008) states that DVR users are more affluent and consume more media, while affluence

is not an aspect of the study the media consumption and viewing habits are. Mintel reports in a

2006 study based on 2,000 adults aged 18+ the following data:

All 18-24 25-34 35-44 45-54 55-64 65+ % % % % % % %

Yes 37 34 37 37 40 38 31Table 2. Media Centers and Set-top Boxes - US - September 2006 – Mintel.

“Age plays a role in the ownership of a DVR in that over-65s are significantly less likely than

their younger counterparts to own such a device. This is not entirely surprising, as older

respondents may be somewhat uncomfortable, perhaps even intimidated, with new technologies

and be content with using technologies with which they are familiar, such as a VCR” (Media

Centers and Set-Top Boxes, US, September 2006). This conclusion from Mintel agrees with

Prensky who states “The “digital immigrant accent” can be seen in such things as turning to the

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Internet for information second rather than first, or in reading the manual for a program rather

than assuming the program itself will teach us how to use it” (Prensky, 2001a, p2).

The technological advancement of the DVR allows for time-shifted television viewing

which not only allows consumers to watch what they want, when they want, which Mintel found

in their Online and Downloadable Video 2007 USA study that 86% of their respondents that own

or plan on purchasing a DVR is the most reported reason for having or planning to purchase a

DVR (Online and Downloadable Video – US – 2007). Along with this time shifted viewing also

comes easier circumvention of commercial viewing through fast-forwarding through the

recorded television, thus allowing the consumer to circumvent the commercials if they opt to do

so. With the Mintel report findings from online and downloadable video it is not surprising to

find this time-shift in viewing habits (Online and Downloadable Video – US – October 2007). In

a 2006 Mintel report entitled Media Centers and Set-Top Boxes in a survey conducted with 731

adults aged 18+ whom live in a household that owns a DVR they found the following statistics in

time-shifted viewing habits:

Base: 731 adults aged 18+ whose household owns a DVR or PVRAll 18-24 25-34 35-44 45-54 55-64 65+ % % % % % % %

0-6 hours 48 50 35 49 51 55 537-13 hours

24 23 34 26 21 19 20

14-20 hours

13 13 18 11 11 14 8

21+ hours 8 7 9 7 10 4 8Not sure 7 7 4 8 6 8 11Table 3. Media Centers and Set-Top Boxes - US - September 2006 - Mintel.

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“Across all age groups the propensity is to watch up to six hours of recorded/time-shifted TV per

week with every age group, except those aged 25-34, including approximately 50% of their

respondents falling into this category of usage per week. Those respondents aged 25-34 are more

likely to watch seven or more hours of recorded/time-shifted TV per week any other age group”

(Media Centers and Set-Top Boxes – US – September 2006 – The Consumer). These findings

regarding time shifted media viewing do not state that the consumer altered their viewing habits

to specifically circumvent commercial viewing; although it is important to note that Mintel found

that 43% of consumers that own or plan to own a DVR wish to use it to circumvent commercial

viewing (Online and Downloadable Video – US – October 2007).

Digital Immigrants vs. Digital Natives and Television Commercial Viewing Habits

As Prensky (2001a, 2001b), Frand (2000), and others have found there are major

differences between Digital Immigrants and Digital Natives in terms of how they obtain, process,

and utilize information. Advertisers should also shift their strategies to target these two groups

and how they market their particular product or service to them. According to a 2008 United

States study conducted by Mintel “gender and age play a role in what types of media respondents

consume and in what quantities” (Attitudes towards Advertising and Media, US, April 2008,

Usage of Media). While gender and age play a role in the type of media and the quantity of

media consumed the desire to circumvent a commercial is unaffected according to Mintel.

“When it comes to skipping commercials, age has little influence on a respondent’s response:

approximately 66% in each age group use a DVR for this purpose” (Attitudes towards

Advertising and Media – US – April 2008 – Usage of DVR). Massive DVR adoption with both

Digital Immigrants and Digital Natives to circumvent the viewing of commercials an analysis of

13

why these advertisements are being circumvented and how to best reach these DVR users.

Graham (2009) in Why TV Lost claims convergence between the television and the Internet

created four forces that impacted these changes. The first force that Graham discusses is that the

Internet is an open platform, “Anyone can build whatever they want on it, and the market picks

the winners. So innovation happens at hacker speeds instead of big company speeds” (Graham,

2009). Graham’s point regarding the rate of innovation is particularly important regarding the

Digital Native group (under 30 years of age) as Prensky (2001a) notes digital natives move at

“twitch speed” . . . “They are used to the instantaneity of hypertext, downloaded music, phones

in their pockets, a library on their laptops, beamed messages and instant messaging” (Prensky,

2001a,page 3). Digital Natives and Digital Immigrants both have television and commercial

viewing or circumventing habits that will be evaluated in the survey instrument; one important

note regarding the Digital Native group is the rate of information they consume and number of

tasks they process in parallel. According to Advertising Age a report on Digital Natives “ . . .

navigating electronic programming guides, performing music downloads and burning CDs is

second nature to them. So it’s not surprising that 75% of 1,219 Gen Y participants in a recent

survey said they multi-task while watching TV” (Elkin, Kerwin, Tobi, 2003). The results do not

state specifically that Digital Natives circumvent commercials by viewing television programs

and commercials online; nor does it state that Digital Immigrants are less likely to view

television programs and commercials online. According to a 2006 Mintel USA based study on

Media Centers and Set-top Boxes they found that “Younger respondents are significantly more

likely than older respondents to stream video and audio content [sic]. In fact, 14% of respondents

aged 18-24 and 11% of respondents aged 25-34 take advantage of this functionality, compared to

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4% of respondents aged 55-64 and 6% of over-65s” (Media Centers and Set-Top Boxes – US –

September 2006 – The Consumer).

Base: 2,000 adults aged 18+ (Streaming of video and audio content, by age, July 2006)

All 18-24 25-34 35-44 45-54 55-64 65+ % % % % % % %

Yes 8 14 11 5 10 4 6Table 4. Media Centers and Set-Top Boxes - US - September 2006 – Mintel.

As Prensky (2001a, 2001b) and Frand (2000) have stated that the Digital Natives are born into

ubiquitous technological immersion Mintel additionally asserts that these statistics regarding

streaming of audio and video content are not surprising. “These responses come as no surprise,

in that younger respondents have grown up with computers, VCRs, portable music players, and

other such multimedia devices. As a consequence, they are more likely to be comfortable and

familiar with the technology, and more eager than older respondents to use it to the fullest in

their homes” (Media Centers and Set-Top Boxes, US, September 2006, The Consumer).

Literature Review Conclusions

The current state of research on Digital Immigrants and Digital Natives and their media

habits (Internet versus traditional television) as well as their viewing habits of commercials is in

need of further investigation. Prensky (2001a, 2001b) and Frand (2000) mainly discuss the

implications of digital natives and digital immigrants and the differences that exist between the

generations in the scope of education and learning. This scope needs to be broadened and

encompass more than just the field of education and learning. Data regarding media habits and

viewing habits of these digital natives and digital immigrants has differing data sets about DVR

usage; even Mintel has reports with differing statistics regarding commercial viewing habits and

DVR usage. Additionally data from companies such as Hulu.com needs to be available for

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academic use; although the researcher hopes that the data that will be collected in this study will

provide a more informed and streamlined set of findings regarding digital natives and digital

immigrants and their media and viewing habits.

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CHAPTER III: METHOD

This chapter includes a restatement of the problem, research design, characteristics of the

sample population for the research study, how the data will be collected and verified, and lastly a

review and approval of the human studies research board and the protection of the participants in

this study.

Restatement of Problem

The problem of this study is to analyze the difference in media and viewing habits of

digital natives versus digital immigrants. The study will include an analysis of viewing habits for

digital natives (under 30 years of age) and digital immigrants (those 30 years of age or older) and

how they respond to commercial television. Many options exist to consumers when viewing

television and commercials; this study aims to assess the options that consumers have in media

viewing mediums (Internet vs. traditional television broadcast) and specifically their viewing

habits of commercials.

Research Design

The research design of this study will utilize descriptive statistics collected through the

use of a researcher created survey instrument. A survey will be distributed online to Digital

Natives and to Digital Immigrants of the Bowling Green State University faculty, staff, and

students using a quantitative descriptive statistical analysis. The survey will feature a Likert-style

scale that will measure how the two groups, Digital Natives and Digital Immigrants, differ in

their commercial viewing habits, and what technologies and methods are being used to view,

ignore, or otherwise circumvent commercials (media habits). The survey will include questions

to determine which group the respondent belong to (Digital Immigrant or Digital Native) and

then analyze to what level each technology option, (or simply the walking away, muting,

17

changing channel option) is utilized by the population studied. The survey will also include

questions to reveal the importance or unimportance of commercial television viewing and to

what extent groups of the study’s population do or do not use methods of circumventing the

viewing of commercials. According to Fraenkel and Wallen in How to Design and Evaluate

Research in Education, 2nd Edition “Quantitative data are obtained when the variable being

studied is measured along a scale that indicates “how much” of the variable is present” (Fraenkel

and Wallen, 1993, p127).

Characteristics of Study Population

The study population is split into two groups, Digital Natives and Digital Immigrants.

According to Prensky (2001a, 2001b), Digital Natives are people that were raised surrounded by

ubiquitous technologies and digital media. As a result, their brains are wired differently than

Digital Immigrants and other previous generations. Digital immigrants according to Prensky are

those that are not born natively using ubiquitous and constantly available on-demand

technologies (2001a, 2001b). For example a Digital Immigrant would generally rather print out a

document to edit it as opposed to editing it online says Prensky (2001a, p.4).

Data Collection Instrument

The data will be will be collected through the use of a researcher created survey

instrument and delivered through Survey Monkey or phpSurvey. After the data is collected it

will be analyzed through the use of descriptive quantitative statistical analysis. The survey will

be anonymous and will utilize screening questions to determine to which group, Digital Natives

or Digital Immigrants, the participant belongs.

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Protection of Human Subjects

The proper certification and procedure based on the rules set forth by the Human Subjects

Review Board (HSRB) at Bowling Green State University will be completed and compiled for

this study. The certification document can be found as part of the appendices following Chapter

V.

Timeline

Table 1 shown below is the tentative timeline for the research study to be completed.

Date Task

16 April 2009 Thesis Proposal Defense

10 May 2009 Survey instrument developed, tested, approved for

HSRB approval, and disseminated through

Bowling Green State University undergraduate &

graduate listprocs and to Bowling Green State

University faculty listprocs.

May 2009 Data collection from survey instrument and

analysis of data collection.

May – June 2009 Analysis of survey instrument data collected and

analyzed is completed; write chapters 4 & 5 of

thesis document for defense to take place pre-22

June 2009.

Pre 22 June 2009 Completed Thesis Defense

Table 5 - Timeline

19

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