botany - taxonomy - carol · pdf filephylogenetictree of life taxonomy today lumpers ......

BOTANYby Carol Brouwer

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BOTANY

Carol Brouwer, Ph.D.Horticulturist

http://www.flourishandbits.com

Botanical Studies

Taxonomy: classification and naming of plants

Morphology: study of plant structures

Physiology: study of plant functions

Genetics: study of heredity

TAXONOMYClassification of Plants

Classification Systems

2 million living things

Organize into groups

Improves communication

Different groups for different reasons

Habitat

Physical similarities

Hierarchical Classification

Taxonomy employs a hierarchical system of classification


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Binomial System of Nomenclature

All species are named according to this system, which includes the authority for the name.

Genus – noun

Species – adjective

Spearmint: Mentha spicata L.

History: Aristotle (384 BCE –322 BCE)

1st to classify organisms

All plant essays lost

History: Theophratus (370‐285 BCE)

Classified 500 species of plants on the basis of leaf characteristics.

History: PedaniusDioscorides (40‐90 CE)

Materia Medica

Five‐volumes in Greek

One of the most influential herbal books in history

Remained in use until about CE 1600

History: Leonhart Fuchs (1501‐1566)

German physician

Baccalaureus Artium(BA)

1524 ‐Magister Artium(MA)

1524 ‐ doctor of medicine (MD)

History: Leonhart Fuchs (1501‐1566)

Fuchs’s History of Plants –1542

Offered botanical field days for the students

Demonstrated the use of medicinal plants in situ

Founded one of the first German botanical gardens

Plant and color Fuchsia are named for him by Charles Plumier


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History: John Gerard (1545‐1611 or 12)

Gerard’s Herbal or General Histoire of Plantes ‐ 1597

English herbalist

History: Andrea Cesalpino (1519‐1603)

De plantis libri XVI ‐ 1583

Foundation for the morphology and physiology of plants

First scientific classification of flowering plants

Used the fruit as the foundation of his botanical system

Made original, acute observations on flowers, fruits, and seeds before the discovery of the microscope

Genus Cesalpinia

History: GaspardBauhin (1560 – 1624 )

Pinax theatri botanici(1596)

Classified thousands of plants

Used a precursor to binomial nomenclature

Bauhinia sp. is named for him

History: John Ray (1627‐1705)

English naturalist

Catalogus plantarum

626 plants listed

Historia Plantarum

Used system similar to Bauhin

First to use term “species”

History: Carl von Linne’ (1707‐1778)

Classify all known plants and animals according to their genera

Based on flower parts

Used Latin phrases to reflect relationships

Placing one to many kinds of species in each genus

SystemaNaturae– 1735

Limited Latin phrase to 12 words

Abbreviated names to two parts (binomials).

Organized all known plants into 24 classes

based mainly on the number of stamens in flowers


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Kingdoms over time

Linnaeus1735[56]

Haeckel1866[57]

Chatton1925[58]

Copeland1938[59]

Whittaker1969[60]

Woese et al.

1990[61]

Cavalier‐Smith1998[54]

2 kingdoms 3 kingdoms 2 empires 4 kingdoms 5 kingdoms 3 domains 6 kingdoms

(not treated) Protista

Prokaryota Monera MoneraBacteria

BacteriaArchaea

Eukaryota

Protoctista Protista

Eucarya

Protozoa

Chromista

Vegetabilia Plantae Plantae

Plantae Plantae

Fungi Fungi

Animalia Animalia Animalia Animalia Animalia

Phylogenetic Tree of Life

Taxonomy Today

Lumpers

phenetics – classification of organisms based on overall similarity

Linneaus’s classification based on resemblances between organisms (not evolutionary relationships)

Splitters

Phylogenetics (systematics, cladograms) ‐ study of evolutionary relatedness among various groups of organisms

CLASSIFICATIONSConvenient groupings of plants

Plant Divisions

Informal group Division name Common nameNo. of living

species

Green algaeChlorophyta

green algae(chlorophytes)

3,800

Charophytagreen algae(desmids& charophytes)

4,000 ‐ 6,000

Bryophytes Marchantiophyta liverworts 6,000 ‐ 8,000

Anthocerotophyta hornworts 100 ‐ 200

Bryophyta mosses 12,000

Pteridophytes Lycopodiophyta club mosses 1,200

Pteridophytaferns, whisk ferns & horsetails

11,000

Seed plants Cycadophyta cycads 160

Ginkgophyta ginkgo 1

Pinophyta conifers 630

Gnetophyta gnetophytes 70

Magnoliophyta flowering plants 258,650

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant

Plant Categories

Angiosperms (Magnoliophyta)

Monocots

Dicots

Gymnosperms (Pinophyta)

Conifers


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Classes

Grasses

Grass‐like plants

Sedges

Bullrushes

Rushes

Forbs

Herbaceous flowering plants

Woody plants

Grasses

Jointed, hollow stems

Leaves in 2 rows and flattened

Parallel venation

Poaeaceae family

Texas – 545 native species

Monocots

Grass‐like Plants

Sometimes confused with grasses

Parallel venation

No nodes

Sedges triangular stems

Flattened leaves in 3 rows

Ruses hollow or pithy

Rounded and not branched

Leaves near base of plant are round or flattened

Forbs

Broad‐leaf plants

Herbaceous flowering plant that is not a graminoid (grasses, sedges and rushes).

Not a tree, shrub

Not always wildflowers Alfalfa

Soybean

Woody Plants

Shrubs, sub‐shrubs and trees

Perennial

Trees have a trunk

‘Brush’

Life Cycles

Annuals

Biennials

Perennials

herbaceous

woody


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Seasonal Classification

Warm season

Grow during frost‐free months

Spring, summer, fall

Cool season

Tolerate frost

Fall, winter, spring MORPHOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGYPlant Parts and Functions

Plant Parts & Functions

Sexual

flower

Asexual

leaves

stems

roots

Meristems

Primary Growth apical

meristem or apex

Secondary Growth Vascular

cambium or cambium

Roots

Primary Roots

Taproot

Lateral Roots

Fibrous

Roots

Knees

Buttressed

Aerial


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Tuberous Roots

No Nodes

Begonias

Beets

Dahlias

Peonies

Root Structure

Dicot Root

Monocot R

oot

Monocot Root

Tree Roots

Most trees do not have tap roots

Roots grow beyond the edge of the branches

Most roots are in the top 3 feet of soil

Finer roots in top 12”.

Damaging roots may cause dieback

Stems

Support

Vascular System

Buds

Leaf Bud

Flower Bud

Terminal

Lateral/Axillary

Adventitious

Leaves


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Stems

Support

Vascular System

Buds

Leaf Bud

Flower Bud

Terminal

Lateral/Axillary

Adventitious

Leaves

Primary Growth ‐Monocot

Primary Growth – dicot or gymnosperm Secondary Growth ‐ dicots

periderm

phloem

cambium

xylem

ray

crushed cortex and past year’s phloem

32 1 pith

Section of a Yew (Taxus sp.) Modified Stems ‐ Crowns & Stolon


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Modified Stems

Bulb

Tuber

Rhizome

Bulb

Corm

Types of Leaves

Simple

Types of Leaves

Seed Leaves(Cotyledons)

Types of Leaves

Tendrils

Types of Leaves

Scale

Types of Leaves

Needles


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Types of Leaves

Spines

Types of Leaves

Prickle

Types of Leaves

Bracts

Poinsettia

Bougainvillea

Abelia

Types of Leaves

Thorns

Leaves

Absorb sunlight for photosynthesis

Leaf Layers


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Leaf Cross‐section Leaf Cross‐Section

Stomata Leaf Venation

Reticulate

Leaf Venation

Pinnate

Leaf Venation

Palmate


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Leaf Venation

Parallel

Leaf Types

Simple

Leaf Types

Pinnate Compound

Leaf Types

Double Pinnate Compound

Leaf Types

Palmate Compound

Leaf ShapesAcicularCordateDeltoidPeltateEllipticEnsiformFalcateHastateLanceolateLinearLigulateOblanceolateOblongObovateOrbicularOvalSagittateSpatulateSubulateTendril


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Leaf Margins

Ciliate

Crenate

Crenulate

Dentate

Denticulate

Entire

Incised

Lobed

Palmately lobed

Pinnately lobed

Pinnatisect

Serrate

Serrulate

Sinuate

Spinse

Undulate

Leaf ApicesAcuminateAcuteApiculateAristateCaudateCirrhoseCleftCuspidateEmarginateMucronateMucronulateObcordateObtuseRetuseRoundedTruncate

Leaf Bases

Acute

Attenuate

Auriculate

Cordate

Cuneate

Oblique

Rounded

Truncate

Pubescence

Glabrous

Pilose

Villous

Strigose

Hispid

Hirsule

Scabrous

Puberulent

Tomentose

Stellate

Stipitate Glandular

Sessile Glandular

Leave Arrangement

Alternate

Leave Arrangement

Opposite


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Leave Arrangement

Whorled

Leaf Arrangement

Fasicled

Leaf Arrangement

Basal

Leaf Arrangement

Equitant

SEXUAL PLANT PARTS & FUNCTIONS

(Flowers)

Parts of the Flower


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Types of Flowering Plants

Monoecious = 1 House

Corn

Pecan

Dioecious = 2 Houses

Holly

Junipers

Types of Flowering Plants

Monoecious = 1 House

Corn

Pecan

Dioecious = 2 Houses

Holly

Junipers

Flowers

Complete = Pistil, Stamen, Petal, Sepals

Incomplete = Missing One

Perfect = Pistil & Stamen

How Seeds Form

Pollination

Pollen tube

Fertilization


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Types of Flowers

Solitary ‐ one flower per stem

Inflorescence ‐ a cluster of flowers

racemous ‐ indeterminate (flower from the bottom up)

Racemous Flowers

Spike ‐ flowers attached to peduncle ‐gladiolus

Racemous Flowers

Raceme ‐ individual flowers attached by tiny stems to the peduncle

Bluebonnet

Racemous Flowers

Catkin

Mulberry

birch

Racemous Flowers

Corymb

yarrow

Racemous Flowers

Umbel

dill

onion

queen anne’s lace


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Racemous Flowers

Head

sunflower

daisy

Flower Types

cyme ‐ determinate ‐flower from the top down ‐ top florets open first

dischasium cyme ‐baby’s breath

helicoid cyme ‐ freesia

scorpioid ‐ tomato (alternate)

Types of Inflorescence Fruit

Fruit consists of the fertilized and mature ovules (seeds) and the ovary wall.

Parts of the Fruit

seed

dry fruit(corn) fleshy fruit (peach)

exocarp

mesocarp

endocarp

pericarp

Types of Fruit

berry

pepo

pome

hesperidium

drupe

pod

aggregate

multiple


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Parts of the Seed

testa (seed coat)

hilum

micropyle

dicot seed (bean)

plumule

epicotyl

cotyledon

hypocotyl

radicle

embryo

Bean Seed Germination

Water

Light

Heat

Oxygen

Corn Seed Germination

PLANT PROCESSES

Photosynthesis

Produces food

Stores Energy

Occurs only in cells containing chloroplasts

Releases Oxygen

Uses water

Uses carbon dioxide

Occurs in sunlight

Light Cycle (Photolysis, Hill Reaction)

Light reacts with pigments in the leaf causing the splitting of water molecules.

Three products: Electrons from the

hydrogen molecules

H+ ions ‐ used to form two separate energy storage molecules.

Oxygen


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Dark Cycle (Calvin Cycle)

Carbon dioxide molecules are transformed into sugars using the energy that was formed during the light reaction.

C3 ‐ efficient

C4 ‐more efficient (grasses)

CAM ‐most efficient (succulents)

Respiration

Uses food for plant energy

Releases energy

Occurs in all cells

Uses oxygen

Produces water

Produces carbon dioxide

Occurs in darkness as well as light

Net Reaction

6 CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6 O2

light

carbon dioxide

water Carbohydrate(sugar)

oxygen

energy for growth (ATP)

Photosynthesis

Respiration

Transpiration

Process of water loss

Occurs through the stomata

Uses 90% of water taken up

Necessary for cooling and mineral transport

Depends on: temperature

wind

humidity

FACTORS AFFECTING PLANT GROWTH

Light

Quality

Quantity

Duration

Necessary for photosynthesis


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Light Quality Light Quantity

Intensity

Summer vs. Winter

Shade vs. Sun

Equator vs Arctic

Indoors vs Outdoors

Light Duration

Photoperiod induces flowering, bud break etc.

Short Day = > 12 hours dark

chrysanthemum, poinsettia

Long Day = < 12 hours dark

California Poppy, beet, radish, lettuce

Day Neutral = doesn’t care

Temperature

Productivity

High Temperature

increased respiration, transpiration

Low Temperature

poor growth

Temperature

Flowering ‐

Mums, Christmas Cactus, Daffodils, Tulips

Chilling Hours

Peaches, Apples

Winter Injury

USDA Zone Map

Water

Photosynthesis

Cohesion Theory

Wilt (PWP)

Managing Stress


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Plant Nutrition

Nutrition vsFertilization

Macro = N, P, K, Mg, Ca, S

Micro = Fe, B, Zn, Cu, Mn, Mo, Cl, Co

Absorbed as ions

pH

Foliar Absorption

BOTANY

Carol Brouwer, Ph.D.Horticulturist

botany - taxonomy - carol · pdf filephylogenetictree of life taxonomy today lumpers ......

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