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BIO 231 BOTANY at USM FALL 2016

I. COURSE OBJECTIVES In this course, you will • develop a deep understanding of plant evolutionary history and how that history is

reflected in modern plant structure, function, and diversity; • appreciate the collaborative nature of modern scientific enquiry (i.e., how evolutionary

biology incorporates evidence from molecular data, paleobotany, structure & physiology to arrive at conclusions);

• explain how various plants utilize unique structural and physiological strategies to

survive, grow and reproduce; and • apply field identification tools as you learn to recognize of over 100 wild Maine plant

species. II. COURSE DESCRIPTION In this course you will explore the rich evolutionary history of plants on Planet Earth. From this perspective, you will learn how plants have solved the problems of birth, resource procurement, growth and maturation, sexual reproduction, and providing for offspring in aquatic and terrestrial environments. Their autotrophic nature and immobile habit presents unique challenges, but the diverse approaches plants have evolved are as magnificent as those of the animals. I hope that this course deepens your experience of the natural world and increases your appreciation for the elegance, beauty and diversity of plants.

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III. COURSE INFORMATION LECTURE Tuesdays and Thursdays, 11:45-1:00 Payson Smith Room 44 FIELD LAB Tuesdays, 1:15-4:05 Science 160 INSTRUCTOR Dr. Terry Theodose Phone: 780-4074 Email: theodose@ maine.edu Office: Science 476 (C-wing, across from Sullivan Gym) OFFICE HOURS Mondays, 11:00-12:00 Wednesdays, 10:00-11:00 Thursdays, 2:00-3:00 Fridays, by appointment BOOKS Required Willis, K.J. and J.C. McElwain. 2014. The evolution of plants, 2nd ed, Oxford University Press, Oxford, United Kingdom. MacAdam, J.W. Structure and function of plants. 2009. Wiley- Blackwell, Ames, Iowa. Maine Forest Service. 2008. Forest Trees of Maine: Centennial Edition, Polar Bear and Company, Solon, Maine. Optional Newcomb, L. 1977. Newcomb’s wildflower guide, Little Brown and Company, Boston. Clemants, S., & Gracie, C. (2006). Wildflowers in the field and forest: a field guide to the northeastern United States. Oxford University Press, USA. Note: a variety of botanical field guides will be available for you to use during field trips. WEBSITES Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. Missouri Botanical Garden. www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/APweb/ Go Botany! New England Wildflower Society, 180 Hemenway Road, Framingham, MA 01701 https://gobotany.newenglandwild.org/

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IV. CLASS MEETINGS Taking notes Please bring in a college-ruled spiral notebook for taking lecture notes. Education research suggests that taking notes by hand is more effective than either passive listening or typing for delivering information to your brain. Also, reading (and rewriting) your own hand written notes will spike your memory and improve your grade. In class professionalism I expect you to attend every class and to arrive prepared and ready to work. Please refrain from conducting personal business (texting, shopping, homework, etc.) on your personal devices while in class. This behavior is unprofessional and distracts me and other students. If you must take notes with a computer, please sit near the back so that your screen does not distract others. If I notice a negative pattern, it will be reflected in your final grade (see below). Group activities During lecture periods, you will take part in informal group activities that force you to grapple with the material. These activities are designed to deepen your understanding of the concepts as you actively discuss possibilities with others in the group. You are welcome to use phones, tablets or computers to access relevant information only during certain group activities. V. LAB MEETINGS Most laboratory meetings will take place outside. We will meet briefly in the lab beforehand and then take USM provided transportation to each field site. It is imperative that you arrive on time and dressed for the field. During extremely inclement weather, the lab will be held indoors or you will be given a field assignment for homework. For most of the semester, we will travel to various southern Maine ecosystems, each of which is dominated by different plant species. You will encounter a variety of plant species and will utilize field guides and other resources to identify them. We will document most species with either a photograph or a specimen. Specimens will be either frozen (for later exploration in the lab) or pressed and dried (to be mounted on herbarium sheets). Since much of the lab will involve honing your observation and identification skills, I require that you use a hand magnifier and keep a field book. A volunteer or two will take photographs of all species and these images will be posted on a web album that can be used by all. You will also be asked to carry at least one field guide. In addition to the optional field guides available at the book store, a diversity of field guides will be available for you to use during these field trips.

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VI. ASSESSMENT OF YOUR PROGRESS Lecture tests Your understanding of botanical fundamentals and higher concepts and will be assessed with three tests during the course of the semester. These will be composed primarily of essay questions, drawings of plant structures, application problems (like interpreting data), and creative synthesis (drawing conclusions from disparate material). You will get practice with these kinds of questions during the in-class activities. Lab tests Lab tests require that you correctly identify a sampling of the species we encounter during the field trips. You are expected to know the common names of species and families for all the plants we encounter. In addition, you are responsible for the the Latin names for all tree species. Understanding the phenological relationships among species and families will enhance your learning of plant evolutionary history, which we cover in the lecture. Group activities I will collect and grade some of the in-class activities that your group completes. Your average activity score will be used in your final grade determination (see below). Prior to calculating your group activity mean, your lowest activity grade will be dropped. Grading For each assignment or portion of an assignment (i.e., test question), the grade you earn will be based on the following criteria: A: 90%-100% You have mastered the material and understand it at a deep, interconnected level. You can express that understanding eloquently and extrapolate and apply to new problems. B: 80%-89% You have an acceptable knowledge of the material and can relay this information in a clear way. Your ability to extrapolate or apply to new situations is somewhat limited. C: 70%-79% Your knowledge and/or presentation of that knowledge is is at a very basic level or in places inadequate. You have trouble elaborating on that knowledge or applying it in a new context (i.e., memorization) D: 60%-69% Your knowledge is rudimentary and/or your performance is barely acceptable for college-level work. However, there are hints that you grasp and can express the material if your study habits were to change. F: <60% Below college-level expectations. You need a new approach to assignments if you wish to pass the class.

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Final Grade Assessment Points Approximate percentage Type possible of final grade Test 1 100 points 13% Test 2 100 points 13% Test 3 100 points 13% Group activities 100 points 13% Lab Test 1 100 points 13% Lab Test 2 100 points 13% Field book 50 points 7.5% Professionalism 50 points 7.5% Course total 700 points Your final grade will be calculated as a percentage of total points possible. For example, if you received a total of 620 points in the class, your grade will be calculated as 620/700 or 88 %. You would therefore receive a B+ for the class. IV. COURSE POLICIES Contacting me Due to the extremely high volume of email I receive Please do not contact me by email unless it is an emergency (but see below). Instead, we can talk in person after class or during my office hours. If none of those times work for you, I will answer an email to set up an appointment. Please put the word ‘Appointment’ in the title. Attendance in lecture Lecture attendance is expected. During class periods, you will take part in team activities that require you to interpret and apply material from the lecture and from reading assignments. Missing class will negatively impact your learning and compromise your group’s performance. If I notice a pattern poor attendance, it will impact your professionalism grade. Attendance in lab Attendance in lab is required. Each lab that you miss will reduce your professionalism grade 10% Tests During test periods, all electronic devices must be turned off and removed from your person.

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Late work The equivalent of one final grade percentage point will be docked for each day that an assignment is handed in late. Make-up test policy Permission for a make-up test will be granted only for medical emergencies, deaths in the family, and other unavoidable circumstances (such as game or meet when the student has shown me the schedule beforehand). Academic honesty USM’s Academic Integrity Policy is very clear. Academic dishonesty is strictly forbidden. Those found violating the policy will be penalized and possibly suspended. Here is a summary from the online academic catalog: “All academic work should be performed in a manner that will provide an honest reflection of the knowledge and abilities of each student. Violations of Student Academic Integrity: cheating, plagiarism, fabrication of data, giving or receiving unauthorized help on examinations, and other acts of academic dishonesty are contrary to the academic purposes for which the University exists.” Please read USM’s full academic integrity policy at http://www.usm.maine.edu/ocs/policy.html Any student found violating these policies will be reported to USM’s Office of Community Standards. Discrimination USM’s discrimination policy applies to all of your interactions related to this course.

“The University of Southern Maine shall not discriminate on the grounds of race, color, religion, sex, sexual orientation, national origin or citizenship status, age, disability or veteran's status in education, employment, and all other areas of the University. Discrimination inquiries should be directed to Betsy Stivers, Director, Equal Opportunity Center of Excellence. She can be reached at 780-4709 or elizabeth.stivers@maine.edu”

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V. ACCOMMODATIONS AND OTHER HELP AVAILABLE A. Accommodations If you have a disability that requires accommodation, please contact the Office of Academic Support for Students with Disabilities (237 Luther Bonney, 780-4706). Please contact the office as soon as possible, since only students who are registered with this office are eligible for accommodations. We can all work together to make sure you have a good experience. If you need ELL accommodations (such as longer test time, access to a dictionary while testing, etc.), please contact the Office of Academic Support for Students with Disabilities (237 Luther-Bonny, 780-4706). This office now provides services for ELL students. Only ELL students are eligible for this accommodation. B. Help with time management and academics If you are feeling overwhelmed with juggling work, school and family, need computer access or technology advice, or just need someone to proofread your writing, please contact the Learning Commons. They provide tutors, academic coaching, computer access, and technology advice. They have offices in Gorham and Portland and can be contacted at http://www.usm.maine.edu/learningcommons. C. Help with health issues If you experience any personal difficulties or health problems that impact your performance, please contact University Health and Counseling Services at www.usm.maine.edu/uhcs. Their mission is to support and promote the health and well being of the USM community. They can provide counseling, coaching, basic health services, and referrals to specialists. Please note: All material in this syllabus is subject to change!

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BIO 231 Botany, Fall 2016

Lecture SCHEDULE THIS WEEK’S TOPIC

READINGS for Tuesday

TUESDAY’S TOPICS

READINGS for Thursday

THURSDAY’S TOPICS

Week 1 Introduction to plants

8/30 Introduction to course

Willis 1.1 Intro 1.2 Geological time scale 1.4 Phylogenetic trees

9/1 General overview of plant evolution * Review in Campbell

Week 2 Earliest forms of plant life

Willis, Ch 2 Introduction, 2.1 Earliest environments 2.3 First prokaryotes 2.4 Evolution of photosynthesis MacAdams, Ch 10 Photosynthesis, pp. 158-171

9/6 Evolution of prokaryotic photoautotrophs Stromatolites and other ancient cyanobacteria

Willis, Ch 2 2.5 Evolution of eukaryotes 2.6 Possible triggering mechanisms MacAdams, Ch 1 p. 15 Plastids

9/8 Evolution of photosynthetic eukaryotes Endosymbioses: Glaucophytes, Rhodophytes, Viridiphytes

Week 3 The colonization of land

Willis, Ch. 3 3.1 Environmental changes thru Ordovician 3.2 Fossil evidence MacAdam, Ch 2 ground tissues pp. 18-23

9/13 The first land plants Bryophytes

Willis, Ch 3 3.4 Algae to plants MacAdam, Ch 14 Phenolics, pp 242-248

9/15 Symbioses: The first mycorrhizae and lichens Lignin and flavonoids Modern Brophytes

Week 4 The first Vascular plants

Willis, Ch. 3 3.4 Non-vascular to vascular 3.3 Examples MacAdam, Ch 2 Xylem, pp. 21-30

9/20 Evolution of vascular plants Water conducting cells and tissues

Willis, Ch. 4 4.1 Environmental changes thru Carboniferous 4.2 Fossil record 4.3 Evidence of further adaptation

Evolution of trees: vascular system, support structures, roots and leaves

Week 5 The first forests

Willis, Ch. 4 4.5 Earliest spore-producing trees, pp 113-129 MacAdam, Ch 4 Secondary growth, pp 62-70

9/27 Arborescent spore producing plants: lycophytes, tree ferns, giant horsetails, Progymnosperms

Willis, Ch. 4 4.4 Life cycle adaptations 4.5 Earliest seed-producing trees, pp 129-135

9/29 Evolution of heterospory Evolution of seeds and pollen

Week 6 Test week

Study!

10/4 Exam 1

Willis Ch. 5 5.1 Environmental changes through Permian 5.1 Evolution of gymnosperms

10/6 Cycads, Bennettitales, ginkgos, and seed ferns, and gnetophytes

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Week 7 Fall Break

10/11 Fall Break No class

Willis, Ch. 5 5.3 Geography during Permian 5.4 Major radiation of conifers

10/13 Ancient and living conifers

Week 8 Flowering plant origins

Willis, Ch. 6 Intro 6.1 Evidence for the first angiosperms MacAdam, Ch. 6 Reproduction in flowering plants

10/18 Darwin’s abominable mystery, part 1 Evolution of flowers Evolution of fruits and seeds

Willis, Ch. 6 6.2 Nature of first angiosperms 6.3 Why so late? Fossil evidence and the environment pp 202-208

10/20 What were the first angiosperms like? What abiotic factors influenced their appearance?

Week 9 The past 66 million years

Willis, Ch. 6 6.3 Why so late? Biotic interactions, pp 208-214 6.4 Gymnosperms to angiosperms

10/25 Coevolution: animals and angiosperms

Willis, Ch. 7 Intro 7.1 Environmental changes thru the Cenozoic

10/27 Darwin’s abominable mystery, part 2 Angiosperm diversification

Week 10 The past 66 million year

MacAdam, Ch 5 Ch 5 Leaves, pp 71-85; Ch 10 Photo-respiration, photosynthetic adaptations pp 171-177 Willis, Ch 7 7.3 Evolution of grasses 7.6 Evolution of C4 and CAM

11/1 Evolution of alternative photosynthetic pathways

Willis, Ch 7 Handout

11/3 Current angiosperm diversity Diversity of mycorrhizae

Week 11 Test week

Willis, Ch 8,9 8.3 No plant mass extinction 8.4 Persistance 8.5 Adaptations for persistance 9.1 Evolutionary theories 9.2 Patterns of change

11/8 General patterns in plant evolution How plant evolutionary history differs from that of animals

Study!

11/10 Exam 2

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Week 14 Angiosperm physiology

MacAdam, Ch 1 Cell wall and Plasmodesmata, pp 2-3, 11; Ch 2 Meristems; Ch 5 Leaf Translocation

11/15 Unique plant cell attributes Moving sugar through the phloem

MacAdam, Ch 2 Soils pp 106-109; Ch 8 Plant water relations

11/17 Soils water availability and plant water potential

Week 13 Soils and plant nutrition

MacAdam, Ch 8 Plant water relations, contd.

11/22 Plant water potential Drought adaptations

11/24 Thanksgiving Break No Class

Week 14 Plant nutrition

MadAdam, Ch 7 Plant nutrition

11/29 Soils and plant nutrient availability

MacAdam, Ch 7 Plant nutrition

12/1 Plant nutrition Root symbioses

Week 15 Secondary metabolites

MacAdam, Ch 14 Plant secondary products

12/6 Natural functions of plant secondary metabolites

MacAdam, Ch 14 Plant secondary products

12/8 Plant secondary metabolites and humans

Exam Week

Study!

12/15 Exam 3 10:45-12:45

Please note: All material in this syllabus is subject to change!

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BIO 231 Botany Lab Field Lab Details Fall 2016 Most labs will take place outside, where you will learn to identify Maine’s wild trees and (native and non-native) fall flowering and fruiting plant species. We will visit a variety of plant community types so that you become exposed to the rich variety of Maine’s ecosystems. Come prepared for field trips! Be sure to pack the following items in a small backpack:

-Magnifying hand lens (will be provided) -Field book (yellow, Rite-in-rain field book (will be provided) -Mechanical pencils (at least two) -Forest Trees of Maine field guide - A wildflower field guide (some provided)

-Water in a water bottle -Bagged lunch -Sunscreen -Bug spray

-Cell phone* -Camera (optional) What to wear

-Hiking boots with socks -Rubber boots for some labs (provided) - Long pants (in case of biting insects or bushwhacking) -Appropriate outerwear for that day’s weather -Sun hat and sunglasses -Orange vest once hunting season starts (provided)

Van rules The USM motorpool has some rules that we all need to follow:

-Wear your seatbelt! -No eating or drinking in the van!

Plant community types we may visit on our field trips

-River floodplain forest -Sandplain grassland -Pitch pine scrub oak barren -Beach strand annual plant community -Pitch pine dune forest -Hemlock forest

-Red maple swamp -Old growth coastal forest -Pitch pine bog -Salt marsh -Brackish tidal marsh -Northern deciduous forest -Atlantic white cedar swamp

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BIO 231 Botany

Field Lab Tentative Schedule

Week of semester

Month Date Destination

1 August 8/30 No lab 2 September 9/6 Flood plain forest, Stroudwater Trail,

Portland 3 3:00 9/13

Coastal dune, beach strand, and kelp communities, Crescent Beach State Park, Cape Elizabeth

4 9/20* *Sand plain grassland and pitch pine scrub oak barren, Kennebunk Plains, Kennebunk

5 9/27 Salt marsh, Scarborough marsh, Scarborough

6 October 10/4* *Mixed tree swamp and pitch pine bog, Saco Heath, Saco

7 10/11 Fall Break No class

8 10/18 Deciduous oak forest, Oat Nuts Park, Portland

9 10/25 Coastal deciduous forest (old growth), Cape Elizabeth

10 November 11/1 Sand dune pitch pine forest, Scarborough Beach State Park, Scarborough

11 11/8* *Red maple swamp, Atlantic white cedar swamp, and old growth white pine forest, Masabesic Forest, Alfred

12 11/15 Plant structure and function, mount and view specimens

13 11/22 Lab Test 1

14 11/29 Plant structure and function

15 December 12/6 Plant structure and function, mount and view specimens

Exam Week

Lab Test 2

* indicates days we leave directly after class. Please go directly to the vans and load up Please note: All destination dates are highly subject to change, without warning, at the discretion of the instructor. Weather may dictate that I cancel or hold the lab inside.

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BIO 231 BOTANY PLANT IDENTIFICATION NOTES Fall 2016 All vascular plants have three vegetative organs: roots, stems and leaves. Since stems and leaves have the same developmental origin, these two aboveground organs are collectively referred to as shoots. A. STEMS Parts of the Stem All vascular plants have stems with actively growing tips. The tips are called apical buds and they enclose the apical meristem, an area of actively dividing cells. These cells give rise to the growing stem and its associated leaves. Unlike the hair on your head, most plant stems grow from their tips! The rest of the stem can be divided into nodes and internodes. Nodes are the sites of leaf attachment. Areas of the stem between nodes are called internodes. Nodes also produce axillary buds. These buds give rise to new shoots and lateral branches under the right conditions.

Leaf arrangement on the stem An important character for identification is the arrangement of leaves along the stem. This arrangement is quite fixed within most taxa, although there are some exceptions. Leaf arrangement is classified according to the number of leaves per node. Alternate leafed stems have one leaf per node. Stems with opposite leaves have two leaves per node. Plants with whorled leaves have stems with three or more leaves per nodeB. LEAVES

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Basic structure Leaves shape and size is variable between species, within a species, and even on the same plant. However, there are certain characteristics that remain fixed within taxa, such as leaf blade venation (vein pattern), presence or absence of a petiole (leaf stem), presence or absence of stipules (pared appendages at base of the petiole), size and shape of stipules, presence or absence of teeth along the blade margin, etc. The general morphology of a simple leaf can be seen below.

Divided blades The leaf blade in the picture above is composed of one entity, and the leaf is therefore called a simple leaf (one with an undivided leaf blade). In contrast, many leaves have blades divided into smaller parts. Such compound leaves are composed of three or more leaflets. If you are unsure if a plant has compound or simple leaves, find the axillary buds to get oriented. Leaflets never have axillary buds. In addition, all the leaflets of a compound leaf will be in the same plane.

Simple leaf Pinnately compound Palmately compound There are two general types of compound leaves, depending on how the leaflets are arranged. Most compound leaves are pinnately compound, such as the leaves of ash,

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walnut, and hickory. Some plants have palmately compound leaves, such as those of clovers, strawberries, and marijuana. Gymnosperm leaves Most gymnosperms are members of the phylum Pinophyta (previously Coniferophyta) and have needle or scale like leaves. However, not all conifers are pines (e.g., spruces and firs). The genus Pinus has a distinctive leaf arrangement, with needles growing out of little bundles called fascicles. Fascicles are technically short shoots that branch of the longer branches (long shoots) of the main trunk. The number of needles per fascicle can aid in identification of pine species.

Pitch pine has 3 needles per bundle

Some conifers have scales rather than needle-like leaves. Examples are the junipers and “cedars”.

Fern leaves A somewhat different terminology is used for fern leaves. In the spring, the baby leaf arises from an underground stem (rhizome) as a fiddlehead. The fern leaf is called a frond, and individual leaflets are called pinnae. Ferns reproduce by spores rather than seeds. Most fronds have clusters of microscopic spore producing capsules on their bottom surfaces. These clusters are called sori and they look like brown spots.

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C. ROOTS AND OTHER BELOWGROUND STRUCTURES Root morphology Most plants have either a taproot system or a fibrous root system. Gymnosperms and most angiosperms have a taproot, which is the dominant root that grows vertically down into the soil. Some angiosperm monocots, such as tulips, onions, and grasses have fibrous root systems that lack a dominant root axis. Unusual roots Some roots are used for storage, including carrots, sweet potatoes, beets, and radishes. All are nutritious in part due to their high starch content. Although roots lack axillary buds, some function in vegetative reproduction. In trees, these roots are called suckers, and they are found in aspen (popple), pitch pine, and beech. In some cases, other belowground organs can be mistaken for roots. Rhizomes are belowground stems that sometimes function in storage (ginger “root” is a prime example). More often rhizomes function in vegetative reproduction; many clonal plants spread this way (e.g., grasses, clubmosses, etc.). Rhizomes can easily be confused with stolons (runners), which are horizontal aboveground stems (e.g., strawberries). Tubers are expanded portions of rhizomes that store starch, the potato being the prime example. Bulbs are underground shoots that store starch in their fleshy leaves (onions, tulip bulbs, etc.). Corms are also underground shoots, but storage occurs in the stem tissue rather than in the papery leaves.

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D. FLOWERS Basic flower structure and function Flowers are the reproductive structures of angiosperms, and they are technically specialized shoots with whorled leaves and short internodes. The four kinds of appendages of a flower evolved from leaves on this shortened shoot. All four appendage types are present in most flowers, but there are many exceptions. Each type of appendage can be distinguished by morphology, position on the vertical axis, and function. Starting from flower stem (peduncle) and the receptacle (base where appendages appear to attach) and moving up, the appendages occur in this order: 1) sepals, 2) petals, 3) stamens, and 4) carpels. Sepals (collectively called the calyx) usually serve a protective function during flower development. However, some flowers have showy sepals that can be mistaken for petals. Petals (collectively called the corolla) are the visual attractants of (most) flowers. Petal color and shape visually attract pollinators. Stamens house the anthers that produce pollen grains, structures that carry the sperm from one flower to another. The filaments project the anthers up high to enhance pollen removal. The carpel (one, many, or one multiple carpel composed of many fused carpels) has three parts: the ovary which holds the ovules, the stigma that receives the pollen, and style that projects the stigma up and away from the ovary. Inside the ovary are ovules, each of which houses one egg. Pollination is accomplished when a pollen grain is delivered to the stigma. The pollen grain germinates into a pollen tube that carries the sperm down the style, into the ovary, then into the ovule, and to the egg, which the sperm finally fertilizes. The resulting zygote will develop into a new plant embryo. Meanwhile, the surrounding ovule develops into a seed and the ovary develops into a fruit.

Loss, proliferation and fusion of flower parts

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In more derived (recently evolved) groups, certain appendages can be absent, multiples of their ancestral number, or fused with one another. For example, s some taxa have lost petals and/or sepals, including many wind pollinated angiosperms such as many trees and grasses. Other wind-pollinated groups have flowers that can be called male (missing carpels) or female (missing anthers), such as the hollies. This distinction decreases the probability of self-pollination, and thereby promotes outcrossing. Fusion of flower parts is seen in many families, such as the bell-flower and snapdragon families. In these groups the petals are fused into a tube. In the snapdragon family, the three fused lower petals form the lower lip, which serves as a landing pad for pollinators.

. Ovary position Flowers can be classified according to the position of the ovary relative to the receptacle. The ancestral condition is a superior ovary (ovary above the petal and sepals), but over time many groups evolved an inferior ovary, probably to protect the ovules from hungry herbivores. The rose family has evolved its own method of protecting ovules: the sepals and petals are fused and form a cup that cradles the ovary. This arrangement can best be seen in the fruits of some rose family members, such as apples and pears.

superior ovary half-inferior inferior ovary with cup

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The inflorescence Like leaves, flowers can also have a distinctive arrangement on the stem. This arrangement of flowers, known as the inflorescence, is important for plant identification. The most common inflorescence types are given below.

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E. FAMILIES WITH DISTINCTIVE INFLORESCENCES The Aster family (Asteraceae) The unique “flower” of the Aster family is really an inflorescence composed of two kinds of flowers: disc florets and ray florets. Each floret is an individual flower and the inflorescence type is called a head.

The Parsley family (Apicaceae) Members of the Parsley family can be recognized by their umbrella- shaped inflorescences. This type of inflorescence is called an umbel.

The Arum family (Araceae) Members of the arum family have a unique infloresence called a spadix. The spadix is actually a fleshy spike containing many small sessile flowers. A bract above the spadix, called the spathe, is showy and serves the same function as petals in other groups (attracting insects).

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F. FAMILIES WITH UNIQUE FLOWER STRUCTURE

Mustard family (Brassicaceae) All members of the Mustard family have flowers with four petals and six stamens (four long and two short). The four petals have been interpreted by Christian herbalists as a cross, thus contributing to the ancient name of the family (Cruciferae).

Legume family (Fabaceae) Most members of the Legume family have flowers with bilateral symmetry. The two side petals are called wings, the top petal is called the banner, and the two bottom petals fold together to form the keel.

Images retrieved from the following sources Montana Plant Life, Montana.Plant-Life.org Ovary position, Gustav Hegi (1876–1932), Gustav Dunzinger - Hegi, Gustav (1906): Illustrierte Flora von Mittel-Europa mit besonderer Berücksichtigung von Deutschland, Oesterreich und der Schweiz zum Gebrauche in den Schulen und zum Selbstunterricht. Band I Pteridophyta, Gymnospermae und Monocotyledones. Künstlerische Leitung: Gustav Dunzinger. Verlag J. F. Lehmann, München. Parts of a fern frond, http://www.gaiaonline.com Weed identification tools and techniques. https://www.extension.org/. Figures by Mark Schonbeck, Virginia Association for Biological Farming.