Conference organized by the research group Media, War and Conflict (MEKK) at Dept. of Journalism and Media Studies, Oslo and Akershus University College, Norway

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BOOK OF ABSTRACTS

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Violence against journalists: a key challenge for press freedom in the

Northern Triangle of Central America.

José Luis Benítez. Profesor.

Universidad Centroamericana José Simeón Cañas (UCA), San Salvador.

Abstract:

Violence against journalists: a key challenge for press freedom in the Northern Triangle of

Central America.The countries in the Northern Triangle of Central America -Honduras,

Guatemala and El Salvador- face increasing levels of violence perpetrated by a variety of

actors such as gangs, drug traffickers, transnational organized crime and some members of

state security forces. Honduras is the country where the context of violence is most dangerous

for journalists and media workers, especially since the 2009 coup and the corruption cases

that followed a politically polarized environment, and the predominance of organized crime.

According to CPJ at least 24 journalists have been assassinated in Honduras since 1992.

Similarly, according to CPJ 23 Guatemalan journalists have been assassinated, some of them

were covering corruption and politics. In El Salvador there have been less assassinations of

journalists compared with Honduras and Guatemala, 6 murders of journalists, according to

CPJ.Thus, I discuss the situation of the protection mechanisms for journalists in each country.

The Honduran State approved in 2015 a specific protection mechanism that included

journalists and communicators but the implementation of this mechanism is facing important

challenges. In contrast, journalists’ associations and other civil society organizations are

promoting the adoption of specific protection mechanisms for journalists in Guatemala and El

Salvador. Finally, I discuss some of the challenges for Central American universities to

promote training courses or workshops on physical and digital security for journalists, and the

need of research and public advocacy on safety of journalists.

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Specialised training of journalists in a conflict and reporting peace: the

Colombian endeavour

Yennué Zárate Valderrama, PhD and Lecturer, Universidad Iberoamericana, Mexico City.

Abstract:

This paper analyses training initiatives for journalism specializations in the midst of

challenging environments. It will examine, in particular, the training of Colombian conflict

journalists as crucial preparation for national reporters covering the war. This key theme

emerged continuously in this investigation’s data, and so a fundamental goal of this section is

to develop an argument for the necessity of professionalism among local war journalists. The

methodology is media ethnography, particularly in-depth interviews with research subjects.

Journalism education is still regarded as the professional framework for pursuing a career in

the media, yet it is an issue of longstanding concern to the academic community and to

journalists (Gaunt, 1992). It is debated whether journalism is a profession, a technique, or an

occupation (Tumber & Prentoulis, 2005). In this paper, it will be argued that journalists’

professionalism (Weaver and Wilhoit, 1996) can be attained either through previous formal

education in the subject, or later on the job (in media). The evidence gathered in the current

study indicates that notions of professionalism in an armed conflict entail more advanced

knowledge, and require expertise in the situation, from both journalists and editors. This paper

will examine the pertinence of an integral specialised education on war coverage and

violence, as an essential framework for local war journalists, particularly in violent

environments. There are different perspectives regarding education for ‘acceptable’

journalism, but there is little analysis or investigation into adequately preparing professionals

to cover war. What preparation does exist is mainly based on training foreign, not local,

correspondents to go to war. One could argue that this minor area of research is in its

preliminary stages, and currently there is little analysis of local media workers living and

reporting in dangerous environments, and even less on support provided by media

organizations to their employees who work in dangerous zones.

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The Fixer in the Corporate Media

Altaf Ullah Khan, Professor

Department of Journalism & Mass Communication, University of Peshawar

Abstract:

Journalists in Pashtoon areas of Pakistan, KP, Baluchistan, and FATA are covering conflict in

the most dangerous part of the world. Since violent conflict has become the very identity of

this region, this is the only commodity that sells in the national media as well as global. Being

a fixer, working with an international organization, along with a Western journalist is the

prized beat every journalist would like to cover. Among many reasons for this preoccupation,

a few prominent ones are: this is the story national and international media would accept,

getting a fixer job gives you more money in a workplace where even minimum salaries are

often promised but never paid, and above all if you get a regular contract with international

media you have a career. But the dangers of working as fixers outweigh the benefits of the

job. It is dangerous. The Western journalist/media never ask for any help, unless it is

impossible to get information. The Western journalist in Pakistan is far more secure than the

local ones. The local journalist doesn’t have any insurance coverage, they don’t have any

governmental assistance if they visit the conflict zone, and their own media organizations in

Pakistan never take a stand if they get into harms way in the line of duty. Knowing the

language and culture is not enough to bring in sensitive, dangerous information. The contract

between the fixer and the Western journalist/organization is a very inhuman one. In many

interviews the fixer told us that they are asked to bring certain information. The Western

counterpart will only pay if the whole package is delivered. If one brings in less information

to avoid danger, it is not accepted. There is no ethical code to guide the relationship between

the fixers and their paymasters. And above all, even if they contribute heavily to a story, they

never get the credit. Their name is, at best, given as someone who helped collecting data. The

fixers do it despite all the dangers, because their salaries are so low that they can’t say no to

some money that could support their livelihood for a while. The paper intends to investigate

this vicious circle of exploitation from ethical and working conditions’ perspective. It will

strive to explain the physical, financial, and psychological consequences for the journalists in

local media, working as fixers.

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Safety of Tunisian journalists in conflict zones: who's responsible for it?:

Case of Sofian Chourabi & Nadhir Ktari.

Soumaya Berjeb – PHD Student

Institute of Press and Sciences of Information (IPSI – Manouba University)

Abstract:

Few years after the “Arab Spring” release, Two journalists from Tunisia were kidnapped by a

militant group in Libya, Sofian Chourabi and Nadhir Ktari, were reporting for Tunisian TV

channel (First TV) in September 2014, but they didn’t ever come back home from the

Conflict zone in the Libyan lands. The cause of these two journalists was one of the most

particular cases in the history of Tunisian journalism, as it invites journalists, NGOs, National

organizations (Syndicate of Tunisian Journalists and others) and other organisms to think

about the deep question of journalists’ security and to demand lightings about on the

shoulders of who, should the responsibility of journalist protection be set, especially, in the

conflict zones. On the basis of these problematic and similar questions, this research examines

the different aspects of the subject (professional, legislative, ethical and humanitarian, etc.)

And evokes the responsibility of the Tunisian government for protecting citizens working as

journalists abroad, exclusively in some Arab conflict areas like: (Libya, Syria, and Iraq). This

research also seeks to evoke the question of the reactions of the governments of the countries

in conflicts toward foreign journalists, especially kidnapped and vanished ones, like” Nadhir

and Sofien” sensitive issue. In addition, this study surrounds the professional reactions

(persuasions and condemnations, prevention tools, etc) and the official measures (diplomatic

reactions and political pressures) about such cases, in order to explore another level of the

deep challenges of freedom of expression in some complicated circumstances.

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The Ethical Dilemma of Nigerian Journalists in the Face of Boko Haram

Insurgency

Dr. Musibau Tunde Akanni, Senior Journalism Lecturer, Lagos State University.

Abstract:

The ethical stipulation that the public has the right to know, though highly beneficial to the

society, is often at some cost. For instance not many people realized that the Boko Haram

insurgents in the northeastern part of Nigeria were not genuinely Islamic as they often

mischievously claimed. The media’s efforts to unravel this cover-up have helped both

muslims and Christians to bond up against the murderous group. In particular, the uncommon

access of an independent journalist, Ahmad Salkida, to the insurgents as well as the

investigative efforts of Pulitzer winner, Premium Times, and a few other news media have

revealed some hidden facts including sabotage within the Nigerian Army ironically to the

dismay of the Nigerian government. On the other hand, Salkida has had to be queried, warned

and even had his passport withdrawn a few times even as Premium Times has had its office

raided by security operatives and warned to desist from publishing ‘offending’ stories. This

study will undertake a comprehensive revision of broad provisions of media ethics as

applicable in Nigeria. Secondly, using qualitative content analysis, It will critique some

relevant stories published by Premium Times over a specified period to make for a proper

assessment of ethical compliance and conflict sensitivity. This will equally entail a thorough

exposition of the principles of the UNESCO-endorsed conflict-sensitive journalism in relation

to the to the media’s efforts. It will then offer conciliatory recommendations that will seek to

deepen the level of understanding between the government and the media.

Threats to Journalists in the Post War on Terror Scenario in Pakistan

Azam Jan, Assistant Professor

Department of Communication and Media Studies, Hazara University Mansehra.

Abstract:

Pakistan is located in the region that has been witnessing conflict situation since the Soviet

intervention in Afghanistan in 1979. Sharing one of the longest borders with Afghanistan,

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Pakistan could not remain unaffected. Pakistan hardly had recovered from havocs of the

aforesaid war when the 9/11 incident prompted another war in the region, framed as “war on

terror”. Strategically, this war was declared over after killing of Osama Bin Laden in 2011 but

its ashes are still smoking Pakistan. The arena marked an era of conflict reporting in the

country. Till date, scores of journalists have been killed in line of their duties. The issue of

conflict sensitivity coupled with life threats to journalists forced researchers to undertake

studies to enlighten the world with the mayhem. This paper tends to be an effort in line with

the stated concerns. The study inclines to be exploratory in nature and will make use of mixed

methodology. The key research questions include: whether lack of safety tools result in life

threats to war reporters; whether absence of necessary training adds to life threats to war

correspondents; and whether run for breaking news endanger journalists safety during war

reporting. Quantitative data will be collected through a research tool consisted of questions

that will direct answers to the key research questions. Qualitative data tends to be gathered

through focus group interviews. Collected data will be analyzed by making use of SPSS

Version 23. It is anticipated that lack of safety tools, lack of necessary training and run for

breaking news contribute to journalist’s life threats.

The impact of domestic regulations in journalists’ safety. The Venezuelan

case

Mariateresa Garrido. PhD Candidate

United Nations mandated University for Peace, Costa Rica

Abstract:

International human rights law indicates that the right to freedom of expression can be limited

only to protect the right of others, national security, public order, public health or morals.

However, when domestic laws do not observe those requirements journalists cannot properly

do their work. Venezuela is a perfect example to illustrate this situation. Regulations

approved in the past 18 years have ‘legally’ limited the possibilities to access public

information and disseminate content. The Supreme Tribunal has interpreted the majority of

those norms, and as a result, radio and TV are obliged to transmit shows from independent

producer spre-approved by the government, newspapers cannot publish pictures of corpses,

digital media cannot disseminate information related to lynching, etc. Hence, in this paper I

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describe the norms that impede journalists from reporting on certain issues and I discuss its

consequences. The research is limited to the analysis of the laws regulating the dissemination

of information and to the cases reported by international and national organizations that

illustrate how the application of those norm restricts journalism in Venezuela. To conclude,

and based on international human rights standards, I present legal recommendations that can

be followed by stakeholders to impede the approval of norms that can have a negative impact

in the exercise of journalism. Consequently, this study favors the understanding of the

complex issue of safety of journalists and provide guidance to prevent the creation of insecure

conditions that can affect them.

The conflict between journalists and the constitution 2014 in Egypt

Dr. Miral AlAshry, assistant professor.

School of Mass Communication, department of journalism at the Canadian international

college (CIC) Egypt & Media Advisor at the World Federation of United Nation in Cairo,

Egypt.

Abstract:

This research tackles the main topic of the study revolves around the revolution of the 25th

January 2011, during the first transition phase and the second transition phase up to the 30th

June 2013 Egyptian society committed the development of a constitution supporting the rights

and freedoms of journalists. In addition, the methodological of the study included a survey

research was conducted over a sample of 125 subject unit. And this study focused on the first

and second constitution in Egypt and the simple of the compare. The second constitution of

2014 included in its provisions articles regarding freedom of expression, access to

information, and the media. Article 65 guarantees freedom of thought, opinion, and the

expression thereof. Article 68 declares that all official state documents and information are

the property of the people, who have the right to access such materials in a timely and

transparent manner. Articles 70, 71, and 72 govern the press, providing for many of the rights

that support a free media environment. They guarantee the freedom of the print, broadcast,

and digital sectors; enshrine the right to establish media outlets; ban all forms of media

censorship, including the suspension and closure of outlets; ban prison terms for press crimes;

and declare the independence and neutrality of all state-owned media outlets. The constitution

also calls for the establishment of independent regulatory bodies tasked with supporting and

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developing both private and state-owned media and administering all relevant regulations. To

sum up, and to answer the question about what the conflict between journalists and the

Constitution is, we find that whereas there are laws in place for the protection of journalists,

these laws are not being implemented. It seems the El-Sisi government is persecuting

journalists in an unprecedented way, and is demolishing freedom of speech in Egypt. This

conflict did not end until after the true democratization not by laws, by modifying and

repairing government corruption.

Trend of ‘Blackmail journalism’ and its threat to safety of Journalists in

Nigeria

Olunifesi Adekunle SURAJ, Senior Lecturer

Department of Mass Communication, University of Lagos.

Abstract:

Against the public interest to detect, expose and report serious misdemeanor and other forms

of corruption, Nigerian journalists in the light of economic pressure appear to have yielded to

unethical practices mostly in form of sycophancy and blackmail which predisposes them to

threat and danger. It is often reported that most Nigerian Media are accustomed to “easy

answers and easy money”. Hence, most Nigerian media chiefs often find themselves under

pressure to bend to the whims of the corrupt politicians and political elites. Often, journalists

deliver news in favour of highest bidder and often negotiate news content once their demand

is met. Of great concern is the fact that this perceived “blackmail journalism” appears to have

received little attention in the academic literature. Arguably, certain school of thought

believes most death of Nigerian journalists could be traced to journalists who practices

“blackmail journalism”. It is often argued that threat to such journalists became real when

they shift allegiance or when they resulted to blackmailing tactics to exhort money from the

corrupt politicians. It is on this basis that this study examines the extent to which “blackmail

journalism” is practiced in Nigeria, the extent to which “blackmail journalism” contribute

threat to safety of Nigerian journalists and what precautionary or preventive measures could

help curb “blackmail journalism” in Nigeria. Using as a theoretical framework of Social

Responsibility and Status Conferral theory, the study adopts survey research methodology

involving stratified sampling techniques with 250 journalists as sample size.

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The Peace we are Missing: Violence Against Journalists in Colombia´s

Post-Conflict

Dr. Marta Milena Barrios, Associate Professor

School of Communications Universidad del Norte Barranquilla, Colombia together with Lina

Vega-Estarita

Abstract:

The year 2016 has a special place in Colombian History. The signing of the agreement to end

conflict with the FARC guerrilla, the triumph of the NO in the plebiscite that the government

called to endorse it, the Nobel Peace Prize for President Santos and the negotiations for a new

agreement, sealed the commitment to silence the rifles definitively. Paradoxically, the end of

the internal armed conflict did not improve the security conditions for journalists in the

country. In that year, 262 journalists were victims of threats and abuses (FLIP, 2017). Of

those, one was killed, another was vulnerable to a sexual offense and nine more suffered

interpersonal violence (Legal Medicine, 2016). In addition, impunity remains: despite 338

investigations for threats to journalists only one was sentenced between 2015 and 2016 (FLIP,

2016). This originates other types of violence that affect the freedom of the press in the

country currently facing a post-conflict period. Through a quantitative secondary data analysis

and a qualitative study of the cases regarding the most visible threats against journalists in the

public opinion in 2016, this study evidenced a continued violence in the form of threats,

calumnies and other means of censorship. This confirms that there is a long way to go to

disarm the words and the hearts of Colombian people, in order to achieve a “stable and long-

lasting peace” for the media professionals and for the country.

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Culture of impunity and journalists’ protection: Is safe journalism a distant

dream in Pakistan?

Dr. Sadia Jamil, PhD Graduate, the University of Queensland, Australia, Co-Vice Chair,

Journalism Research and Education Section, IAMCR

Abstract:

Violence against journalists is a routine problem in Pakistan. Especially, the country’s conflict

areas of Khyber Phaktunistan Province, North and South Waziristan, Federally Administered

Tribal Areas (FATA) and Baluchistan Province are hotspots of journalists’ killings and

kidnappings. In the tribal areas within the Peshawar border region of Pakistan and along the

border with Afghanistan, investigative journalists confront fatal safety threats resulting in

the relative state of self-censorship. Journalists are not only at risk of organized crime in the

aforementioned conflict areas in which there is a comparatively weaker state control, but also

they face diverse safety risks in Pakistan’s major cities including Karachi, Lahore, Peshawar

and Quetta. Consequently, the Pakistani journalists are not able to practice their right to

freedom of expression. Reports by international organisations and NGO’s monitoring

freedom of expression and journalists’ safety level in Pakistan suggest that the biggest

challenge for the Pakistani journalists is the country’s existing ‘climate of impunity’ despite

physical and psychological threats to them (UNESCO 2016). Therefore, this study

investigates the key challenges to journalists’ safety in Pakistan and addresses four objectives:

To investigate journalists’ lived experiences of safety threats in conflict and non-conflict

situations. To explore whether Pakistan’s laws protect journalists’ rights of: freedom of

expression, freedom of information, online and offline safeties, fair trial and adequate pay

scales. To analyse journalists’ perceptions of impunity for crime against them. To account

journalists’ recommendations for: improved level of their online and offline protections,

provision of safety instruments and safety training, and for ending the culture of impunity in

Pakistan. The study uses qualitative method of in-depth interviews. Journalists from 22 most

influential media organizations (newspapers and television news channels) have been selected

in this study. To ensure the diversity of feedback, journalists with work experience in all four

provinces of Pakistan have been contacted for participating in this study. The study uses

‘thematic analysis’ to analyse the collected data. Thus, the full paper addresses the theoretical

framework, methodology and findings in detail.

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Professional Training, Journalists Safety and Media Freedom in Conflict

Ridden Nigeria

Umaru Pate, Professor and Dean

Faculty of Communication, Bayero University, Kano, Nigeria

Abstract:

The high rate of violent conflicts, widespread terror and prevalence of violent and dangerous

crimes compounded by free flow of hate and dangerous speech have increasingly made

Nigeria and its 190 Million people highly insecure. Apart from acts of violent terror like those

of Boko Haram and the Niger Delta Militants, every part of the country experiences violent

crimes like kidnappings, armed robberies, hired assassinations and high profile financial

corruption, drug and human trafficking. All of that make the society tense, dangerous and

conflict ridden with implications on journalism, its practice, professionals and freedom. For

instance, in the last five years, the media and journalists had suffered cases of murder and

physical assassinations, various forms of psychological pressures, unlawful detentions,

destruction of places of work, raids on editorial offices, dismissals by employers and many

other types of harassments. The challenging operational climate and obvious professional

hazards and pressures have severally affected and threatened journalistic practices,

professional and media freedom in the country. Accordingly, this paper examines the state of

professional preparedness and practice of the Nigerian journalists occasioned by training and

organizational safety. It studies the ability of journalists to manage the risks and dangers in

the environment and the consequences of such fears and professional insecurity to media

freedom in the country.

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The Ballot, Bullets, and Batons: Walking the Thin Line in Covering

Conflicts in Eastern, Horn, and Central Africa.

Mugo Mugo Patrick, Journalist, Author and Conflict Researcher. Television Producer, Horn

and Central Africa Bureau, Aljazeera Media Network

Abstract:

This research paper will explore the sensitivities of covering conflicts in Eastern and Central

Africa from a multi-prong approach that pits Journalists, State, and Non-State Actors in a

clash of operational modalities. An Anti-Terrorism law in Kenya depicts terror suspects as

criminals even before a fair trial and therefore victimizing victims whereas an Al Jazeera in-

house policy views suspects as members of fighters. From the public eye, the network is

widely viewed as sympathetic to terrorist groups in this Linguistic tussle over the meaning of

jargon and fear of condemnation of giving a platform to perceived criminal voices. When

State Actors demand contents of news sources, a journalist bears the brunt of balancing

restrictive policy issues, the sanctity of protecting sources, and the apathy of threats and

intimidation among other Crimes Against Journalists. In pursuit of building this thesis,

academic journals, books and first hand interviews will be interrogated. My practical

experience in covering the Burundi crisis, Democratic Republic of Congo crisis will shed

light on the fear of being caught in the crossfire of bullets from the military and charged youth

in life-threatening assignments amid massive extrajudicial killings, Government threats and

outright media silencing. This paper will also delve into theoretical perspectives to bring forth

contemporary discussions about Journalism in frontlines where Journalists are viewed as

threat, menace and as the only alternative platform.

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Digital Security Awareness and Practices of Journalists in Turkey

Dr. Behlül Çalışkan

Marmara University, Faculty of Communication, Istanbul

A few words about your fields of research: My research interests include new media,

alternative media, online journalism and leaking journalism.

Abstract:

As mass surveillance has increased in scale and scope and surveillance technology has

become more sophisticated, journalists around the world have gotten more vulnerable not

only while working in dangerous places, but also in their daily lives, at home, in the

newsroom or on the road. Their needs for security tools has grown exponentially and there is

no question today that the digital world has made journalism a riskier profession. On the other

hand, digital technology can offer tools to minimize the dangers, whether physical, digital, or

psychological, that reporters and editors face on the job. The subject of this study is the

surveillance activities applied to journalists in Turkey through the opportunities provided by

new media as well as the surveillance awareness and security practices of journalists. In this

context, the study aims to examine the specific challenges and threats on digital security that

journalists face in the complex technological and political climate of Turkey. In order to

understand journalists’ attitudes towards mass surveillance, the study will measure the digital

security awareness and practices of journalists using the digital technology in their jobs, and

determine the gap between journalists’ use of digital technology and their digital security

practices. In the study, research questions on to what extent the journalists use the digital

technology, which digital security risks they face, which digital security tools they use and

which digital security trainings they got will be answered on the basis of the data collected in

an online survey. Through the analysis of the findings revealed by the survey, the study also

aims to contribute to the development of strategies the journalists can use to reduce these risks

when doing their jobs and to lay a groundwork for more in-depth research on digital security

among journalists.

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Moral injury, not PTSD is the challenge faced by journalists covering the

refugee crisis in Europe

Anthony Feinstein, Professor of Psychiatry

University of Toronto and a neuropsychiatrist

Abstract:

The study explored the emotional health of journalists covering the migrations of refugees

across Europe. Of the 114 journalists from nine news organizations contacted, 70(70.2%)

took part. Symptoms of PTSD and depression were not prominent, but those pertaining to

moral injury and guilt were. Moral Injury was associated with being a parent (p = .031),

working alone (p = .02), a recent increase in workload (p = .017), a belief that organizational

support is lacking (p = .046) and poor control over resources needed to report the story (p =

.027). A significant association was found between guilt and moral injury (p = .01) with guilt

more likely to occur in journalists who reported covering the migrant story close to home (p =

.011) and who divulged stepping outside their role as a journalist to assist migrants (p = .014).

Effect sizes (d) ranged from .47 to .71. On one level, the relatively low scores on conventional

psychometric measures of PTSD and depression are reassuring. However, our data confirm

that moral injury is a different construct from DSM defined trauma response syndromes, one

that potentially comes with its own set of long-term maladaptive behaviours and adjustment

problems.

Challenges and threats to journalism in a restrictive context: The case of

Iran Banafsheh Ranji, PhD candidate

Department of media and communication, University of Oslo

Abstract:

This study explores the challenges and threats that Iranian journalists face in their daily job as

well as the mechanism of censorship and self-censorship in a not-free context. The questions

are: what are the threats experienced by Iranian journalists? What factors do influence safety

of Iranian journalists? How do the journalists act in response to the challenges and pressures?

The safety issue of Iranian journalists is part of my PhD thesis on a broader topic about

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Iranian journalism. Iran is not a free country: media are controlled by the state, and journalists

restricted in what they can do and subject to censorship. Although Iranian journalists face

several challenges, there is a lack of research on the topic. Moreover, some Iranian journalists

are increasingly using new media such as social media and mobile messaging applications to

communicate what is censored in official media. Therefore, this study also concerns safety of

Iranian journalists in digital communication. Aside from the theoretical contributions to the

field of journalism in non-democratic contexts, the findings also help to find possible

strategies and solutions to improve the situation of journalists in Iran and similar countries. I

have conducted 23 face-to-face interviews with journalists, working in different news media

in Iran. Data analysis is a work on progress using thematic analysis method combined with

grounded theory instructions. The initial findings show that Iranian journalists work in a

climate of censorship and self-censorship shaped by various factors such as restrictive

policies, vaguely worded rules and regulations, uncertainty over the redlines and banned

topics, random detention, poor working conditions such as low salaries, and lack of

journalism syndicate. Different actors, from the state to media owners, are sources of pressure

on journalists. Moreover, journalistic freedom of expression in online media is threatened by

online censorship and surveillance.

Another day in paradise? Outside interference, threats and harassment

experienced by Finnish journalists.

M.Soc.Sc. Ilmari Hiltunen, doctoral researcher of journalism

University of Tampere in Finland.

Abstract:

Studies measuring intimidation and harassment of journalists and the effects of outside

interference on journalism have traditionally focused on authoritarian and partly democratic

states with weak institutional, legal and cultural safeguards for journalistic freedom and press

autonomy. Because of this, the methods of influencing journalism and intimidating journalists

utilized in Western democracies have often remained understudied. Still, experiences of

outside interference and intimidation can foster a culture of fear, anxiety and self-censorship

among journalists and gradually hinder the freedom of expression even in countries with

highest estimated levels of press freedom. Finland has been considered one of the paragons of

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press freedom and was ranked first in the RSF World Press Freedom Index for in a row

during the years 2010–2016.This study examines the extent, the methods, and the

consequences of outside interference experienced by Finnish journalists based on

representative survey and thematic interviews. The concept of outside interference used in

this study covers all invasive methods that external actors use to harass or pressure journalists

with the objective of influencing editorial content. This makes it possible to examine side by

side the more conventional threats and the new challenges emerging from web environment

such as online abuse, security breaches, smear campaigns and aggressive fake news sites. The

objective of the study is to observe and analyze existing and emerging threats to journalistic

autonomy and safety of journalists in context of Western democratic countries and to develop

effective counter measures to help uphold autonomy and freedom of the press against outside

interference.

Gender and Safety: a case study with Spanish female journalists

Leire Iturregui Mardaras, Assistant Professor, University of Basque Country (UPV/EHU)

Abstract:

Gender mainstreaming is increasingly present in researches focused on conflict reporting and

journalism safety issues (Von Der Lippe and Ottosen, 2017; Fröhlich, 2016; Storm, 2012). It

is also one of the issues on the research agenda on the safety of journalists designed by

UNESCO (2015). The paper we propose is in relation with the research we developed last

year for the Conference ‘Best Practice in teaching conflict, war and peace journalism’, where

we analysed the fact that, in Spain, the design, implementation and the cost of safety training

for journalists was assumed by the army. More than 300 professionals have been trained in

these courses, and more than fifty percent were women. In this sense, it is important to

mention that some of these female journalists decided to improve their training taking part in

other more specific and intensive trainings directed, initially, for military or NGO workers.

We consider it as a clear evidence of female journalists who work in conflict areas being

especially aware of the importance of safety training and they assume it. This paper proposes

a review of the researches developed surrounding this issue, and analyses the way Spanish

female reporters face their job, which are the main difficulties they find and how they feel

about safety. To this aim, apart from reviewing the literature, in-depth interviews and focus

groups were developed with Spanish journalists and military.

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A report from the front line of post-2010 anti-austerity protests in Greece.

The role of spatial dynamics during photographing the ‘battlefield’

Dr. Anastasia Veneti, Senior Lecturer in Marketing Communications,

Bournemouth University

Abstract:

This paper explores the interactions between photojournalists, police and protesters during

protests and demonstrations, with a focus on how space and the (physical) positioning of

photojournalists in relation to police and protesters shapes and influence photographic

practices. We discuss how dominant dogmas of public order policing shape the attitudes and

responses of all actors involved. Tilly’s spatial perspective on contentious politics is utilised,

to examine the geography of policing, the creation of ‘safe’ and controlled spaces as well as

their impact on the routine activities and dynamics of these actors vis-a-vis the protest site.

These issues are addressed through an empirical study of photojournalists who were tasked

with capturing footage of the anti-austerity demonstrations seen in Greece since 2010. The

perspectives of Greek photojournalists are explored in this study due to the frequency with

which Greek anti-austerity protests have led to violent confrontations between police and

protesters. Indicatively, according to official statistics, more than 27.000 protests were

reported during the period 2011-2015 in Greece and more that 700.000 policemen were used

to police them. The paper presents the results of a critical thematic analysis of 20 semi-

structured interviews conducted with Greek photojournalists between 2015 and 2016.The

sample included freelancers, photographers in contracted positions, and stringers working for

international news agencies such as Associated Press (AP), Agence France-Presse (AFP),

Reuters, Bloomberg, Athens News Agency (ANS), Panos Pictures, Greek photo agencies and

the Greek media.

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Journalists in the crossfire of state propaganda: the case of Hungarian

independent journalism

Demeter Marton, PhD Associate Professor

Karoli Gaspar University of the Reformed Church

Abstract:

In most cases, we think that the state would defend journalists against criminals, business

networks, and enemy units in war zone, and so on. But what should journalists do when the

aggressor is the state itself? As a matter of fact, this is what exactly happens in Hungary: state

media and pro-government commercial media (which latter is owned by loyalist friends and

firms) is bigger and bigger, and the space for independent journalism declines year by year. In

this presentation we will show some crucial cases in which the government wrecked

opposition or independent media in last years, and we will analyze the most characteristic

methods with which these ruinations could have been accomplished. We will also examine

and visualize the changes of the networks of pro-government media and of the

independent/opposition journalists in recent years.

Designing Curriculum for ‘Safety and Security of Journalists’ in Indian

Journalism Education: Do it now, better late than never!

Professor Dr. C.S.H.N.MURTHY, Ph.D and Chair Professor Digital Arts Communication

Research Department of Creative Arts and Media Studies

Abstract:

The paper concerns with the issues involved in designing a curriculum for ‘safety and security

of journalists’ in Indian journalism education. Despite growing violence against the

journalists reporting investigative stories and issues sensitive to the local, regional and

national political clout, the safety and security of journalists was never part of Indian

journalism education. The M.R.Dua Curriculum Development Committee appointed in 2000

by the University Grants Commission to develop a national curriculum for Indian Journalism

education has grossly overlooked the need for a curriculum about the safety of journalists.

While UNESCO proposed model curriculum for journalism education in 2007 included a

20

course for safety of journalists at University level, none of the media educational institutions

considered it relevant to Indian journalism education. Even the media houses which run their

own media schools to train their recruits are not imparting any training on the safety and

security the journalists needed to carry out reporting on sensitive issues. The study uses the

methodology adopted by the Freedom House in its report of Freedom of Press (2016) for

determining the varied ways in which the pressure was laid on the objective flow of

information. Amidst escalating tensions across both Indo-China and Indo-Pakistan borders

coupled with threat perceptions stemming from inside the State due to terrorist as well as

Maoist groups operations, the urgent need for such curricular instruction cannot be over

emphasized. Against the backdrop, the present paper discusses not only several issues and

challenges involved in the ‘safety and security of journalists’ but also offers a course

curriculum to address the most important concerns of journalists in this vital area of

journalism.

Between Violence and Resistance: Journalists' strategies for coping and

resiliance in “insecure democracies”

Julieta Brambila, PhD candidate

School of Media and Communication, University of Leeds, United Kingdom.

Abstract:

A new wave of studies on journalism under violent context have recently explored the

conditions which foster antipress violence and the impact on this in professional practice and

autonomy. However, just a very few works considered how journalists deploy coping and

resilience tactics (Novak and Davidson, 2013) in unsafe and risk environments. Thus, by

using a purposive sample of 49 local journalists (29 of them have suffered direct intimidations

and harassments in recent years) from ten of the 32 Mexican states, this paper seeks to

investigate journalists’ strategies for resilience and coping. By using an approach rooted in the

sociology of journalism – in companion with some elements of the sociological branch of

New Institutionalism and Bourdieu Field Theory – this paper suggests that three types of

resources – cultural, economic and social – facilitate journalists’ adoption of resilience and

coping strategies, which I define as the actors’ capacity to access resources to develop mental-

schemes, mechanisms and practices that influence the stress and coping processes and protect

21

the individual from the negative impact soon after experiencing attacks, harassment or

traumatic events. Furthermore, the research explores how, in an adverse and risky

environment – in which authoritarian press-state relations endure and low confidence reigns

among occupational peers – journalists deploy a repertoire of resilience strategies in three

different arenas (personal, organizational, and social-networking). However, interviews

suggest the role of resources and strategic behaviors have some limitations that are,

ultimately, largely shaped by the organizational context and the (unsafe) local environment in

which they work.

The design and structure of Journalism Safety Trends data sets as

indicators of the risk to the practice of free journalism and as indicators of

civil loss

Sara K. Torsner, PhD researcher

Centre for Freedom of the Media, University of Sheffield.

Abstract:

An evaluation of current approaches to conceptualising and measuring journalistic risk shows

that we currently do not fully understand the dynamics of the problems of journalism safety.

To understand the multidimensional nature of risk to journalists, methods of measurement

must be developed to capture the occurrence of a wide range of threats to a diverse

community of journalists within various environments. These findings are part of PhD

research on the design of Journalism Safety Trends data sets (JSTs) that identify risks to

journalists in hostile environments, while also considering the value of such JSTs as

indicators of shifting levels of societal fragility. The conceptual framework underpinning this

research argues that journalism safety must be measured not only through count data on

implied or implemented threats (e.g. killings), but as risk interlinked with and operationalized

in relation to the social standing of journalism (culture of tolerance/intolerance of free

journalism), as well as a complex phenomenon within contexts of societal fragility. To

monitor and predict problems of journalism safety in a more comprehensive way this research

proposes the development of a JST tool that will examine relationships between dimensions

of journalistic risk and dimensions of societal fragility by means of a trends analysis. The JST

tool, presented in this paper, analyses the circumstances under which journalist are under

22

attack in relation to contexts of societal vulnerability such as societal transitions including

election periods, situations of erosion of democratic values or periods of civil/political unrest

or protest.

Working conditions and threats dichotomy for journalists in transitional

societies and influence in media production: The case of Western Balkans (Co-author: Abit Hoxha)

Kenneth Andresen, Professor of Media Studies

University of Agder, Norway.

Abstract:

Over 20 years after the armed conflicts in the Western Balkans ceased, new safety issues for

journalists have arisen, and in the transitional societies in the region, journalists and media

producers face new threats. This ranges from physical threats to high risks to ethical

dilemmas. This paper analyses two sets of threats against journalists in the region. The first

set of threats come from external factors in society, such as increasing pressure from

politicians, business owners and financial “baits”. The second set of threats come from

internal “professional” factors related to journalism practice and routines such as sources,

organizational policies, editorial lines, supervisors, colleagues and peers and finally the whole

media sector. Along these lines, we aim to tackle issue of where these influences are

exercised in the working conditions of journalists that reflects in the news production process

and therefore also in the quality of reporting overall. The empirical data for the paper is taken

in part from the Worlds of Journalism Study (WJS) in Kosovo, Albania, Serbia and Croatia

from 2012-2016, as well as qualitative interviews. WJS face-to-face interviews /

questionnaire among working journalists, reveal that the journalist’s background, working

conditions, political influence as well as their view on journalism’s roles in society plays a

very important role in the way safety of journalists is viewed by journalists themselves. It

plays an additional role in journalists’ trust in institutions and vice versa challenging the

traditional perceptions on the application of journalism ethics. A total of 1469 journalists in

the four countries participated in the study (295 in Albania, 561 in Croatia, 206 in Kosovo and

407 in Serbia).

23

Covering Mindanao: journalist-fixer relations and safety in the field

Marte Høiby, PhD Candidate at Dept. of Journalism and Media Studies

Oslo and Akershus University College (HiOA)

Abstract:

Threats and risks facing journalists covering war and conflict seems to instigate a growing use

of fixers and second-hand information in conflict coverage (Høiby & Ottosen, 2016). Local

and foreign journalists in Mindanao in the Philippines has since the early 2000s experienced

an increasing extent of threats, violence and kidnappings (Ressa 2014). Building on literature

about journalism-fixer relationships in war and conflict (e.g. Palmer & Fontan 2007) and

journalism practice theory, this paper sets out to investigate how the risks and dangers may

affect working practices among local and national journalists covering conflict in Mindanao.

Interviews with community journalists in Mindanao, parachute journalists based in Manila

and expert sources from the Philippine journalist union and interest organisations indicate that

work arrangements between Mindanao community journalists and metro Manila reporters

may be both beneficial and disadvantageous to the local reporter and the society at large. On

the one hand, local journalists can be tangled by their visibility and close (family) relations

inside their community, making them unable to cover certain issues that are of high

importance to society. On the other hand, when Manila reporters parachute into the local

provinces, the local journalists face deprival of by-lines and basic pay-per-story income. The

local journalist’s transition from main to secondary reporter is ambiguous and multifaceted in

a situation where safety is compromised for professional competition. However, the pressure

of insecurity from the surrounding environment also brings about positive change: In

exploring response mechanisms to the threats and dangers facing local journalists in

Mindanao, a concept of ‘organised parachuting’ is being tested for best practices within the

field.

24

Integration of ‘Safety of Journalists’ in the Curricula of Philippine

Journalism Schools, a paper she co-authored with Ramon R. Tuazon and

Ann Lourdes C. Lopez.

Therese Patricia C. San Diego is program officer at the Asian Institute of Journalism and

Communication (AIJC)

Abstract:

How can a university degree in journalism equip Filipino students with competencies in

journalist safety? The Philippines was identified among the most dangerous countries for

journalists by the Committee to Protect Journalists (2015) and the International Federation of

Journalists (2016). The country has about 40 higher education institutions offering journalism

programs and over 200 providing communication programs. A 2016 study revealed that out of

a sample of 325 Filipino journalists, 74.6 percent had university degrees. Majority of them

had specialized in communication or journalism (Tandoc, 2016). None of the current

journalism curricula include a subject on journalist safety, though the Commission on Higher

Education, in its Policies, Standards, and Guidelines released in 2017, has recommended that

the topic be integrated in relevant subjects starting 2018.This study therefore seeks to make

recommendations on how “safety of journalists” can be integrated in the curricula of

Philippine journalism schools. It also seeks to determine the competencies journalism

educators need in order to teach journalist safety effectively. Following are the specific

objectives: to identify desired learning outcomes of existing journalism subjects relevant to

safety; to determine safety topics that can be integrated inappropriate journalism subjects; to

determine the ideal teaching-learning strategies and resources for classes on journalist safety;

and to identify competencies educators need in teaching journalist safety. The researchers will

conduct a content analysis of selected journalism curricula and syllabi of relevant subjects as

well as key informant interviews with heads of journalism schools and journalism experts

(including safety trainers).

25

Integration of ‘Safety of Journalists’ in the Curricula of Philippine

Journalism Schools, (co-authored with Therese Patricia C. San Diego and Ann Lourdes C. Lopez.)

Ramon R. Tuazon is the secretary general of the Asian Media Information and

Communication Centre (AMIC) and the president of the Asian Institute of Journalism and

Communication (AIJC).

Abstract:

How can a university degree in journalism equip Filipino students with competencies in

journalist safety? The Philippines was identified among the most dangerous countries for

journalists by the Committee to Protect Journalists (2015) and the International Federation of

Journalists (2016). The country has about 40 higher education institutions offering journalism

programs and over 200 providing communication programs. A 2016 study revealed that out of

a sample of 325 Filipino journalists, 74.6 percent had university degrees. Majority of them

had specialized in communication or journalism (Tandoc, 2016). None of the current

journalism curricula include a subject on journalist safety, though the Commission on Higher

Education, in its Policies, Standards, and Guidelines released in 2017, has recommended that

the topic be integrated in relevant subjects starting 2018.This study therefore seeks to make

recommendations on how “safety of journalists” can be integrated in the curricula of

Philippine journalism schools. It also seeks to determine the competencies journalism

educators need in order to teach journalist safety effectively. Following are the specific

objectives: to identify desired learning outcomes of existing journalism subjects relevant to

safety; to determine safety topics that can be integrated inappropriate journalism subjects; to

determine the ideal teaching-learning strategies and resources for classes on journalist safety;

and to identify competencies educators need in teaching journalist safety. The researchers will

conduct a content analysis of selected journalism curricula and syllabi of relevant subjects as

well as key informant interviews with heads of journalism schools and journalism experts

(including safety trainers).

26

Audience as threat to Journalists and Journalism: the case of Tunisia and

Egypt

Dr Naglaa Elemary, Professor of Media Studies, British University in Egypt

Abstract:

The paper aims to look at the audience’s perception of journalism and journalists at times of

political transition in societies threatened by terrorism. The countries chosen are Tunisia and

Egypt. Both countries enjoyed an unprecedented period of press freedom as a direct result of

the uprisings of 2011. Reforming the media was at the time one of the main claims of the

protesters. Five years later, things seem to have radically shifted. Assaults against journalists

in the streets are common. Media are accused of putting the national security at risk.

Restrictive media laws and even imprisonment of journalists don’t seem to cause public

concern. Trends on social media support acts of censorship embracing the State’s discourse of

the necessity of controlling the flow of information. In Egypt, the arrest of the head of the

Journalists’ Syndicate didn’t spark any public attention. Signs are emerging of a growing

feeling of “isolation” among journalists.Our research tries to understand the reasons beyond

this radical change in the audience’s stand towards the media and the media professionals in

the two countries. It analyses the threats arising from the audience who seems to have chosen

to drop its own right to access information and thus, through qualitative and quantitative tools.

By doing so, it is hoped that the research will contribute to global knowledge about the role

the audience might have in encouraging impunity and censorship. This is an area of

reflections particularly important as it remains less developed.

Safety tactics for and by the activist citizen journalists

Bora Ataman Assoc. Prof. & Doğuş University, Department of Communication Sciences

Abstract:

This study is a journey to understand the working conditions of activist citizen journalists in

Turkey. However, Turkey is a divided country! May be not legally yet, but mentally for sure.

Recent political polarization has a devastating impact on the already weakened unity. “New

Turkey”, by the pious elite, is considered to be a negation of a secular and Westernized

27

Turkish Republic. In addition, rule of law (mostly the rights) in the country has been

suspended due to the failed coup d’etat on July 15, 2016. Now, the ethnic, religious, political

and cultural fault lines are increased. Therefore, in any attempt to analyse journalistic

conditions in the country should take those cracks and the level of threat that they bear into

consideration. Otherwise, safety trainings would not only be fruitless, but even they could be

dangerous. In fact, for alternative media and activist citizen journalists, developing safety

tactics wisely against destructive strategies of the government is literally a lifesaving activity.

We will conduct in-depth interviews with citizen journalists who have experienced recent

threats of violence on several occasions to get an insightful view on the sources of threats and

overall working conditions. We discuss that the sustainability of citizen journalism against the

backdrop of a semi-authoritarian regime where press freedom is just about to perish is

dependent upon the wisely developed safety tactics.

Silenced once again: Women Journalists and digital harassment in post-

conflict Nepal

Samiksha Koirala, University of Oslo

Abstract:

Many women journalists today are experiencing harassment on the internet because of their

gender (Guardian, 2016; SAMSN, 2016:48). The situation is even worse in countries like

Nepal, where the online platform is a new phenomenon. These incidents are on the rise as

offenders continue to enjoy impunity (mainly because of lack of awareness and strict cyber

law). This situation poses additional threat in the participation of women in male-dominated

profession in post-conflict Nepal.In the context of Nepal, despite the evidence, women

journalists’ experiences of online harassment are barely reported or studied. While media

researchers have celebrated the emergence of the digital platform as an important step to

ensure freedom of speech, internet misogyny are restricting women’s right to expression.

According to Habermas (1989), public sphere is the open area of social life where all

members of the society are engaged to form public opinion on general interests. However, the

public sphere is also a ‘site where social meaning is generated, circulated, contest and

reconstructed’ (Fraser, 1995). It is argued that male social dominance is maintained by

creating a divide between the public and private sphere. Because of this divide, women

28

speaking in public is considered to be defying the traditional gender roles. Women who

disobey these roles are disproportionately targeted for harassment (Bartow, 2009; Kennedy,

2000). Methodologically, survey of 50 women journalists will be conducted. In a bid to

understand their experiences of online harassment, the paper will analyse comments of the

participants. The findings will be discussed on the backdrop of existing laws and

organisational practices against online harassment.

Per diem payments as a form of censorship and state control in Guinea-

Bissau’s journalism Susana Sampaio-Dias, Lecturer in JournalismSchool of Sociology, History and Literary

StudiesUniversity of Portsmouth

Abstract:

This paper discusses the widespread practice of paying journalists in Guinea-Bissau per diem

rates by their sources in exchange for the coverage they perform. Different from bribery and

‘brown envelope journalism’ documented in other countries, the payment of these stipends is

not illegal, but it compromises the ethics of journalism and it leads a sharp corrosion of

freedom of expression and professional integrity. Drawing on in-depth interviews and focus

groups with news professionals from national, local and community media, this paper

documents the precarious state of journalism in Guinea-Bissau. The sector’s acute lack of

financial resources and extremely low wages allows sources, and dominantly the state

authorities, to organize multiple daily news events, requesting coverage from both state-

owned and private media in exchange for a stipend. Accepting these payments is, for many

journalists, the only possible mode of subsistence, despite compromising the independence of

news contents. Access to this extra form of income is withdrawn in cases of non-beneficial

coverage. As a result, daily news is saturated with government propaganda. To avoid

harassment and intimidation, journalists often practice self-censorship and forms of critical

investigative journalism are rare. Coverage of the country’s chronic political instability,

poverty, corruption and the problematic connection to drug trafficking and classification as a

‘narco-state’ is intentionally avoided or silenced. This paper outlines the current limitations in

journalistic practices in this West African country and argues that state manipulation of per

diem rates, introduced to improve living conditions, has led to pervasive control of

journalism.

29

Working conditions and threats dichotomy for journalists in transitional

societies and influence in media production: The case of Western Balkans (together with Kenneth Andresen)

Abit Hoxha, Doctoral Researcher

Department of Communication Studies and Media Research, LMU Munich

Abstract:

Over 20 years after the armed conflicts in the Western Balkans ceased, new safety issues for

journalists have arisen, and in the transitional societies in the region, journalists and media

producers face new threats. This ranges from physical threats to high risks to ethical

dilemmas. This paper analyses two sets of threats against journalists in the region. The first

set of threats come from external factors in society, such as increasing pressure from

politicians, business owners and financial “baits”. The second set of threats come from

internal “professional” factors related to journalism practice and routines such as sources,

organizational policies, editorial lines, supervisors, colleagues and peers and finally the whole

media sector. Along these lines, we aim to tackle issue of where these influences are

exercised in the working conditions of journalists that reflects in the news production process

and therefore also in the quality of reporting overall. The empirical data for the paper is taken

in part from the Worlds of Journalism Study (WJS) in Kosovo, Albania, Serbia and Croatia

from 2012-2016, as well as qualitative interviews. WJS face-to-face interviews /

questionnaire among working journalists, reveal that the journalist’s background, working

conditions, political influence as well as their view on journalism’s roles in society plays a

very important role in the way safety of journalists is viewed by journalists themselves. It

plays an additional role in journalists’ trust in institutions and vice versa challenging the

traditional perceptions on the application of journalism ethics. A total of 1469 journalists in

the four countries participated in the study (295 in Albania, 561 in Croatia, 206 in Kosovo and

407 in Serbia).

30

Clientelism, criminals and pro-public journalism norms: The causes of

threats to journalists in subnational contexts

Sallie Hughes, PhD

Department of Journalism and Media Management Program in Latin American Studies

University of Miami

Abstract:

Emerging research in a range of what we have called "insecure democracies" focuses on

subnational criminal violence, government corruption and, to a lesser degree, pro-public

journalism norms as causes of lethal threats to journalists. Incomplete data hamper efforts to

test these hypotheses jointly and further define their relationships. We use a unique dataset of

reported threats with normative, contextual and occupational predictor variables to test

hypotheses and explore relationships between potential predictors of threats. Our work

confirms the importance of the hypothesized predictor variables, their inter-relation and

especially the desire of journalists to practice pro-public journalism in contexts where

clientelism and criminal violence dissuade such work. Results should focus further scrutiny

on subnational regimes where criminal violence and state clientelism overlap, suggesting that

tackling subnational level government corruption and fortifying journalism enterprises

financially could help lower threats even in areas hampered by criminal violence.

Tongue-tied by security threats? Afghan journalists tackling security issues (Co-authors: Hasina Shirzad; Abdul Mujeeb Khalvatgar)

Elisabeth Eide, professor

Dept. of Journalism and Media Studies Oslo and Akershus University College (HiOA)

Abstract:

Afghanistan has become one of the most dangerous countries in the world for journalists and

media workers. Press freedom is limited, and journalists are threatened by extremists who

want them silenced and their media closed. Figures vary, according to who is counted as

media workers. When a media institution is targeted, the attackers do not distinguish between

journalists and other employees, as shown by the fatal Taliban attack on Tolo TV in 2016. In

31

recent years, the country has witnessed an exodus of journalists from the country, mostly due

to the uncertain security situation, but also due to a situation where media struggle to survive.

This paper will give an overview of the situation for journalists in Afghanistan, based on

interviews with a number of reporters (16-20) from a variety of regions, ethnicities, including

both female and male, and various media outlets.

Main RQ: To what extent do security threats from a variety of forces lead to self-censorship

among journalists in Afghanistan? It will also be based on research material from NAI

supporting Open Media in Afghanistan, as well as the reporters’ personal experiences from

the country. It will be supplemented by other accounts to put the situation of journalists in

proper contexts, i.e. Afghan Analysts Network (AAN), an independent research organization,

as NAI, based in Kabul. Besides, the paper will draw on earlier research (Eide & Skaufjord

2014; Eide 2016 a, b, c; Eide 2017; Khalvatgar 2014; Orgeret & Tayeebwa 2016; Lippe &

Ottosen 2016).

Organizational responses to online abuse of female journalists.

Greta Gober, PhD in Media and Cultural Studies; Guest researcher, Centre for Gender

Research, University of Oslo & Researcher - Female researchers on track project (FRONT),

Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, University of Oslo

Abstract:

The risk of exposure to sexualized or gendered online abuse has been noted to be greater

amongst women working in journalism and media, celebrities and high-profile women such

as women politicians (Fojo Media Institute, 2016; Bracchi, 2013; McNally, 2015).

Gendered online abuse is an effective tool for silencing women and aggravating gender

equality especially in the case of professions dependent on the media to voice opinions, such

as journalists or politicians. According to the survey conducted by the Swedish Union of

Journalists, 25% of female journalist had in the past decided not to report on a particular topic

out of fear of online abuse (Fojo Media Institute, 2016). Online abuse is usually approached

from the perspective of freedom of expression and communication rights. Discussions around

online abuse to a less extend have been raised in the context of organizations. On one hand,

online abuse can be perpetuated among colleagues at work. On the other hand abuse can come

32

from the organizations’ clients, i.e. readers and consumers of the media content, as in the case

of journalists. Tackling online abuse in media organizations is complicated by the

transformations that the organizations are undergoing, due to technology. Blurred boundaries

in relation to time, location and tools in the context of mediawork, also blurs the employers’

responsibility to protect employees against online abuse. In this paper, I will review types of

responses that are expected from media organizations against gendered online abuse off male

journalists. I will look at where and from whom these requests for protection are coming from

and what types of communication channels are used to do so.

Safety tactics for and by the activist citizen journalists

Barış Çoban, Professor & Doğuş University, Department of Communication Sciences

Abstract:

This study is a journey to understand the working conditions of activist citizen journalists in

Turkey. However, Turkey is a divided country! May be not legally yet, but mentally for sure.

Recent political polarization has a devastating impact on the already weakened unity. “New

Turkey”, by the pious elite, is considered to be a negation of a secular and Westernized

Turkish Republic. In addition, rule of law (mostly the rights) in the country has been

suspended due to the failed coup d’etat on July 15, 2016. Now, the ethnic, religious, political

and cultural fault lines are increased. Therefore, in any attempt to analyse journalistic

conditions in the country should take those cracks and the level of threat that they bear into

consideration. Otherwise, safety trainings would not only be fruitless, but even they could be

dangerous. In fact, for alternative media and activist citizen journalists, developing safety

tactics wisely against destructive strategies of the government is literally a lifesaving activity.

We will conduct in-depth interviews with citizen journalists who have experienced recent

threats of violence on several occasions to get an insightful view on the sources of threats and

overall working conditions. We discuss that the sustainability of citizen journalism against the

backdrop of a semi-authoritarian regime where press freedom is just about to perish is

dependent upon the wisely developed safety tactics.

33

The good news and the bad news: Implications of the shift from

‘embedding’ international photojournalists to engaging local

photojournalists in Afghanistan

Saumava Mitra, PhD Graduate

Faculty of Information and Media Studies, University of Western Ontario, Canada

Abstract:

Embedding of journalists with troops was a practice first adopted in the Falklands/Malvinas

War. It gained popularity during the early years of the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq. The

official rationale behind the practice – providing safety for journalists – has been debunked by

journalists and researchers alike, who criticize ‘embedding’ as a means of controlling

journalists’ news production. Consequently, conflict reporting has largely moved to relying

on local journalists or fixers to produce news for international audiences. However, research

suggests such local journalists and fixers are more insecure than international journalists

while reporting conflicts. There is a need to critically examine this process of replacement of

embedding foreign journalists with engaging local journalists in the case of photojournalism.

This study focuses on the Afghan conflict, where embedded foreign photojournalists have

been largely replaced by local Afghan photojournalists to produce news images of the conflict

for an international audience. I will first present a comparison of the visual narration of the

Afghan conflict by embedded international photojournalists and non-embedded Afghan

photojournalists based on visual discourse analysis of images produced by these two groups

respectively and show how embedding can distort the visual narration of a conflict. I will then

compare the risks faced by Afghan photojournalists with the risks faced by international

photojournalists in Afghanistan based on interviews, memoirs and testimonies of these two

groups. Based on these, I will argue that a continuing shift from embedding foreign

photojournalists to engaging local photojournalists presents a devil’s choice for conflict

photojournalism in the future: while it would mean conflicts come to be represented from

local perspectives, it would also exacerbate photojournalists’ insecurity as local professionals

susceptible to local threats.

34

The Aspects of Resilience in Journalists Severely exposed to Traumatic

Events (work in process)

Evgenia (Eka) Javakhishvili

Psychosocial Trainer for IREX Initiative for Securing Access to Free Expression, EURASIA,

PhD Student at Tbilisi State University

Abstract:

The study provides the in-depth understanding of resilience in journalists and media activists

from MENA and EE region affected by traumatic and stressful events living in ongoing trauma

conditions. Paper show the connections of trauma exposure, education/preparedness, culture

belongingness, PTSD symptoms and resilience through life story narratives of 75 participants

self-reported cases.

In the era of information, the more valued the product is more unsecured is the provider – the

level of insecurity worsens when journalists are covering stressful and traumatic events in the

country of their origin and permanent living.

When we speak about supporting journalists in challenging conditions we consider the

recovery, overcoming and handling, rather than preparedness and resilience, yet still there are

some training on that direction, a lot is needed to be done to have more combined evidence

based approaches. There are theories that may explain why some people cope better that others,

but unlike the personal traits and copping strategies, the resiliency can be developed, learned

built before or even after the exposure to traumatic event.

The Focus of this study is to identify how resilience is expressed in ongoing

traumatizing/stressful situations and what are the main aspects supporting resilience in

journalists’ and media activists’ while working in challenging conditions.

There is a vast verity of literature on problems and how to solve them, we have a good list of

not to do or what will be the results if we do so, and the most of trainings are concentrated on

awareness rising, risk mapping and survival kit, so all the accents come with the bad sides to

35

avoid the bad things rather than how to create resilience. Teaching how to survive is not enough

as person cannot be always on survival mood, sooner or later he/she will burnout.

To make a long word short, there are a few studies of resilience in the journalists working in

ongoing traumatic circumstances that could make the clear model for better understandings the

culture specific approaches for strengthening them.

Most commonly the resilience is perceived differently in journalists, like demonstration of

extraordinary strength of character, courage and perseverance in covering the news and these

are highly valued in the journalists’ community, or is perceived as somewhat magical/mystical

tool for solving all problems that not everyone can afford. In this study we will stick to general

understanding of resilience as the ability and the resiliency as the process of “bouncing back”.

The findings of the study will provide a valuable insight into journalists’ and media activists’

life, the way they perceive events and put meaning into them. In the narrative psychology, a

person’s life story is not a biography of the facts and events of someone’s personal a life, but

rather the way a person integrates those facts and events internally together to make meaning.

Tongue-tied by security threats (Co-authors: Elisabeth Eide, Abdul Mujeeb Khalvatgar)

Hasina shirzad, BA in journalism, advisor JMIC

(Journalism and Media International Center), freelance journalist/Dagbladet.

Abstract:

Afghanistan has become one of the most dangerous countries in the world for journalists and

media workers. Press freedom is limited, and journalists are threatened by extremists who

want them silenced and their media closed. Figures vary, according to who is counted as

media workers. When a media institution is targeted, the attackers do not distinguish between

journalists and other employees, as shown by the fatal Taliban attack on Tolo TV in 2016. In

recent years, the country has witnessed an exodus of journalists from the country, mostly due

to the uncertain security situation, but also due to a situation where media struggle to survive.

36

This paper will give an overview of the situation for journalists in Afghanistan, based on

interviews with a number of reporters (16-20) from a variety of regions, ethnicities, including

both female and male, and various media outlets.

Main RQ:: To what extent do security threats from a variety of forces lead to self-censorship

among journalists in Afghanistan? It will also be based on research material from NAI

supporting Open Media in Afghanistan, as well as the reporters’ personal experiences from

the country. It will be supplemented by other accounts to put the situation of journalists in

proper contexts, i.e. Afghan Analysts Network (AAN), an independent research organization,

as NAI, based in Kabul. Besides, the paper will draw on earlier research (Eide & Skaufjord

2014; Eide 2016 a, b, c; Eide 2017; Khalvatgar 2014; Orgeret & Tayeebwa 2016; Lippe &

Ottosen 2016).

Covering conflict while learning to self-protect: the daily struggles of

photojournalists in Mexico.

Mireya Márquez-Ramírez, PhD

Universidad Iberoamericana Mexico City

Abstract:

Research about journalists who cover conflict, war or traumatic events normally does so from

the perspective of Western war correspondents who travel abroad or go to dangerous

assignments outside their normal working routines or place of residence. In contrast, less

attention has been given to local journalists in transitional democracies with less work

stability or favorable conditions and who cover a wide range of conflicts on a daily basis—

from tense protests and demonstrations to organized crime violence. Moreover, the

professional cultures of photojournalists have been considerably excluded from the growing

research on journalistic cultures worldwide, particularly their values and professional

expectations, and little is known about their working conditions, the strategies and practices

they undertake in risky contexts, or the motivations for continue to exert their job in

vulnerable conditions. Based on qualitative methodology consisting of 40 in-depth interviews

with Mexico City-based photojournalists from all types of media organizations, levels of

hierarchy and diversity of beats, this exploratory study contributes to the understanding of the

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relation between professional experience and working conditions and the perceived level of

safety when performing their work, especially in situations of risk. Overall, results show an

occupation struggling to establish its own boundaries and professional norms, and facing

considerable and constant challenges such as risk or anti-press attacks. Our findings show

that, overall, photojournalists’ experiences of self-protection in risky situations are imbued in

precarious working conditions that exacerbate their vulnerability. Deprived from work and

financial security and enough financial resources or equipment to cover dangerous situations,

both rank-and-file as well as freelance photographers have learned to devise their own

security measures. They retort to risk by working in teams, widening their networks of

contacts, and improvising security protocols when travelling to dangerous places or covering

the constant episodes of social unrest around Mexico. In the best of cases, many participants

put into practice what they learned in security training sessions organized by 3rd party actors

such as Article XIX.But in very few cases –except for some participants working for

international news agencies—did we find cases that reported news organizations making

arrangements or taking initiative to ensure their crews’ safety. Instead, pragmatic and

improvised security measures are devised after learning from collective and individual

experiences and peer socialization after repeated episodes of anti-press attacks such as angry

mobs, crossfire, police abuses and repression, or drug cartel hostility.

Feeling safe in unsafe places? Experiences of Greek/Cypriot journalists

regarding safety and journalistic practices (Co-Authors: Kyriakos Kolovos, Emmanouil Takas)

Sofia Iordanidou, Associate Professor of Journalism and Communication

Open University of Cyprus and the President of the «Advanced Media Institute, Applied

Research in Communication and Journalism

Abstract:

Cyprus, the only country in the European Union that remains divided, has undergone major

political, financial and social turmoil over the past decades. Since 1974 the northern part of

Cyprus has been occupied by Turkey thus dividing the island into two communities: The

Greek-Cypriot and the Turkish-Cypriot. Previous research in the T/C Media have explored

the construction of the image of the G/C community (Tsagkaris & Samaras, 2015). Before the

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image of the T/C community in the G/C Media is explored, it is essential to explore how G/C

journalists operate in such a sensitive issue that entails not only the relations between the two

communities but the relations between Greece, Cyprus, Turkey and EU. In addition, the

global downturn in the economy triggered processes of blame, particularly in the countries at

the epicenter of the financial crisis (Hart and Tindall 2009). In Cyprus the financial crisis and

the subsequent measures of the Memorandum resulted in shifts in the political scene of

Cyprus. Aim of this study is to explore how and to what extend these two events (the

occupation and division of Cyprus and the Memorandum) have affected the journalistic

practices and safety of the G/C journalists. Twenty in-depth, semi-structured interviews were

conducted with G/C journalists in mainstream and digital Media exploring their perceptions

and experiences regarding the covering of these two major and highly sensitive cases.

Questions were constructed to reveal possible pressure loci and how these may have an

influence on the journalists’ role and product. Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis was

employed to underline themes and subthemes regarding their answers.

Invited keynotes:

Victoria Fontan, manager of the Quality Assessment and Learning Centre, hosted by the

Bioforce Institute in Lyon, France. She is also visiting professor at the Western Institute of

Technology and Higher Education (ITESO), Guadalajara, Mexico; at the Institut Supérieur

des Techniques de Développement, Kalehe, République Démocratique du Congo;

Tittle keynote: Reporting from within the Drama Triangle: bound to become change(d) agents?

Jackie Harrison, is Professor of Public Communication, joint head of department and director

of research at the Department of Journalism Studies, University of Sheffield

Tittle keynote: Journalism Safety in the Context of Impunity: The increasing threat of risk and hazard to free and independent journalism

Abeer Saady, war correspondent, safety trainer, and Researcher at Dortmund University.

Tittle keynote: Safety of local journalists in Islamic State Areas/ and new handbook for

safety of women journalists

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Silvia Chocarro, Consultant on Freedom of Expression and IFEX Global Advocacy Strategist,

involved in developing the UN

Elisabeth Witchel, Impunity Campaign Consultant Committee to Protect Journalists

Tittle on presentation: Getting away with Murder- findings from CPJ’s 2017 Global

Impunity Index and trends over the last decade in impunity in murders of journalists.

Hannah Storm, Director of the International News Safety Institute. I also work as a freelance

media and gender consultant, specialising in humanitarian work/post-conflict/GBV, and have

worked for several UN agencies

Jon Camfield directs Internews Global Technology work, covering digital security and

censorship circumvention tools, training, and organizational security. He is a co-architect of

the SAFETAG framework and has over a decade of experience in using technology for social

change that spans the public, private, non-profit, and social enterprise sectors.

Tittle on presentation: ADDRESSING ORGANIZATIONAL RISKS. How can

resource-constrained organizations operating in complex threat landscapes identify and

mitigate attacks across their entire organization?

Ivar Evensmo, Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation

Oscar Westlund, editor of Digital Journalism