bls_1169_1954.pdf

Personnel Resources in theSOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES

A SURVEY OFTHE CHARACTERISTICS AND ECONOMIC STATUS

OF PROFESSIONAL WORKERS IN 14 FIELDS OF SPECIALIZATION

Bul let in No 1169

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF L AB O RJ a m e s P. Mitche l l , Se c r e ta ry

BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS Aryness Joy Wickens. Acting Commissioner

In c o o p e r a t i o n withUNITED STATES DEP ART MEN T OF DEFENSE

Digitized for FRASER http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

P E R S O N N E L R E S O U R C E S IN T H E

S O C IA L S C I E N C E S A N D H U M A N IT IE S

A Survey of the Characteristics and Economic Status

of Professional W orkers in 14 Fields of Specialization

Bulletin N o. 1169

UNITED ST4J

In cooperation with UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington 25, D. C. - Price 70 centsDigitized for FRASER http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

CON TEN TS

P ageI n t r o d u c t io n ............................................................................................... 1

S um m ary o f f i i id in g s ............................................................................... 3

P a r t I. S p ec ia ltie s and c h a r a c te r is t ic s o f s o c ia l s c ie n tis ts and h u m a n is t s ..................................................... 7

P e rs o n n e l in cluded in the s u r v e y ........................................ 7F ie ld s o f s p e c ia liz a t io n ........................................................... 8

A n th rop o logy and a r c h a e o l o g y ........................................ 8E c o n o m i c s .................................................................................. 9G eograp h y .................................................................................. 9H i s t o r y ............................................................. 9P o lit ic a l s c i e n c e ..................................................................... 9S o c i o l o g y ..................................................................................... 9S t a t i s t i c s ..................................................................................... 11L in g u is t ics and l i t e r a t u r e s .............................................. 11Other h u m a n it ie s ..................................................................... 11

A g e ........................................................................................................ 13

E ducationa l back grou n d ........................................................... 13E xtent o f e d u ca t io n .................................................................. 13F ie ld o f e d u c a t i o n .................................................................. 16

W om en ............................................................................................... 17

P a rt II. E m p loym en t and earn ings ........................................... 19E m p lo y m e n t ..................................................................................... 19

E m p loym en t s ta tu s .................................................................. 19F ie ld o f em p loym en t in re la tio n to f ie ld s o f

s p e c ia l i z a t io n ........................................................................ 19Type o f em p lo y e r .................................................................. 22F u nction p e r f o r m e d .............................................................. 24

E a r n i n g s ............................................................................................ 26A g e .................................................................................................. 27L e v e l o f e d u c a t io n ................................................................. 29Type o f e m p lo y e r .......................................................... 29S a la r ies o f w o m e n ................................................................. 33A dditional i n c o m e ................................................................. 34

A p p en d ixes:A . T a b l e s ........................................................................................ 38B . S cope and m ethod o f s u r v e y ........................................... 126

F a c s im ile o f qu estion n a ire ........................................... 132

O ccupationa l ou tlook and re la ted p u b lica tion s o f the B ureau o f L a b or S t a t i s t i c s .............................................................................. 136


age

1 0

18

2 1

28

34

1 2

15

23

30

35

T E X T T A B L E S

Employment status of social scientists and humanists and of graduate students, 1952 ...............................................

Field of specialization of women social scientists and humanists and women graduate students, 1952 ...............

Employment of social scientists and humanists by field of specialization, 1952 ..............................................................

Median annual salaries of social scientists and humanists, by age group, 1952 ......................................... .................

Median annual salary and median age of men and women social scientists and humanists with Ph.D. degrees, 1952 .................................................................................................

CHARTS

Statisticians were the youngest group in the survey - - linguistics and literatures specialists the oldest . . . .

Proportion of Ph.D. 1 s is highest among humanists and historians.....................................................................................

Colleges and universities are the chief source of employment in humanities and most social sciences . . . .

Economists, political scientists, and statisticians had highest salary le v e ls ..............................................................

Women Ph. D. 's employed by colleges were older than men Ph.D. 1 s but had lower average s a la r ie s ...............


age

38

39

43

48

52

53

56

59

65

6 6

67

A P P E N D I X T A B L E S

Distribution of social scientists and humanists, by detailed specialty within each broad field of specialization, 1952 ................................... .. ......................................

Detailed specialties of social scientists and humanists and of graduate students, by employment status, 1952 ..............................................................................................

Age of social scientists and humanists and of graduate students in each field of specialization, by employment status, 1952 ...........................................................

Age of social scientists and humanists, by detailed specialty, for each field of specialization, 1952 . . . .

Educational level of social scientists and humanists and of graduate students for each field of specialization, 1952 ..................................................................................

Detailed specialties of social scientists and humanists, by educational level, for each field of specialization, 1952 ...................................................................... . .

Educational level of social scientists and humanists, by detailed specialty,- for each field of specialization, 1952 ..................................................................................

Field of education of social scientists and humanists, by highest degree held, for each field of specialization, 1952 .............................................................. ....................

Educational level of social scientists and humanists, by sex, for each field of specialization, 1952 ...............

Educational level of graduate students, by sex, for each field of specialization, 1952 ......................................

Field of specialization related to field of employment, for social scientists and humanists, 1952 .....................

Comparison of field of specialization and employment specialty of social scientists and humanists, 1952 . .


83

8 8

89

94

97

98

100

1 0 2

105

108

1 1 0

A P P E N D I X T A B L E S - - C O N T I N U E D

Field of specialization related to field of employment, by educational level, for social scientists and humanists, 1952 .......................................................................

Field of education of social scientists and humanists, by highest degree held, for each field of employment, 1952 ..............................................................................................

Distribution of social scientists and humanists in each field of employment, by type of employer, 1952 . . . .

Distribution of social scientists and humanists in each field of employment, by level of education, for each type of employer, 1952 ...........................................................

Level of education, by type of employer, for social scientists and humanists, in each field of employment, 1952 ..............................................................................................

Months worked by social scientists and humanists, for each field of employment, 1952 .........................................

Median age and age distribution of social scientists and humanists, by type of employer, for each field of employment, 1952 ....................................................................

Functions performed by social scientists and humanists by educational level for each field of employment, 1952 ..............................................................................................

Functions performed by social scientists and humanists, by type of employer, for each field of employment, 1952 ...................................................................................

Annual salary of social scientists and humanists by age group, 1952 .................................................................

Median annual salary and median age of social scientists and humanists, at each level of education, 1952 .

Median annual salary of social scientists and humanists in each age group, by level of education, for each field of employment, 1952 .....................................................


A P P E N D I X T A B L E S - - C O N T I N U E D

Page

A -25. Median annual salary of social scientists and humanists in each age group, by principal type of employer and level of education, 1952 ............................................... I l l

A -26. Median annual salary and median age of social scientists and humanists, at each educational level, for principal types of employers, 1952 .................. ................. 116

A -27. Median annual salary and median age of men andwomen social scientists and humanists, by level of education, 1952 ....................................................................... 118'

A -28. Median annual salary and median age of men andwomen social scientists and humanists, by principaltype of employer, 1952 ............................................................ 120

A -29. Median annual salary and median age of men and women Ph. D. social scientists and humanists employed by colleges or universities, 1952 ........................ 121

A -30. Median and quartile salary and income of social scientists and humanists for each field of employment,1952 ............................................................................................... 122

A -31. Source of additional income, by principal type ofemployer, for social scientists and humanists reporting income in addition to regular salary, 1952 ............ 123

B - 1. Professional societies participating in 1952 survey ofsocial scientists and hum anists.......................................... 131


PERSONNEL RESOURCES IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES

IN TRODU CTION

The contributions made by social scientists and humanists to the intellectual, cultural, and social life of individuals have long been recognized. In recent years, there has also been increasing awareness that many critical national and international problems must be approached through intensive study and understanding of the history and culture of various countries and the behavior of individuals in their relations with each other. In addition, social scientists and humanists--including area specialists with knowledge not only of the physical features of a country but also of its people--have made important contributions to national defense in such fields as psychological warfare, propaganda, and intelligence work.

To provide information about the Nation's resources of personnel with specialized training and experience in social science and humanistic fields, a questionnaire survey was conducted in 1952 by the American Council of Learned Societies under sponsorship of the Department of Defense. 1 This survey not only produced a roster of personnel whose skills and experience have hitherto been largely neglected in inventories of specialized human resources, 2 but for the first time made available detailed statistical data on the professional workers in 14 fields of specialization in the social sciences and humanities.

This report is based on replies from approximately 25, 000 social scientists and humanists, most of whom were members of the professional associations which cooperated in the survey.

1 See S cope and M ethod o f S u rvey , p .1 2 6 .2 The r o s t e r is m ainta ined b y the A m e r ic a n C ou n cil o f

L ea rn ed S o c ie t ie s . H ow ev er , add itional re g is tra t io n s a r e not s o lic it e d . F u rth er in fo rm a tio n on this p a rt o f the p r o je c t can b e obta ined fr o m the A m e r ic a n C ou n cil o f L ea rn ed S o c ie t ie s , 1219 - 16th S treet, N. W . , W ashington 6, D . C .

- 1 -


- 2 -

Data are presented on the areas of specialization, age, and educational backgrounds of the respondents in each major social science and humanistic field. 3 Detailed information is presented also on the specialties in which they were employed, the functions they were performing, and the types of employing organizations. Wherever possible, separate data are given for graduate students and women. The concluding chapter discusses the salaries and supplementary professional income of the respondents with full-time employment.

This report, based on the data collected by the American Council of Learned Societies, was prepared in the Bureau of Labor Statistics' Division of Manpower and Employment Statistics with the support of the Department of Defense. The report was planned and written by Cora E. Taylor, under the direction of Helen Wood.

3 No analysis of the survey data on language or area specialties is presented in this report. The American Council of Learned Societies (footnote 2) is engaged in making detailed analyses of the data on respondents with specialized knowledge of certain geographic areas, including Africa, Asia, and Latin America.


S U M M A R Y O F FINDINGS

- 3 -

Personnel Included in the Survey

The more than 15,000 social scientists who returned usable questionnaires in response to this survey included about one-third of the total number of m e n and w o m e n estimated to have been professionally employed in 1952 in the following social science fields: anthropology, economics, geography, history, political science, sociology, and statistics. The 7,800 humanists in the survey represented somewhat less than one-fourth of the total personnel professionally employed in linguistics and literatures, aesthetics, art, Biblical literature, musicology, oriental studies, and philosophy. Also included among the respondents were about 2, 200 graduate students, not quite one-sixth of all students doing graduate work in the social sciences and humanities in 1952.

The fact that most of the respondents were m e m b e r s of professional associations should be borne in mind in interpreting survey findings, since other studies have demonstrated that m e m bers of a professional society tend in general to be an older, more highly trained, and better established group than their profession as a whole.

Fields of Specialization

The m e n and w o m e n in this survey were classified in different specialties on the basis of their own statements concerning the fields in which they had greatest competence. Specialists in linguistics and literatures were the largest group of respondents. Economists, political scientists, and historians came next. Also responding to the survey were smaller numbers of sociologists, statisticians, geographers, anthropologists and archaeologists, and m e m b e r s of several relatively small humanistic professions.

Most respondents in each of these fields had specialized in some subdivisions of the field. In the general field of anthropology and archaeology, for example, the m e n and w o m e n who considered themselves specialists in archaeology were the largest group, and the specialists in ethnology and social anthropology were the second largest. Labor economics was the primary specialty of the largest number of economists. A m o n g geographers, the largest numbers were in economic, physical, and human geography, in descending order. More than two-thirds of the historians reported modern history, chiefly United States history, as their first specialty. A m o n g the political scientists, public administration was the specialty of by far the largest group; within this specialty, personnel work and municipal and rural adminis


- 4 -

tration were major areas of concentration. Detailed specialties cited by the greatest numbers of sociologists were social organization and applied sociology. Well over half the statisticians reported methodological techniques, chiefly analysis of data, as their first specialty.

In linguistics and literatures, the specialties most often reported were English literature, language teaching, American literature, and literary history. A m o n g the smaller humanistic fields (combined as "other humanities" throughout most of this report), philosophy, Biblical literature, and art accounted for the largest numbers of respondents; musicology, oriental studies, and aesthetics accounted for the remainder.

AgeSince some of the social science professions have grown more

rapidly in recent years than the humanities, social scientists have a lower average age than humanists. Median ages for the respondents in the social sciences ranged from 37 years for statisticians and sociologists to 41 years for historians, and w e r e '45 and 43 years for the two broad groups of humanists--linguistics and literatures specialists and other humanists. Graduate students were generally concentrated in the 25-29 year age group.

EducationThe Ph. D. was the predominant degree in 7 of the 9 fields of

specialization included in the survey; only in statistics and geography did the proportion of respondents with the masters degree exceed the proportion with the doctorate. More than half the respondents in history, linguistics and literatures, and other humanities held doctoral degrees. Most of the surveyed graduate students had received their master's degrees and were working on the doctorate.W o m e n

W o m e n represented from 20 to 30 percent of the respondents in art, aesthetics, anthropology and archaeology, and linguistics and literatures, but less than 8 percent of the economists and political scientists. A smaller proportion of w o m e n than m e n had the Ph. D. in each of the major fields of specialization. W o m e n included in the survey were older, on the average, than men.

EmploymentSince this study was limited to persons who considered them

selves specialists in the social sciences or humanities, it was


- 5 -

expected that most would be employed in these fields. Thus, about 10 percent of all those working full or part time held jobs of other types--ranging from employment (such as educational administration) which was closely related to their specialties to nonprofessional work. Persons with only the masters or bachelor's degree tended, to be employed outside their respective fields of specialization to a mu c h greater extent than did Ph.D. 's.

The majority of social scientists and humanists in most specialties were employed in colleges and universities. For example, over 90 percent of the specialists in linguistics and literatures were so employed. However, more statisticians were employed in government and in private industry than in educational institutions, and nearly as m a n y political scientists were in government employment as on the campus.

The relative numbers of social scientists and humanists in these different types of employment varied markedly with their educational level. Most of the Ph.D. 's in every specialty were employed by colleges and universities, but the greatest proportion of master's in political science and statistics were employed by the Federal Government. In general, greater proportions of personnel with master's cuLbachelor's degrees than of those with Ph.D. 's were employed in private industry.

Median ages of social scientists employed in colleges and universities ranged from 37 years for statisticians to 43 years for historians. Linguistics and literatures specialists in colleges had a median age of 45 years. Employees of the Federal Government were younger than college faculty members, and the respondents in private industry were, on the average, youngest of all.

The principal function of the college and university employees was, of course, teaching. However, a sizable proportion of the statisticians (25 percent) and of the anthropologists and archaeologists (20 percent) on college faculties, reported research as their chief activity, as did a somewhat lower proportion of sociologists. The majority of the Federal employees were engaged in research--the most notable exception was the political scientists, more than half of w h o m were performing administrative functions. Of the economists and statisticians who were Federal employees, about one-third were engaged in administrative work, another third in research, and slightly fewer in operational activities. More than 40 percent of the economists in private industry reported research as their major function, and a like proportion of statisticians in private employment reported administrative work as their chief activity.


- 6 -

EarningsMedian annual salaries of survey respondents were as follows

for 1952: anthropologists and archaeologists - $5,300, economists - $6,500, geographers - $5,100, historians - $5,000, political scientists - $5,900, sociologists - $5, 100, statisticians - $6,800, linguistics and literatures specialists - $4,900, and specialists in other humanities - $5, 000. These figures m a y be somewhat higher than the average for all social scientists and humanists in the country in 1952, since the survey included a disproportionately large number of highly qualified persons.4

Salaries tended to rise with increasing experience, up to or near retirement age. However, there were wide differences in salaries of individuals in every age group--especially among the older m e m b e r s of the professions.

In general, Ph. D. s had higher average salaries than persons of comparable age with only the masters or bachelors degree. Salarylevels were also.higher among the social scientists and huipanists in the Federal Government and private industry than a- mohg those of comparable age and education employed by colleges and universities. However, a high proportion of the college faculty m e m b e r s supplemented their regular salaries with income from other sources, such as extra teaching, royalties from publications,, lecturing, or consulting. The median salary of college or university employees was approximately $5,000 in 1952, in most fields covered by the survey, and median total annual income was from $400 to $900 higher, depending on the field of employment.

W o m e n social scientists and humanists are less highly paid than male m e m b e r s of these professions. In most specialties, the average salary differential between m e n and w o m e n of comparable age and level of education and the same type of employment was about $1,000 in 1952.

4 See appendix B, p.126.


- 7 -

P A R T I. SPECIALTIES A N D C H A R A C T E R I S T I C S O F SOCI A L SCIENTISTS A N D H U M A N I S T S

Personnel Included in the SurveyNo classification system of the social sciences and humani

ties, satisfactory for all purposes, has yet been devised. Classification is difficult owing to the overlapping of fields--not only with other branches of the social sciences and humanities and closely related fields, but also with widely different subject fields such as the natural sciences. For example, m a n y administrative and research positions in welfare organizations are held by sociologists, but welfare service is generally considered the domain of social workers ; and specialists in economic and human geography m a y be classified as social scientists, but persons specializing in other aspects of geography are usually classified as natural scientists. One of the most difficult occupations to classify is that of the statistician. Statistics is a tool used by specialists in m a n y subject-matter fields, and it is frequently impossible to distinguish people who are primarily statisticians from those who are economists, biologists, or other subject- matter specialists. The classification of teachers also presents a special problem--they m a y be assigned to their major subject field (as is usually done in classifying college teachers) or to the teaching profession as such (the usual method of classifying high school teachers and most school administrators). The basis for classification of all specialists covered in this study was the respondent's own opinion as to his primary field of specialization.

In general, personnel covered by this survey were in basic subject fields, rather than in applied fields. Social scientists were in the following fields: anthropology (including archaeology), economics, geography, history, political science, sociology, and statistics. The humanistic fields covered linguistics and literatures, aesthetics, art, Biblical literature, musicology, oriental studies, and philosophy. 5 Specialists in applied fields such as psychology, law, social work, education, library science, and journalism are excluded from this report. Also excluded are

5 The last six fields are relatively small and are combined in most tables under the heading "other humanities. "


- 8 -

persons who had not been in any activity in the humanities or social sciences within the past 15 years. *Fields of Specialization

Each respondent to this survey of social scientists and humanists was asked to determine his broad field of specialization and then to select from a list of detailed specialties the one in which he had greatest competence. 7 The largest group had specialized in linguistics and literatures. Next largest fields were economics, political science, and history--followed by sociology, statistics, geography, and anthropology, in that order (table l). The detailed specialties most frequently reported by the survey respondents are discussed briefly in the sections which follow. Table A - 1 of the appendix presents the specialties of the employed and unemployed respondents c o m bined and table A - 2 gives more detailed information on the specialties of the full- and part-time employed, the unemployed, and graduate students. Retired persons and undergraduate students are omitted from these and all subsequent fables.

Anthropology and archaeology. --Archaeology was the field of highest competence of the greatest number of respondents (32 percent) in the broad field of anthropology and archaeology. The second largest group (26 percent) cited ethnology and social anthropology as their first specialty. Between 5 and 10 percent regarded themselves as specialists in each of the following: areas of the new world (especially the southwestern part of North. America), applied anthropology, social organization, physical anthropology, and culture and personality.

The following groups have also been excluded: (l) nonresident aliens and those who indicated that their residence in the United States was temporary; (2) undergraduate students below the senior year; (3) respondents without academic training or professional experience in the humanities or social sciences; (4) respondents whose questionnaires were so incomplete that it was impossible to determine their fields of specialization; (5) respondents born before 1870.

7 The respondents were also instructed to indicate their second and third specialties, in descending order of competence. However, tabulations in this report refer only to the first specialty indicated. For a complete list of detailed specialties used in the survey see, Classifications for Surveys of Highly Trained Personnel, American Council of Learned Societies, 1219- 16th Street, N. W. , Washington 6, D. C.


- 9 -

Economics. - -Labor economics was the specialty of the greatest number of economists (14 percent). Nearly as many, however, considered themselves to be general economists with no specialty or regarded some aspect of economic theory (most frequently value and distribution theory) as their area of highest competence. F r o m 6 to 10 percent of the total number of economists were in each of the following specialties: business administration, land and agricultural economics, international economics, and money and banking.

Geography. The greatest number of geographers were specialists in economic geography (33 percent); this broad classification included those who had specialized in such fields as natural resources, agriculture, transportation, and industry.The second largest group was the physical geographers, who represented more than a fifth of the respondents in this profession and included those who specialized in land forms, climate, plants, animals, soils, and related subjects. H u m a n geographers (political, population, social or historical specialists) were the third largest group (20 percent). Other geographers indicated specialization in a technique (such as mapping) or a region of the world.

History. --Two-thirds of the historians reported modern history of specific countries (mainly the United States) as their first specialty. Nearly one-fourth had topical specialties-- chiefly diplomatic history (including international relations), cultural and intellectual history, and state and local history. Fewer than 6 percent of the historians were specialists in either medieval or ancient history.

Political science. - -By far the greatest proportion (40 percent) of the political scientists had specialized in public administration--either in this field as a whole, in personnel work, or municipal or rural administration. The second largest number (14 percent) had specialized in American Government, and nearly as m a n y (12 percent) were international relations specialists. Specialties cited by fewer respondents, but in each case by 4 or mor e percent of the total, included public law, international law, area studies, history of political ideas, political parties and public opinion, and comparative government.

Sociology. - -Social organization, relating mainly to the c o m munity, was the specialty of the greatest number (13 percent) of sociologists; nearly as many (10 percent) were specialists in some branch of applied sociology, such as human relations in industry, or penology and corrections. The next largest groups had specialized in intergroup relations, family relationships, or rural- urban problems.


T a b l e 1 . E m p l o y m e n t s t a t u s o f s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s a n d h u m a n i s t s a n d o fg r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s , 1 9 5 2

Social scientists a n d h u m a n i s t s G r a d u a t e studentsU n d e r

graduatestudents1

Field of specialization Total E m p l o y e d full time

E m p l o y e d part time

U n e m p l o y e d a n d s e e k ing w o r k

E m p l o y e d part time

Full-timestudent

O t h e r 2

All fields ................. 2 5 , 0 5 4 20,870 612 391 1,012 1, 150 179 840

A n t h r o p o l o g y a n da r c h a e o l o g y ............. 1,007 660 47 44 73 108 16 59

E c o n o m i c s ................. 4 , 1 7 4 3,735 63 29 143 113 11 80

G e o g r a p h y ................. 1,070 862 23 18 60 58 8 41

H i s t o r y ................... 2 , 9 7 9 2 ,434 82 46 124 158 12 123

Political s c i e n c e ......... 3, 618 3,013 63 71 140 209 52 70

S o c i o l o g y .................. 2 ,321 1,778 62 49 171 150 55>. 56

Statistics.................. 1,476 1,385 11 10 31 12 8 19

Linguistics a n dliteratures .......... 5,535 4, 674 147 75 204 181 4 250

O t h e r h u m a n i t i e s 3 ....... 2 , 8 7 4 2,329 114 49 66 161 13 142

1 Seniors only.2 Includes retired, others not seeking w o r k , a n d p e r s o n s not reporting e m p l o y m e n t status.3 Includes aesthetics, art, oriental studies, musicology, philosophy a n d Biblical literature.


11 -

Statistics. --In filling out the survey questionnaire, a statistician had the alternative of checking as his first specialty either one of several specified types of methodological techniques or one of a number of fields of application of statistics. The majority (nearly 60 percent) regarded themselves as tnost competent in methodological techniques--most often, in statistical analysis of data. Approximately 10 percent, in each case, regarded the application of statistics to economics or business and management as their primary specialty;and 16 percent checked the application of statistics to other social sciences and related fields, including education, psychology, and social service. Most of the remaining respondents applied their statistical knowledge to the physical sciences and related fields.

L i n g u i s t i c s a n d l i t e r a t u r e s . - - M o r e t h a n half the r e s p o n d e n t s in this field r e g a r d e d t h e m s e l v e s a s specialists in the literatures of p a r t i c u l a r c o u n t r i e s o r a r e a s m o s t fr e q u e n t l y , E n g l i s h literature. A p p l i e d linguistics (chiefly l a n g u a g e t eaching) w a s the s p e cialty of the s e c o n d l a r g e s t g r o u p (16 p e r c e n t ) . O t h e r specialties cited b y c o n s i d e r a b l e n u m b e r s of r e s p o n d e n t s w e r e l i t e r a r y h i s tory, l i t e r a r y t y p e s (for e x a m p l e , p o e t r y , the ballad, a n d the novel), a n d d e s c r i p t i v e linguistics (including p h o n e t i c s , syntax, a n d dialects ).

Other humanities.--Of the six relatively small humanistic fields grouped under this heading, the largest were philosophy, Biblical literature, and art, each of which accounted for nearly one-fourth of the respondents in the combined group. General history of art, practice of the graphic arts, and the history of medieval art were the fields of highest competence for the greatest numbers of art specialists. A m o n g the Biblical literature specialists more than half regarded some aspect of study of the Old or N e w Testaments as their field of highest competence, and relatively large numbers reported pastoral work as their first specialty. In philosophy, the most frequently reported specialties were metaphysics and epistemology, ethics, philosophy of religion, and history and criticism of European philosophic, systems.

The remaining fields grouped under "other" humanities were musicology, oriental studies, and aesthetics. Historical musicology was the major specialty of the musicologists, while c o m parative and systematic musicology (particularly the theory of music) ranked second and music in society (including music in education) ranked third. More than half the group of specialists in oriental studies reported China as their region of specialization


Chart 1. S T A T I S T I C I A N S W E R E T H E Y O U N G E S T G R O U P IN T H E S U R V E Y - L INGUISTICS A N D L I T E R A T U R E S S P E C I A L I S T S T H E O L D E S T

Percent Under and Over 40 Years of Age, 1952

FIELDOF SPECIALIZATION

Statistics

Sociology

Anthropology and Archaeology

Political Science

Geography

Economics

History

Humanities (except linguistics, etc}

Linguistics and Literatures

P e r c e n t

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 1001 ----------1----------1----------1---------- 1--------- 1---------- 1 i i i

Under 40 years

40 years and overSource: Table A-4

UN JTE D ST A TE S D E P A R T M E N T O F L A B O R BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS


13 -

and more than a quarter reported Japan. The few who regarded aesthetics as their major field of specialization were rather evenly distributed among the specialties within this field, but slightly greater numbers had specialized in the various aspects of theatre arts than in other branches of aesthetics.

A g e

Because of recent growth in some of the social science professions, their m e m b e r s tend to be younger than those of other social science fields and of the humanistic fields. The median age of the statisticians and of the sociologists was only 37 years, but specialists in the humanities and in history had median ages of more than 40 years (table A-4). As chart 1 shows, about 60 percent of the statisticians and sociologists, but only 35 percent of the linguistics and literatures specialists, were under 40 years of age in 1952.

Within each major field of specialization, there was significant variation in the age composition of the groups in the detailed specialties (table A-4). These variations reflect the effect of social, economic, political, cultural, and other trends on the development of each profession. For example, within anthropology and archaeology, the specialty reported by the youngest personnel, on the average, was social organization--a relatively new application of the knowledge and methods of anthropology whereas physical anthropology, a long-established specialty, had the oldest personnel. A m o n g 1 the economists, those who specialized in industry studies and statistics and econometrics were much younger, on the average, than specialists in economic systems, business finance, and population and social welfare. In political science, persons who specialized in international law had a median age 10 years greater than those who had specialized in area studies or the history of political ideas. In sociology, specialists in the newer fields of social psychology and public opinion (including market research) were the youngest and the specialists in family problems were the oldest group. Historians who were specialists in modern history had a median age 10 years younger than the mu c h smaller group who were specialists in ancient history. The other social scientists and humanists included in the survey did not show any great variation in median ages by detailed field of specialization.Educational Background

Extent of education.--In most of the social sciences and humanities, the proportion of personnel with doctoral degrees is


1 4 -

greater than in man y other professional fields. 8 To a large extent, undergraduate training in the social sciences and humanities is regarded as preparation for meeting one's personal and social responsibilities or cultural needs, rather than as vocational training. However, it is possible to enter professional employment in all of the fields--particularly statistics--without graduate training.

The Ph. D. 9 was the degree held by the greatest number of respondents in 7 of the 9 major fields of specialization included in the survey. As previously stated, it is believed that the survey included a disproportionately large number of persons with the doctorate. It is estimated that about one-third of all professional social scientists and humanists in the country had the Ph.D. in 1952, whereas the proportion among those surveyed was approximately 51 percent.

Great variation exists in the educational attainment of personnel in the different fields of specialization. Nearly 70 percent of the linguistics and literatures specialists included in the survey held the doctorate (chart 2 and table A - 5). This was a muc h higher proportion than in any other field, except history where the proportion was almost 64 percent. Only among the statisticians and geographers were there more respondents with master's degrees than with doctorates. And only in statistics was the proportion of bachelor's degrees (38 percent) greater than the proportion of doctorates (18 percent). The number of m e n and w o m e n with other degrees, such as M.D.'s or LL. B. 's, was insignificant in all fields except political science, where 6 percent of the respondents--chiefly those specializing in public law--held LL. B. 's. The survey also included a few people in each field of specialization who had attained professional status without holding any college degree; most of these people had some college training.

The educational attainments of persons in the detailed specialties within each broad field of specializaton varied greatly (tables A - 6 and A-7). For example, approximately 60 percent of the

8 See Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin 1167, "Employment Outlook in the Social Sciences," and U. S. Office of Education, Annual Reports on Earned Degrees Conferred by Higher Educational Institutions. U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington 25, D. C.

9 The designation "Ph.D. " is used throughout this report to refer to earned doctorates in science or education, as well as those in philosophy.


Chart 2. P R O P O R T I O N O F PH. D .S IS H I G H E S T A M O N G H U M A N I S T S A N D H I S T O R I A N SPercent at Each Educational Level, 1952

FIELD OF SPECIALIZATION

Linguistics and Literatures

H isto ry

Humanities (except Linguistics, etc.)

P e r c e n t

Anthropology and Archaeology

Sociology

H I G H E S T D E G R E E H E L D :

m i E mU N I1 E D ST A TE S D E P A R T M E N T O F L A B O R BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

P h . D . M a s t e r s B a c h e l o r s O t h e r o r

N o n e Source: Table A-6Digitized for FRASER http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

- 1 6 -

economists whose specialty was either economic systems, money and banking, or public finance had the doctorate, but only 14 percent of those who specialized in industry studies and 35 percent of those who specialized in statistics and econometrics had this degree. Similarly, in political science, over 60 percent of the specialists in the history of political ideas and in comparative government held the Ph.D. degree, but only 20 percent of the personnel who specialized in public administration had the doctorate. Such differences in educational level are due, in large part, to the type of work performed by persons in each specialty. For example, those specialties pertaining primarily to basic theory are taught in colleges and universities where the doctorate is a usual requirement for professional employment. On the other hand, high educational attainment m a y not be a prerequisite for positions in administrative or operational activities in applied fields.

In all fields except anthropology, the majority of the surveyed graduate students had already received their master's degrees and were presumably working for their doctorates (table A-5). The number of students included in the survey in the various fields reflects to a large extent the policies of the different professional associations in admitting students to membership.

Field of education. --In taking their highest degrees, a few social scientists and humanists in all fields had majored in subjects outside their current areas of specialization. However, most of them held degrees in fields closely related to their specialty. For example, some historians had taken their highest degrees in language and literature, a sizable number of political scientists had taken degrees in economics and history, some geographers had degrees in geology, and a few people in every field had majored in education and psychology. It is not suprising to find that the statisticians took their degrees in the greatest variety of subjects, since statistics is a tool which is applied inmany subject-matter fields.

Even among the Ph.D. 's a few respondents had taken their highest degrees in fields outside their current areas of specialization, but the proportion was not nearly so great as among the respondents with less formal training (table A - 8). For example, among the historians, only about 5 percent of the Ph. D. 's had taken their highest degrees in subjects other than history, but 12 percent of the masters, and 33 percent of the bachelors and the respondents without college degrees, had majored in other subjects.


W o m e nW o m e n constituted more than a fifth of all the survey re

spondents in art, aesthetics, anthropology and archaeology, and linguistics and literatures (table 2). The proportion of w o m e n was smallest (less than 10 percent) among the specialists in Biblical literature, economics, political science, philosophy and oriental studies.

Relatively fewer w o m e n than m e n in these professions hold graduate degrees (table A-9). The Ph.D. was the degree most often held by w o m e n in linguistics and literatures (60 percent), history (53 percent), economics (43 percent), and anthropology and archaeology (39 percent). However, in none of these fields was the proportion with the doctorate as great among w o m e n as among men. The master's degree was the one most frequently held by w o m e n in geography, statistics, sociology, the humanities, (except.linguistics and literatures), and political science. Only in statistics and anthropology did more than a fourth of the w o m e n have only the bachelor's degree.

A m o n g w o m e n graduate students the majority already had master's degrees, but in anthropology and the humanities (except linguistics and literatures) more than half the w o m e n students had not yet attained a graduate degree (table A- 10).


T a b l e 2 . F i e l d o f s p e c i a l i z a t i o n o f w o m e n s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s a n d h u m a n i s t sa n d w o m e n g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s , 1 9 5 2

F ie ld o f s p e c ia liz a t io n

S o c ia l s c ie n tis ts and hum anists G raduate students

Bothse x e s

W om en B othse x e s

W om enN um ber P e r c e n t N um ber P e r c e n t

A n th ro p o lo g y and a r c h a e o lo g y . . . . 751 177 23. 6 181 43 2 3 .8

E c o n o m i c s ...................................................... 3 ,8 2 7 234 6 .1 256 19 7 .4

G eogra p h y ...................................................... 903 166 1 8 .4 118 8 0 )

H is to r y ............................................................ 2, 562 326 1 2 .7 282 25 8 .9

P o lit ic a l s c i e n c e ........................................ 3 ,1 4 7 223 7. 1 349 25 7 .2

S o c i o l o g y ......................................................... 1 ,8 8 9 275 14. 6 321 62 19 .3

S t a t i s t i c s ......................................................... 1 ,4 0 6 178 1 2 .7 43 1 (*)

L in g u is t ic s and l i t e r a t u r e s ................. 4 ,8 9 6 1 ,0 6 5 2 1 .8 385 71 1 8 .4

O th er h u m an ities ................................... 2 ,4 9 2 357 14 .3 227 33 1 4 .5A e s t h e t i c s ........................................... 73 20 2 7 .4 3 1 (MA r t ......................................................... 574 170 29. 6 67 15 2 2 .4B ib lic a l lite ra tu re ........................... 609 22 3. 6 50 1 (MM u s ic o lo g y .................... ................... 480 93 1 9 -4 48 9 i 1 )O rien ta l s t u d i e s .............................. 151 7 r n 39 6 ( l )P h ilo so p h y ............................................ 605 45 7 .4 20 1

T o o few to com pu te p e r ce n t .1


P A R T II. E M P L O Y M E N T AND EARNINGS

E M P L O Y M E N T

E m p loym en t Status

N e a r ly a ll the s o c ia l s c ie n tis ts and hum anists in the su rvey had fu ll -t im e em p loym en t in 1952. L e s s than 3 p e rce n t w e re w ork in g p a rt tim e and le s s than 2 p e rce n t w e re u n em ployed and seek ing w ork . H ow ev er, th ese f ig u re s p ro b a b ly u n d ersta te the extent o f tota l and p a rtia l u nem ploym ent in th ese p r o fe s s io n s as a w h ole . A s p r e v io u s ly in d ica ted , m o s t o f the resp on d en ts w e re m e m b e rs o f p r o fe s s io n a l s o c ie t ie s , and a high p r o p o r t io n o f them w e re P h .D . 's . Such p e r s o n s , g e n e ra lly , a re the m o r e s e cu re ly e s ta b lish ed m e m b e rs o f th e ir p r o fe s s io n s .

U nem ploym ent am ong s o c ia l s c ie n tis ts has p ro b a b ly in c r e a s e d s in ce 1952, p a r t icu la r ly in s p e c ia lt ie s w h ere the F e d e r a l G overn m en t has b een a la r g e s o u r ce o f em p loym en t. S ta tistic ian s and e co n o m is ts have been the m o st s e r io u s ly a ffe c te d b y r e ce n t re d u ction s in G overn m en t em p loym en t. Not on ly have such r e d u c tion s re su lte d in u nem ploym ent am ong e x p e r ie n ce d p r o fe s s io n a l w o r k e r s , but op p ortu n ities fo r new ly tra in ed s o c ia l s c ie n tis ts to en ter G overn m en t w o rk have been cu r ta ile d . O pportun ities fo r new graduates to en ter the c o lle g e teach ing f ie ld have a ls o b een lim ite d s in ce 1951 b e ca u s e o f the d e c lin e in e n ro llm en ts as W orld W ar II v e tera n s co m p le te d th eir t r a in in g .1 0

The u n em ployed grou p included in the su rv e y had a lo w e r m ed ian age than the em p loyed resp on d en ts in a ll f ie ld s (table A - 3), su ggestin g that in e x p e r ie n ce d graduates fo rm e d a la r g e p a rt o f the group seek ing w ork .

F ie ld s o f E m p loym en t in R e la tio n to F ie ld s o f S p e c ia liza tio n

If the em p loym en t h is to ry o f a re p re se n ta tiv e c r o s s - s e c t io n o f c o l le g e grad u ates w ith tra in ing in the s o c ia l s c ie n c e s and hum anities w e re tra ce d fr o m the tim e they le ft c o l le g e , a high d e g r e e o f m ovem en t out o f th ese d is c ip lin e s in to oth er f ie ld s o f em p loym en t w ou ld undoubtedly b e shown. Th is study o f p r o fe s s ion a l s o c ia l s c ie n tis ts and hum anists exc lu d ed , b y d e fin ition ,

10 F o r a d is c u s s io n o f the em p loym en t ou tlook fo r s o c ia l s c ie n tis ts see B u reau o f L a b or S ta tistics B u lle tin 1167, E m p lo y m ent O utlook in the S ocia l S c ie n ce s (1954).


- 2 0 -

the m any students in these f ie ld s w ho, through w o rk e x p e r ie n ce , have b e c o m e s p e c ia lis ts in o th er f ie ld s . N e v e r th e le s s , the study show s an a p p re c ia b le am ount o f m ovem en t out o f the s o c ia l s c i e n ce s and h u m an ities , am ong p e o p le w ho s till r e g a rd th e m se lv e s as s p e c ia lis ts in th ese f ie ld s . A p p ro x im a te ly 10 p e r ce n t o f the em p lo y e d resp on d en ts w e re w ork in g ou ts ide th ese p r o fe s s io n s at the tim e o f the study. The la r g e s t nu m bers in th is grou p w e re e m p loy ed in n o n p ro fe ss io n a l f ie ld s (tab les A - 11 and A - 12); som e w e r e in p r o fe s s io n s other than the s o c ia l s c ie n c e s and hum anit ie s , including the f ie ld o f ed u cation (a d m in istra tion o r high s ch o o l tea ch in g ), and a few w e re in the A rm e d F o r c e s p e r fo r m ing duties w h ich did not u tilize th e ir s p e c ia liz e d t r a in in g .1 1

The p ro p o r t io n s o f resp on d en ts em p loyed in th e ir f ie ld s o f sp e c ia liz a t io n , in o th er s o c ia l s c ie n c e s o r h u m an ities , and in f ie ld s ou ts ide the s o c ia l s c ie n ce s o r hum anities a re show n in table 3. S ta tistic ian s and e co n o m is ts w e re em p loyed in th e ir r e s p e c t iv e f ie ld s o f s p e c ia liz a t io n to a g re a te r extent than oth er s o c ia l s c ie n t is ts , and a n th rop o log is ts and a r c h a e o lo g is ts w e re le a s t o ften em p loyed in th e ir f i r s t sp e c ia lty . A m ong the hum anis t s , th ose w ho s p e c ia liz e d in lin g u is t ic s and lite ra tu re s and m u s ico lo g y had the h igh est p ro p o r t io n s a ls o em p loyed in those f ie ld s ; s p e c ia lis ts in or ien ta l studies had a re la t iv e ly low p r o p o r tio n em p loyed in th eir m a jo r f ie ld o f s p e c ia liz a t io n .

The resp on d en ts w ith d o c to ra te s w e re m o r e freq u en tly e m p lo y e d in th e ir p r im a ry s p e c ia lt ie s than w e re p e r s o n s w ith le s s a ca d e m ic tra in in g . F o r exa m p le , 96 p e rce n t o f the P h . D . 's but on ly 85 p e rce n t o f the b a c h e lo r s who w e re s p e c ia lis ts in g e o g raphy w e re em p loyed as g e o g ra p h e rs ; s im ila r ly , 95 p e rce n t o f the P h . D . 's c o m p a re d w ith 76 p e rce n t o f the b a c h e lo r s s p e c ia liz in g in lin g u is t ic s and lite ra tu re s w e re em p loyed in that f ie ld (tab le A - 13). 12

The re m a in d er o f this r e p o r t is c o n ce rn e d w ith em p loym en t in the s o c ia l s c ie n c e s and hum anities on ly . R esp on d en ts who w e re w ork in g in other p r o fe s s io n a l o r n o n p ro fe ss io n a l f ie ld s at the tim e o f the su rv ey have th e r e fo r e been exclu d ed fr o m the subsequent a n a lys is and tabu la tions. The c la s s if ic a t io n o f s o c ia l s c ie n t is ts and hum anists u tilized in the p re ce d in g se ct io n s o f this r e p o r t has b een b a se d on f ie ld s o f s p e c ia liz a t io n but is h ere in a fte r b a se d on fie ld o f em p loym en t. (See ch a rt 3, tab le A - 14, and a ll su cceed in g ch a rts and ta b le s .)

11 M e m b e rs o f the A rm e d F o r c e s w ho re p o rte d th e ir m i l i ta ry a ssig n m en ts to b e in a p r o fe s s io n a l f ie ld w e re c la s s i f ie d in the a p p ro p ria te sp e c ia lty .

* * See a ls o table A - 14, w hich p re se n ts data on the re la t io n ship betw een the em p loym en t sp e c ia lty and the su b je ct in w h ich the resp on d en t m a jo re d fo r his h igh est d e g re e .


T a b le 3 . - - E m p l o y m e n t o f s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s a n d h u m a n i s t sb y f i e l d o f s p e c i a l i z a t i o n , 1 9 5 2

Field of specialization

P e r c e n t e m p l o y e d -

TotalIn s a m e field as specialization

In other social science or

h u m a n i t y field

Outside social sciences or

humanitie s

Anthropology a n d archaeology . . 1 0 0 . 0 78. 7 7. 2 14. 1

E c o n o m i c s ......................... 1 0 0 . 0 91. 5 1 . 6 6.9

G e o g r a p h y ......................... 1 0 0 . 0 90. 0 1. 3 8.7

H i s t o r y ............................ 1 0 0 . 0 8 6 . 1 4. 4 9. 5

Political science ................ 1 0 0 . 0 87. 5 2 . 0 10. 5

S o c i o l o g y ........................... 1 0 0 . 0 8 6 . 1 2. 3 1 1 . 6

Statistics........................... 1 0 0 . 0 92. 5 1. 3 6 . 2

Linguistics an d literatures....... 1 0 0 . 0 93. 3 .7 6 . 0

Other humanities:

A e s t h e t i c s ....................... 1 0 0 . 0 85. 5 1 0 . 1 4.4

A r t .............................. 1 0 0 . 0 92. 1 .4 7. 5

Biblical liter a t u r e .............. 1 0 0 . 0 92. 2 5. 5 2. 3

M u s i c o l o g y ....................... 1 0 0 . 0 93. 0 1 . 8 5. 2

Oriental studies ................ 1 0 0 . 0 65. 3 22. 7 1 2 . 0

P h i l o s o p h y ....................... 1 0 0 . 0 88.4 6 . 3 5. 3


- 2 2 -

T ype of E m p lo y e r

The m a jo r ity o f s o c ia l s c ie n tis ts and hum anists a re e m p lo y e d in c o l le g e s and u n iv e r s it ie s . (See ch a rt 3 and table A - 15 .) The p r o p o r t io n o f c o l le g e fa cu lty m e m b e rs w as h igh est (93 p e r cen t) am ong the resp on d en ts w ork in g in the f ie ld o f lin g u is t ic s and lite r a tu r e s . A bout th re e -fo u r th s o f the h is to r ia n s , s o c i o lo g is t s , and " o th e r " hum anists w e re a ls o em p loyed in in stitu tion s o f h igh er lea rn in g . In on ly two f ie ld s - - s t a t is t i c s and p o l i t ic a l s c ie n c e - -w e r e m o r e than h a lf the resp on d en ts em p loyed ou ts ide c o l le g e s and u n iv e rs it ie s .

The F e d e r a l G overn m en t is the secon d la r g e s t s o u r ce o f em p loym en t fo r s o c ia l s c ie n t is ts . M ore than a fou rth o f a ll the s ta tis t ic ia n s , p o lit ica l s c ie n t is ts , e c o n o m is ts , and g e o g ra p h e rs in the su rv ey w e re on F e d e r a l p a y r o lls in 1952. 13 In add ition , State o r lo c a l gov ern m en ts em p loyed s ign ifica n t p ro p o r t io n s o f the p o lit ic a l s c ie n tis ts (13 p e r ce n t) , s ta tis tic ia n s (9 p e r ce n t) , and s o c io lo g is t s (5 p e rce n t) . N on p rofit foundations including m u seu m s w e re m a jo r s o u r ce s o f em p loym en t on ly fo r an th ro p o lo g is ts and a r c h a e o lo g is ts . And sta tis tic ia n s and e co n o m is ts w e r e the on ly g rou p s w ith substantia l p ro p o r t io n s em p loyed in p r iv a te in d u stry .

The im p orta n ce o f the P h . D . d e g re e fo r em p loym en t in c o l le g e s and u n iv e rs it ie s is w e ll known. A m on g the c o l le g e fa cu lty m e m b e r s in the su rv ey , the p r o p o r t io n w ith d o c to ra te s w as o v e r h a lf in e v e r y m a jo r f ie ld o f e m p lo y m e n t--ra n g in g fr o m about 55 p e r ce n t o f the s ta tis tic ia n s and g e o g ra p h e rs to 76 p e rce n t o f the h is to r ia n s (tab le A - 1 6 ) .1 4 In the F e d e ra l G overn m en t and p r i vate in d u stry , h o w e v e r , le s s em p h asis is p la ce d on advan ced a ca d e m ic tra in in g . F e w e r than 20 p e rce n t o f the G overn m en t- e m p loy ed p o lit ic a l s c ie n t is ts , g e o g ra p h e rs , and s ta tis tic ia n s held the d o c to ra te , and a p p ro x im a te ly 27 p e r ce n t o f the e c o n o m is ts and 7 p e rce n t o f the s ta tis t ic ia n s em p loyed b y p r iv a te in d u stry h eld that d e g r e e .

13 The p r o p o r t io n o f fe d e r a lly em p loyed s o c ia l s c ie n tis ts in c lu d ed in the su rv e y ap p ea rs to b e som ew hat lo w e r than fo r a ll s o c ia l s c ie n t is ts . Data in B u reau o f L a b or S ta tistics B u lletin 1117, F e d e ra l W h ite -C o lla r W o r k e r s - -T h e ir O ccu p ation s and S a la r ie s , June 1951, show ed that about 30 p e r ce n t o f the e s t im ated tota l num ber o f s o c ia l s c ie n tis ts w e re em p loyed b y the F e d e r a l G overn m en t in 1951.

1 4 The p r o p o r t io n o f P h . D . *s m ay not b e as h igh am ong a ll s o c ia l s c ie n tis ts and hum anists em p loyed b y c o l le g e s as am ong th ose in th is study b e ca u s e o f the s u r v e y 's r e la t iv e ly high c o v e r age o f P h . D . 's .


Chart 3. COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES ARE THE CHIEF SOURCE OF EMPLOYMENT IN HUMANITIES AND MOST SOCIAL SCIENCES

Distribution by Principal Type of Employer, 1952

Percent

Linguistics History and Literatures

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABORBUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

Sociology Humanities Anthro- Geography(except pology and

Linguistics, etc.) Archaeology

Economics PoliticalScience

Statist! cs

College or Govern- Private Nonprofit OtherUniversity mont Industry Organization

Categories with 1% or loss not shown on chart

Source: Table A-15


- 24 -

The d is tr ib u tion o f P h . D . *s b y type o f e m p lo y e r (tab le A - 17) m a k es it c le a r that s o c ia l s c ie n tis ts and hum anists at th is educa tion a l le v e l a re con cen tra ted in c o l le g e s and u n iv e r s it ie s . In m o s t s p e c ia lt ie s the m a jo r ity o f the m a s te rs w e re a ls o em p loyed b y institu tion s o f h igher lea rn in g , but in s ta tis t ics and p o lit ica l s c ie n ce the g re a te s t n u m bers o f m a s te rs w e r e em p loyed b y the F e d e ra l G overnm ent. R espon den ts w ithout graduate train ing w e re em p loyed ch ie f ly b y the F e d e ra l G overn m en t and p r iv a te in du stry .

In g e n e ra l, s o c ia l s c ie n tis ts and hum anists em p loyed b y c o l le g e s o r u n iv e rs it ie s tend to b e o ld e r than th ose em p loyed b y th e F e d e ra l G overn m en t, and th ose w ork ing in p r iv a te in d u stry a re the you n gest o f a ll (table A - 19). H ow ev er, w ide age d iffe re n tia ls ex is te d am ong the va riou s grou p s o f s p e c ia lis ts in the sam e type o f em p loym en t. F o r exa m p le , h is to r ia n s and s p e c ia lis ts in l in g u is t ic s and lite ra tu re s who w e re em p loyed in c o l le g e s and univ e r s it ie s had m ed ian a ges o f 43 and 45 y e a rs , r e s p e c t iv e ly ,c o m p a re d w ith 37 y e a rs fo r s ta tis tic ia n s and 39 y e a rs fo r a n th rop o lo g is t s , p o lit ica l s c ie n t is ts , and s o c io lo g is ts on c o l le g e fa cu lt ie s . S om e o f th ese age d iffe r e n c e s m ay be a ccou n ted fo r b y the fa c t that a g re a te r p ro p o r t io n o f the respon den ts in the f ie ld s w ith the h igh est m ed ian a ges a ls o had th e ir d o c to ra l d e g r e e s and so had spent m o r e t im e in a cqu ir in g th e ir education . Such age v a r ia tions a ls o su ggest that f ie ld s w ith the you n gest p e rso n n e l, on the a v e ra g e , a re expanding m o r e ra p id ly than f ie ld s in w h ich the m e m b e r s have h igh er m ed ian a g e s .

F u n ction P e r fo r m e d

The qu estion n a ire used in th is su rv ey con ta in ed the fo llo w ing l is t o f 9 m a jo r typ es o f fu n ction s p e r fo r m e d b y s o c ia l s c ie n t is ts and hum an ists: ( l ) r e s e a r c h , f ie ld exp lora tion ; (2) p r o fe s s ion a l con su lta tion ; (3) a d m in istra tion , m anagem ent; (4) o p e ra tion a l a ct iv ity ; (5) teach in g ; (6) p r o fe s s io n a l w ritin g and ed iting; (7) p r o fe s s io n a l l ib r a r y o r m u seu m a ctiv ity ; (8) c r e a t iv e w ritin g , c r i t i c is m ; (9) o th er .

T each ing w as the p r in c ip a l fu n ction o f m o s t resp on d en ts in a ll f ie ld s ex cep t s ta tis t ics (ta b les A - 20 and A -2 1 ) . The p r o p o r tion engaged in teach ing w as h igh est in lin g u is t ic s and l i t e r a tu res (95 p e rce n t) and h is to ry (83 p e rce n t) . A lthough m o s t o f the te a ch e rs w e re em p loyed b y c o lle g e s and u n iv e r s it ie s , som e fr o m n e a r ly e v e r y f ie ld p a r t icu la r ly h is to ry , geog ra p h y , and the h u m a n it ie s --w e re in o th er edu cation a l institu tion s (h igh - s ch o o ls ) and a few w e re em p loyed by n on p rofit o rga n iza tion s and the govern m en t.


- 2 5 -

R e s e a r c h w as the p r in c ip a l fu n ction o f s ta tis tic ia n s (33 p e r cen t) and w as an im p ortan t a c t iv ity fo r a n th rop o log is ts (29 p e r ce n t), e co n o m is ts (21 p e rce n t) , s o c io lo g is t s (19 p e r ce n t) , and g e o g ra p h e rs (17 p e rce n t) . The la r g e s t n u m bers o f s ta tis t ic ia n s , e co n o m is ts , and g e o g ra p h e rs engaged in r e s e a r c h w o rk w e re em p lo y e d b y the F e d e ra l G overn m en t. The a n th rop o log is ts and s o c i o lo g is ts c a r r ie d on m o st o f th e ir r e s e a r c h in c o l le g e s . A d m in is tra tiv e -m a n a g em en t fu n ction s w e re p e r fo r m e d b y m o r e than 25 p e rce n t o f the s ta tis tic ia n s and p o lit ica l s c ie n t is ts , and b y 10 to 15 p e rce n t o f the e co n o m is ts and s o c io lo g is t s ; e m p lo y e e s in th ese a c t iv it ie s w e re w ork in g ch ie f ly fo r the F e d e r a l G overn m en t and p r iv a te in d u stry . O peration a l a c t iv it ie s , c a r r ie d on m a in ly in govern m en t a g e n c ie s , o ccu p ie d at le a s t 10 p e rce n t o f the statis t ic ia n s , p o lit ica l s c ie n t is ts , e c o n o m is ts , and " o th e r hum anis ts .

The kind o f w o rk p e r fo r m e d b y a s o c ia l s c ie n tis t o r hum anis t is c lo s e ly re la te d to the am ount o f fo rm a l tra in ing he has r e c e iv e d . In the p re se n t su rv e y , the va st m a jo r ity o f p eop le engaged in teach ing had a graduate d e g re e . R e s e a r c h a ls o w as c a r r ie d out m o s t freq u en tly b y resp on d en ts w ith advanced d e g r e e s . On the other h an d , in som e f ie ld s a d m in is tra tiv e -m a n a g e m ent and op era tion a l a c t iv it ie s w e re o ften p e r fo r m e d b y p e rso n s w ithout graduate tra in in g .


- 2 6 -

EARNINGS

M edian annual s a la r ie s fo r 1952 ranged fr o m $ 4 , 900 fo r the lin g u is t ic s and lite ra tu re s s p e c ia lis ts to $ 6 ,8 0 0 fo r the s ta tis t ic ia n s in this s u r v e y .1 5 T h ese f ig u re s r e fe r on ly to the re g u la r s a la r ie s o f p e rso n s em p loyed fu ll t im e ; they exclu d e in com e fr o m extra su m m er jo b s , con su lta tion , r o y a lt ie s o r the lik e , as w e ll as a ll data f o r p a r t -t im e e m p lo y e e s . M edian and qu a rtile s a la r ie s 16 fo r resp on d en ts in ea ch fie ld o f em p loym en t w e re as fo l lo w s :

F ie ld o f em p loym en t

Annual s a la r ie s , 1952

M edian L o w e r U pper q u a rtile qu a rtile

A n th rop o log y and a rch a e o lo g y .E c o n o m i c s .......................................G eogra p h y ...........................................H is to r y .................................................P o l it ic a l s c i e n c e . ..........................S o c i o l o g y ...........................................S t a t i s t i c s ...........................................L in g u is t ics and lite ra tu re s . . . O ther h u m a n it ie s ..........................

$ 5 , 300 $ 4 ,2 0 0 $ 6 , 8006, 500 4 ,9 0 0 9, 0005, 100 4 ,2 0 0 6, 3005, 000 4 , 100 6 ,4 0 05 ,9 0 0 4 , 500 8 ,4 0 05, 100 4 , 000 6, 5006 ,8 0 0 5 ,2 0 0 8 ,7 0 04 ,9 0 0 3 ,9 0 0 6, 1005, 000 4, 000 6 ,4 0 0

B e ca u se o f the s u r v e y 's d isp ro p o r tio n a te ly high co v e r a g e o f P h . D . 's and the fa c t that p r o fe s s io n a l w o rk e r s w ith d o c to ra te s tend to ea rn m o r e than th ose w ith le s s fo rm a l edu cation , the o v e r a ll s a la ry f ig u r e s fo r the su rv e y resp on d en ts m ay som ew hat o v e r state 1952 s a la ry le v e ls am ong s o c ia l s c ie n tis ts and hum anists in

1 5 The sa la ry and in com e item s on the q u estion n a ire w e re d esign ated as "o p tio n a l. " N e v e r th e le s s , m o s t resp on d en ts (m o re than 80 p e rce n t o f th ose em p loyed fu ll tim e) ch eck ed one o f the s p e c if ie d sa la ry b ra ck e ts . See the fa c s im ile o f the qu estion n a ire at the end o f th is r e p o r t fo r s a la ry b ra ck e ts l is te d .

16 The m ed ian r e fe r s to the m id d le s a la ry le v e l ; h a lf the resp on d en ts earn ed m o r e and ha lf earn ed le s s than that am ount. The lo w e r q u a rtile is the value a bov e w h ich th re e -fo u r th s o f the s a la r ie s f e l l and b e low w hich o n e -fo u rth fe l l . The upper qu a rtile r e fe r s to the value above w h ich o n e -fo u rth o f the s a la r ie s fe l l and below w h ich th re e -fo u r th s fe l l . A ll s a la r ie s a re rounded to the n e a re s t hundred.


- 27 -

the country as a whole. On the other hand, it is believed that the survey included too high a proportion of teachers in colleges and universities--where salaries tend to be lower than those in other types of employment and too low a proportion of persons in Federal Government employment--where salaries tend to be somewhat higher than in colleges.

A ge

The earn in gs o f p r o fe s s io n a l p e rso n n e l u su a lly in c r e a s e w ith the age o r length o f e x p e r ie n ce o f w o rk e r s up to o r n ear r e t i r e m en t age . T h is fa c t i s , o f c o u r s e , w id e ly r e c o g n iz e d and has b e e n am p ly d em on stra ted by su rveys o f v a rio u s p r o fe s s io n s , inclu d in g the instant study. 17 H ow ev er, it should b e em p h a sized that th ese data do not p e rm it de fin ite sta tem ents a s to the p r o g r e s s io n o f s a la r ie s o f in d iv id u a ls . W hat is show n in a c r o s s - s e c t io n , at one point in t im e , o f the s a la r ie s o f p e r s o n s o f v a ry ing age and th e r e fo r e w ith d iffe re n t am ounts o f e x p e r ie n c e .

In n e a r ly e v e r y m a jo r s o c ia l s c ie n ce and hum an istic f ie ld , the r is e in a v era g e s a la ry w as p e r s is te n t up to the 50 -55 y e a r age grou p (table 4 ). The g re a te s t r is e in earn in gs in m o s t f ie ld s o f em p loym en t w as betw een the 3 0 -3 4 yea r age grou p and the 4 0 -4 4 yea r age grou p , w h ere the d iffe r e n c e in m ed ian s a la r ie s w as at le a s t $ 1, 200 in a ll f ie ld s e x ce p t g eog ra p h y ($ 9 0 0 ). In p o lit ica l s c ie n ce and e c o n o m ic s , the d iffe r e n c e w as $ 2 ,6 0 0 and $ 2 ,9 0 0 , r e s p e c t iv e ly . N e v e r th e le s s , it is ev ident that a m e r e in c r e a s e in age o r length o f e x p e r ie n ce d oes not in su re a substantial r is e in ea rn in g s . In som e f ie ld s , the h igh est pa id fourth o f the resp on d en ts in the 30 -34 yea r age grou p w e re a lm o s t a ll earn ing m o r e than the lo w e st paid fou rth o f th ose 20 y e a rs o ld e r (ch a rt 4).

In e v e r y age grou p , the s a la r ie s o f in d iv id u a ls v a r ie d w id e ly , but the ran ge in earn ings w as g re a te s t am ong the o ld e r m e m b e rs o f each p r o fe s s io n (ch a rt 4 and table A - 22). F o r exa m p le , the e co n o m is ts in the 2 5 -2 9 yea r age grou p earn ed m o r e than $ 3 , 800 a y e a r in 3 out o f e v e r y 4 c a s e s , and the earn in gs o f the to p -p a id fou rth began at $5 , 400; the range b etw een th ese 2 f ig u r e s (the in te rq u a rtile range) w as $ 1 , 600. F o r e co n o m is ts in the 55 -59 y e a r age g rou p , the co rre sp o n d in g range w as m o r e than $ 3 ,6 0 0 ;

17 See, fo r exa m p le , M anpow er R e s o u r c e s in C h e m is try and C h e m ica l E n g in eerin g , B u lletin 1132 (1953), B u reau o f L a b o r S ta tis t ics ; E m p loym en t, E du cation , and E a rn in gs o f A m e r ican M en o f S c ie n ce , B u lle tin 1027, (1951), op . c it .


Table 4|.Median annual salaries of social scientists and humanists, by age group, 19521(FuH-HmA emoloyed)

Field of employmentUnder

25years

25-29years

30-34years

35-39years

40-44years

45-49years

50-54years

55-59years

60-64years

65-69years

Anthropology andarchaeology ...................... (2) $3,700 $4, 600 $4, 900 $5,800 $6,200 $7,400 $7,000 (2) (*>

Economics.............................. $4,000 4,600 5,200 6, 800 8*100 7,800 8,200 7, 900 $8,200 $7,800

Geography .............................. (2) 4,100 4, 800 4,900 5, 700 6, 100 6,200 5,900 6,300 (2)

History .................................... (*) 3,700 4,200 4,800 5,400 5,700 6,200 6,800 6, 500 6,200

Political science................... 3,900 4,300 4,800 6, 500 7,400 7,800 7, 900 7,800 9,200 7,800

Sociology................................. 3,300 4,000 4,500 5,200 5,800 5,900 6,200 6,100 6, 500 6,200

Statistics................................. 4,200 4,900 5,900 7,500 7, 800 8,000 9,100 8,700 (2) (2)Linguistics and

literatures......................... (a> 3,500 3,800 4,400 5,000 5,600 5,700 5, 600 5,800 5,700

Other humanities ................. (2) 3,600 4, 100 4,700 5,400 5,800 5,900 6,000 6,300 5,800

1 All median salaries rounded to the nearest hundred.2 Too few cases to compute median*


- 29 -

the h ighest pa id fou rth a ll earn ed o v e r $ 10, 000 and the lo w e st pa id fou rth le s s than $ 6 ,4 0 0 . The range in earn in gs am ong p e r son s in the sam e age grou p w as som ew hat le s s in ce r ta in f ie ld s ( fo r exa m p le , lin g u is t ic s and lite r a tu r e s , geog ra p h y , and s o c i o lo g y ) than in e c o n o m ic s . In a ll f ie ld s , h o w e v e r , the d iffe r e n c e s w e r e w id e , show ing the g re a t in flu en ce o f fa c to r s o th er than age and length o f e x p e r ie n ce ( fo r exa m p le , edu cation and type o f em p lo y e r ) on the s a la r ie s o f s o c ia l s c ie n tis ts and hum an ists.

L e v e l o f E d u cation

S o c ia l s c ie n tis ts and hum anists w ith P h .D . 's earn ed c o n s id e ra b ly m o r e , on the a v e ra g e , than m e m b e rs o f th e ir p r o fe s s ion s w ith on ly m a s te r 's o r b a c h e lo r 's d e g r e e s (table A -2 3 ) .In fo u r f i e ld s - - e c o n o m ic s , s o c io lo g y , s ta t is t ic s , and g e o g ra p h y --m e d ia n sa la r ie s w e re fr o m $ 1 ,500 to $ 1 ,8 0 0 h igher fo r Ph . D. 's than fo r m a s te r s . It m ay be s ig n ifica n t that th ese f ie ld s a re a ls o am ong th ose w ith the lo w e st p ro p o r t io n s o f P h .D . 's . (See ch a rt 2 .)

The re la t iv e ly high m ed ian s a la r ie s o f the resp on d en ts w ith on ly b a c h e lo r 's d e g re e s and w ithout c o l le g e d e g re e s a re und ou bted ly a ccou n ted f o r , in la r g e p a rt , b y the fa c t that on ly unu su a lly s u c c e s s fu l p e rso n s w ithout advanced c o l le g e d e g r e e s w ould have been re a ch ed b y the su rvey . 18 It should a ls o be noted that the grou p w ithout d e g r e e s had the h igh est m ed ian age in e v e r y em p loym en t s p e c ia lty --s u g g e s t in g that length o f e x p e r ie n c e can , to a c e r ta in extent, be substitu ted fo r fo rm a l educa tion .

A s p r e v io u s ly noted , the P h .D . 's in the study w e re a s o m e what o ld e r grou p than the m a s te rs and b a c h e lo r s . T h e ir sa la ry advantage o v e r th eir le s s h igh ly tra in ed c o lle a g u e s m ay th e re f o r e have b een due in p a r t to th e ir g re a te r length o f e x p e r ie n ce , but the p r im a r y re a s o n a p p eared to be the h igh er le v e l o f ed u ca tion . In m o s t f ie ld s o f em p loym en t the P h .D . 's had h igher m e dian s a la r ie s than p e rso n s o f co m p a ra b le age w ith le s s a ca d e m ic tra in ing (table A - 24).

T ype o f E m p loy er

M edian annual s a la r ie s o f su rvey resp on d en ts em p loyed by c o l le g e s and u n iv e rs it ie s in 1952 w e re about $ 5 , 000 in each o f the s o c ia l s c ie n c e s and hum anities (table A - 25). T h ese s a la r ie s a re co m p a ra b le to th ose found in o th er su rv ey s o f c o l le g e p e r s o n n e l. F o r exa m p le , a 1952 su rvey o f fa cu lty m e m b e rs show ed a

x 8 See appendix B , S cope and M ethod o f S urvey .


- 3 0 -

Chart 4. ECONOMISTS, PO LITICAL SCIENTISTS, AND STATISTICIANS HAD HIGHEST SA LA R Y LEV ELS

Median and Quartile Salaries by Age, 1952

T h o u s a n d s o f D o l l a r s

2 S A

o f D o lla r s

2 5 AO v e r


2 5 AO v e r

O v e r

S o u r c e : T a b le A - 2 2 .


- 3 1 -

Chart 4. (Continued) ECONOMISTS, PO LITICAL SCIENTISTS, AND STATISTICIANSHAD HIGHEST SA LA R Y LEVELS

Median and Q uartile Salaries by Age, 1952T h o u s a n d s

T h o u s a n d s o f D o l l a r s

2 5 & O v o r


s >: T a b le A - 2 2


- 32 -

m ed ian s a la ry o f $ 5 , 167 fo r those em p loyed in 51 la n d -g ra n t c o l le g e s and u n iv e r s it ie s , and $ 5 ,2 0 8 fo r th ose in 20 state u n iv e r s i t ie s .19 M edian annual s a la r ie s o f g e o g ra p h e rs , h is to r ia n s , and hum anists em p loyed b y ed u cation a l institu tion s o th er than c o lle g e s and u n iv e rs it ie s (p r im a r ily high s ch o o ls ) w e r e about $ 4 , 000.

F e d e ra l e m p lo y e e s w ho resp on d ed to this su rv e y had h igher s a la r ie s , on the a v e ra g e , than em p lo y e e s o f c o l le g e s and univ e r s it ie s , and the s a la ry d iffe r e n c e s am ong the v a riou s f ie ld s o f em p loym en t w e re g r e a te r . H ighest m ed ian s a la r ie s w e re r e c o r d e d fo r e co n o m is ts ($ 8 ,2 0 0 ) , p o lit ic a l s c ie n tis ts ($ 7 ,8 0 0 ) , and s ta tis tic ia n s ($ 7 ,6 0 0 ) in F e d e ra l em p loym en t. H ow ever, in fo rm a tio n fr o m oth er s o u r ce s su ggests that the grou p o f F ed e ra l e m p lo y e e s resp on d in g to this su rv ey in clu d ed a d is p r o p o r tionate num ber o f the h ig h e st-p a id w o rk e r s . 20 In June 1951, the a v e ra g e annual s a la r ie s o f F e d e ra l G overn m en t e co n o m is ts ran ged fr o m $ 5 ,7 8 2 fo r la b o r e co n o m is ts to $ 7 ,2 3 1 fo r f i s c a l e co n o m is ts . F e d e ra l s ta tis tic ia n s a v era g ed $ 5 ,6 9 8 ; and s o c ia l s c ie n c e s p e c ia lis ts in m ilita r y in te llig e n ce r e s e a r c h and fo r e ig n a f fa ir s a v e ra g e d $ 5 ,7 3 9 and $ 5 ,8 4 3 , r e s p e c t iv e ly .21 Though s a la r ie s o f F e d e ra l w o rk e r s w e re in c re a s e d b y a p p ro x im a te ly 10 p e r ce n t in July 1951, s a la r ie s o f p r o fe s s io n a l e m p lo y e e s w e re s till c o n s id e ra b ly be low the m ed ian s a la r ie s show n b y th is su rvey .

S o c ia l s c ie n tis ts em p loyed b y State and lo c a l govern m en t a g e n c ie s had lo w e r s a la r ie s , on the a v e ra g e , than e m p lo y e e s o f F e d e ra l a g e n c ie s (table A -2 6 ) . E arn ings o f su rv e y resp on d en ts in o th er types o f em p loym en t v a rie d g re a t ly b y f ie ld . F o r e x a m p le , m ed ian sa la r ie s o f em p lo y e e s o f n on p rofit o rg a n iza tion s v a r ie d fr o m about $ 4 , 500 fo r hum anists and a n th rop o log is ts and a r c h a e o lo g is ts to m o r e than $ 7 ,0 0 0 fo r e co n o m is ts . S im ila r ly , the m ed ian sa la ry fo r the few g e o g ra p h e rs re p o rtin g em p loym en t in p r iv a te in d u stry w as $ 4 , 500, w h erea s the r e la t iv e ly la rg e n u m bers o f e co n o m is ts in such em p loym en t had a m ed ian sa la ry o f $8 , 100 and the s ta tis t ic ia n s , $ 6 , 800.

19 U nited States O ffice o f E ducation , F a cu lty S a la r ies in L an d -G ran t C o lle g e s and State U n iv e rs it ie s , 1951-52 , C ir cu la r 358, G overn m en t P rin tin g O ffic e , W ashington , D . C . , 1952; see a ls o B u lletin , A m e r ica n A s s o c ia t io n o f U n iv ers ity P r o f e s s o r s , W inter 1951-52 , pp. 7 9 6 -8 0 2 .

20 See appendix B , S cope and M ethod o f S urvey .21 U. S. D epartm ent o f L a b o r , B ureau o f L a b o r S ta tis tics ,

B u lletin 1117, F e d e ra l W h ite -C o lla r W o r k e rs , June 1951, G overn m en t P rin tin g O ffic e , W ashington 25, D . C . , 1953.


- 3 3 -

M edian s a la r ie s d iffe r e d m a rk e d ly am ong the v a rio u s types o f em p loym en t fo r resp on d en ts in the sam e age grou p and at the sam e le v e l o f education . 22 Th is su gg ests that the type o f o r ga n iza tion in w h ich a s o c ia l s c ie n tis t o r hum anist is em p loyed is l ik e ly to have even g re a te r e ffe c t on h is s a la ry than the length o f h is e x p e r ie n ce o r the extent o f h is education . It should be s tr e s s e d , h o w ev er , that s a la ry data p re se n te d in th is r e p o r t do not show the w ide range o f earn in gs o f in d iv id u a ls , n or do they fu lly r e f le c t the advantages o r d isadvan tages o f the v a riou s types o f em p loym en t. D esp ite the g e n e ra lly lo w e r s a la ry le v e ls in c o l le g e s and u n iv e rs it ie s than in the F e d e ra l G overn m en t o r p r iv a te in d u stry , e v e r y age and edu cation grou p in clu ded so m e c o lle g e fa cu lty m e m b e rs w ith s a la r ie s above th ose r e c e iv e d b y m any p e o p le o f co m p a ra b le age and ed u cation w ork in g fo r o th er types o f e m p lo y e rs . F u rth e rm o re , a ca d e m ic p o s it io n s o ften p ro v id e p e rq u is ite s and op p ortu n ities fo r su p p lem en tary earn in gs not found in G overn m en t o r .private in d u stry . (See la te r se c t io n of th is r e p o r t on add itiona l in c o m e .)

S a la r ie s o f W om en

W om en s o c ia l s c ie n tis ts and hum anists had lo w e r a v e ra g e s a la r ie s than m en in e v e r y f ie ld o f em p loym en t in 1952. M edian s a la r ie s fo r the w om en ranged fr o m $ 4 , 000 f o r th ose em p loyed in the h u m an ities , o th er than lin g u is t ic s and lite r a tu r e s , to $ 5 ,9 0 0 fo r th ose in e c o n o m ic s ; m ed ian s a la r ie s fo r m en in the sam e f ie ld s w e re $ 5 ,2 0 0 and $ 6 ,6 0 0 , r e s p e c t iv e ly . The w id est s a la ry d iffe re n tia ls betw een the tw o se x e s w e re in s ta t is t ic s , a n th rop o log y and a rch a e o lo g y , and p o lit ica l s c ie n ce (tab le A -2 8 ) .

W om en a ls o earned le s s than m en at each le v e l o f education (tab le A -2 7 ) . A lthough the w om en P h . D . 's w e re a som e

bls_1169_1954.pdf

Documents

e c o n o

s c i e n c e s

s o c i o

r e s o u r c e s

louisp e r s o n n e

t u r e s

t i s t i c s

p e rs o n n e