Biyani Institute of Science & Management, Jaipur

I Internal Examination-2018

MBA I Sem

Subject : Organizational Behaviour

Time: 1.5 Hrs. SET-A M.M.: 30

Q.1 Long Questions (Each carry equal marks). Attempt any 3.

1. Define Organizational Behaviour. Explain OB Processes.

Ans. Organizational behavior (OB) is the study of the way people interact

within groups. Normally this study is applied in an attempt to create more

efficient business organizations. The central idea of the study of organizational

behavior is that a scientific approach can be applied to the management of

workers.

An Organizational Processes Framework

WORK

PROCESSES

BEHAVIORAL

PROCESSES

CHANGE

PROCESSES

Definition • Sequences of

activities that

transform inputs

into outputs

• Widely shared patterns

of behavior and ways of

acting/interacting

• Sequences of

events over time

Role • Accomplish the

work of the

organization

• Infuse and shape the

way work is conducted

by influencing how

individuals and groups

behave

• Alter the scale,

character, and

identity of the

organization

Major

Categories

• Operational and

administrative

• Individual and

interpersonal

• Autonomous and

induced,

incremental and

revolutionary

WORK

PROCESSES

BEHAVIORAL

PROCESSES

CHANGE

PROCESSES

Examples • New product

development, order

fulfillment,

strategic planning

• Decision making,

communication,

organizational learning

• Creation, growth,

transformation,

decline

2. Write a note on Organizational Citizenship Behaviour.

Ans. Most employees understand that their primary duty is to do the work that is

assigned to them, stay away from behaviors that could be deemed troublesome,

and deliver work that is acceptable and beneficial to the organization.

Organizational citizenship behavior deals with the actions and behaviors that

are not required by workers. They are not critical to the job, but benefit the team

and encourage even greater organizational functioning and efficiency.

This is typically categorized as a worker “going above and beyond,” or “giving

their all.” They look at their job as more than just a paycheck and strive to do

all they can to make their work environment run smoothly; even if it has a

minimal connection to their current duties.

Usually, these behaviors are seen as positive by managers and business leaders,

and the importance and impact of these behaviors should be noted.

According to a study done in Procedia Economics and Finance, researchers

found a correlation between the organization‟s age and three primary principles:

altruism, courtesy, and conscientiousness.

These personality characteristics were cited as having a high link to an

employee‟s tendency to engage in OCB. These behaviors were also tied to job

satisfaction, justice, transformational leadership, and organizational support.

OCB has also been shown to be vital for employee retention.

What Are the Upsides to Organizational Citizenship Behavior?

A Sense of Purpose

Workers feel a more significant sense of purpose and work meaningfulness.

This means that employees feel their work is essential and useful to the

company.

Feeling in Control

Organizational Citizenship Behavior allows employees to feel they have

greater control over the work they do, and how they do it. Workers get the

opportunity to decide what they want to put more time into and how they want

to accomplish it.

A Renewed Sense of Vigor

When employees feel they are doing good for others or think that they are

engaging in work that means something, it prevents feelings of burnout.

Employees can become re-energized and have a new sense of purpose so they

can continue to do work that furthers company goals.

Clear Up Role Ambiguity

If a job has not been defined by superiors, leaders can use this as an

opportunity to make the employee’s position fit with work goals and add in

elements that encourage Organizational Citizenship Behavior. As time goes

by, roles need to be redefined or changed to reflect a worker‟s skill set better. If

leaders are savvy they can work with employees to work in OCB elements.

Increased Job Performance

A 2014 study revealed that Organizational Citizenship Behavior led to

more significant job performance which leads to high-quality work and

increased productivity for employers. It also came with the bonus of higher

interpersonal relationships, a reduction in conflict, and lower time costs.

Engage Early-Career Workers

The same study also showed that workers who did not have a lot of work

experience (but had high amounts of intelligence) were open to jumping into

Organizational Citizenship Behavior. They were not set in their ways and

were looking for ways to become engaged in the organization. Encouraging

them to get involved in other ways that promote OCB is a good idea.

Potential Disadvantages? There are not many disadvantages cited for OCB. The consensus by many

sources is that these behaviors benefit the organization and the employees.

However, there was a 2007 research study that examined the effects of

organizations that incorporate a formal way of dealing with OCB, and those that

include an employee‟s engagement in OCB as part of performance appraisals

and job reviews. Two primary issues could arise.

The first is that employees might miss out on the behaviors. Many times,

employees engage in actions or duties that are not always witnessed by

influencers or leaders making decisions. If employees are assessed on these

other behaviors, then this can be problematic. The other issue is that a greater

emphasis on Organizational Citizenship Behavior can cause employees to

experience job-related stress and work-life balance issues. Behaviors that

were considered voluntary and are now mandated to become a part of the

position takes away the aspect of Organizational Citizenship Behavior that can

increase engagement.

3. Explain the group formation.Outline the hindrance in group formation and how

can they be overcome to form effective group.

Ans. Characteristics of Effective Groups

I. All group members work toward the building of a “learning team.” This

becomes the “shared vision.” A learning team constantly works to have good

group process which they believe leads to maximized learning for each and

every group member.

II. 2. Everyone feels and takes responsibility for the group‟s success.

III. 3. The group sees a relationship between their work and rewards.

IV. 4. The group knows and uses good group process behaviors as follows:

V. Learn and practice specific roles. Learn to deal with conflict and practice

these skills. Communicate clearly and directly with each other. Ask for

clarification instead of letting discussion go on. Do not pre-judge each

other. They value differences. The focus on content and group process; not

just on content. They stay systematic and focused. They work for

collaboration believing that collaborative individuals can meet their personal

goals while simultaneously improving personal relationships and group

process. They understand that conflict helps them get to know each others

views which is a learning experience. Knowing this, members openly

express their disagreements with any other member, regardless of

differences in position or status. Members are cautious with regard to

judging others non-verbal behaviors. They sense when things are not going

well and make efforts to self-correct. Members understand how personality

preferences can influence group dynamics.

VI. They establish and agree to and follow ground rules such as: 1. Everyone

arrives on time. 2. Everyone prepares for each and every session. 3. We test

assumptions and inferences regarding what individuals explain/share 4.

Individuals share what they know or think they know – no holding back

information for purpose of being “one-up” on others. 5. We practice

courteous communication behaviors. 6. We show respect for each other. 7.

No negative comments regarding other thoughts/opinions, especially with

regard to expressed values. 8. We share all relevant information that makes

the group a better group; especially important during wrapup.. 9. Value

differences 10. Argue for a point based on it being for the overall good of

the group; not for self-serving interests. 11. Be specific – use examples. 12.

Give references/resources when giving explanations of content. 13. Disagree

openly with any group member, but in an agreeable manner. 14. Give

reasons for disagreement, questions, statements (e.g. I am questioning

whether or not that explanation is correct because it just doesn‟t make

logical sense to me.) 15. Make statements, then invite questions and answers

. (e.g. I believe that in the situation we find this patient, the most important

thing we can do is …., Do others feel differently? 16. Be willing to accept

the possibility that the information you are giving could be inaccurate and/or

incomplete. 17. Keep the discussion focused. 18. Do not take cheap shots or

otherwise distract the group. 19. All members participate 20. Make decisions

by consensus. 21. Avoid group think. 22. Do self and group critiques (wrap-

up)

4. Discuss critically Fredrick-Hertzberg‟s and Maslow‟s Need Hierarchy theory of

Motivation. Give its application.

Ans.

Abraham Maslow is well renowned for proposing the Hierarchy of Needs Theory

in 1943. This theory is a classical depiction of human motivation. This theory is

based on the assumption that there is a hierarchy of five needs within each

individual. The urgency of these needs varies. These five needs are as follows-

1. Physiological needs- These

are the basic needs of air,

water, food, clothing and

shelter. In other words,

physiological needs are the

needs for basic amenities of

life.

2. Safety needs- Safety needs

include physical,

environmental and emotional

safety and protection. For

instance- Job security,

financial security, protection

from animals, family security,

health security, etc.

3. Social needs- Social needs

include the need for love,

affection, care, belongingness,

FIGURE: Maslow’s Need Hierarchy

Model

and friendship.

4. Esteem needs- Esteem needs

are of two types: internal

esteem needs (self- respect,

confidence, competence,

achievement and freedom) and

external esteem needs

(recognition, power, status,

attention and admiration).

5. Self-actualization need- This

include the urge to become

what you are capable of

becoming / what you have the

potential to become. It

includes the need for growth

and self-contentment. It also

includes desire for gaining

more knowledge, social-

service, creativity and being

aesthetic. The self-

actualization needs are never

fully satiable. As an individual

grows psychologically,

opportunities keep cropping

up to continue growing.

According to Maslow, individuals

are motivated by unsatisfied needs.

As each of these needs is

significantly satisfied, it drives and

forces the next need to emerge.

Maslow grouped the five needs into

two categories - Higher-order

needs and Lower-order needs. The

physiological and the safety needs

constituted the lower-order needs.

These lower-order needs are mainly

satisfied externally. The social,

esteem, and self-actualization needs

constituted the higher-order needs.

These higher-order needs are

generally satisfied internally, i.e.,

within an individual. Thus, we can

conclude that during boom period,

the employees lower-order needs are

significantly met.

Implications of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory for Managers

As far as the physiological needs are concerned, the managers should give

employees appropriate salaries to purchase the basic necessities of life. Breaks

and eating opportunities should be given to employees.

As far as the safety needs are concerned, the managers should provide the

employees job security, safe and hygienic work environment, and retirement

benefits so as to retain them.

As far as social needs are concerned, the management should encourage

teamwork and organize social events.

As far as esteem needs are concerned, the managers can appreciate and reward

employees on accomplishing and exceeding their targets. The management can

give the deserved employee higher job rank / position in the organization.

As far as self-actualization needs are concerned, the managers can give the

employees challenging jobs in which the employees‟ skills and competencies

are fully utilized. Moreover, growth opportunities can be given to them so that

they can reach the peak.

The managers must identify the need level at which the employee is existing and

then those needs can be utilized as push for motivation.

Limitations of Maslow’s Theory

It is essential to note that not all employees are governed by same set of

needs. Different individuals may be driven by different needs at same point

of time. It is always the most powerful unsatisfied need that motivates an

individual.

The theory is not empirically supported.

The theory is not applicable in case of starving artist as even if the artist‟s

basic needs are not satisfied, he will still strive for recognition and

achievement.

Herzberg‟s Two-Factor Theory of Motivation

In 1959, Frederick Herzberg, a behavioural scientist proposed a two-factor theory

or the motivator-hygiene theory. According to Herzberg, there are some job factors

that result in satisfaction while there are other job factors that prevent

dissatisfaction. According to Herzberg, the opposite of “Satisfaction” is “No

satisfaction” and the opposite of “Dissatisfaction” is “No Dissatisfaction”.

FIGURE: Herzberg’s view of satisfaction and dissatisfaction

Herzberg classified these job factors into two categories-

a. Hygiene factors- Hygiene factors are those job factors which are essential

for existence of motivation at workplace. These do not lead to positive

satisfaction for long-term. But if these factors are absent / if these factors are

non-existant at workplace, then they lead to dissatisfaction. In other words,

hygiene factors are those factors which when adequate/reasonable in a job,

pacify the employees and do not make them dissatisfied. These factors are

extrinsic to work. Hygiene factors are also called as dissatisfiers or

maintenance factors as they are required to avoid dissatisfaction. These

factors describe the job environment/scenario. The hygiene factors

symbolized the physiological needs which the individuals wanted and

expected to be fulfilled. Hygiene factors include:

Pay - The pay or salary structure

should be appropriate and reasonable.

It must be equal and competitive to

those in the same industry in the same

domain.

Company Policies and administrative

policies - The company policies should

not be too rigid. They should be fair

and clear. It should include flexible

working hours, dress code, breaks,

vacation, etc.

Fringe benefits - The employees should

be offered health care plans

(mediclaim), benefits for the family

members, employee help programmes,

etc.

Physical Working conditions - The

working conditions should be safe,

clean and hygienic. The work

equipments should be updated and

well-maintained.

Status - The employees‟ status within

the organization should be familiar and

retained.

Interpersonal relations - The

relationship of the employees with his

peers, superiors and subordinates

should be appropriate and acceptable.

There should be no conflict or

humiliation element present.

Job Security - The organization must

provide job security to the employees.

b. Motivational factors- According to Herzberg, the hygiene factors cannot be

regarded as motivators. The motivational factors yield positive satisfaction.

These factors are inherent to work. These factors motivate the employees for

a superior performance. These factors are called satisfiers. These are factors

involved in performing the job. Employees find these factors intrinsically

rewarding. The motivators symbolized the psychological needs that were

perceived as an additional benefit. Motivational factors include:

Recognition - The employees should be praised and recognized for

their accomplishments by the managers.

Sense of achievement - The employees must have a sense of

achievement. This depends on the job. There must be a fruit of some

sort in the job.

Growth and promotional opportunities - There must be growth and

advancement opportunities in an organization to motivate the

employees to perform well.

Responsibility - The employees must hold themselves responsible for

the work. The managers should give them ownership of the work.

They should minimize control but retain accountability.

Meaningfulness of the work - The work itself should be meaningful,

interesting and challenging for the employee to perform and to get

motivated.

Limitations of Two-Factor Theory

The two factor theory is not free from limitations:

1. The two-factor theory overlooks situational variables.

2. Herzberg assumed a correlation between satisfaction and productivity. But

the research conducted by Herzberg stressed upon satisfaction and ignored

productivity.

3. The theory‟s reliability is uncertain. Analysis has to be made by the raters.

The raters may spoil the findings by analyzing same response in different

manner.

4. No comprehensive measure of satisfaction was used. An employee may find

his job acceptable despite the fact that he may hate/object part of his job.

5. The two factor theory is not free from bias as it is based on the natural

reaction of employees when they are enquired the sources of satisfaction and

dissatisfaction at work. They will blame dissatisfaction on the external

factors such as salary structure, company policies and peer relationship.

Also, the employees will give credit to themselves for the satisfaction factor

at work.

6. The theory ignores blue-collar workers. Despite these limitations,

Herzberg‟s Two-Factor theory is acceptable broadly.

Implications of Two-Factor Theory

The Two-Factor theory implies that the managers must stress upon

guaranteeing the adequacy of the hygiene factors to avoid employee

dissatisfaction. Also, the managers must make sure that the work is stimulating

and rewarding so that the employees are motivated to work and perform harder

and better. This theory emphasize upon job-enrichment so as to motivate the

employees. The job must utilize the employee‟s skills and competencies to the

maximum. Focusing on the motivational factors can improve work-quality.

Biyani Institute of Science & Management, Jaipur

I Internal Examination-2018

MBA I Sem

Subject : Organizational Behaviour

Time: 1.5 Hrs. SET-B M.M.: 30

Q.1 Long Questions (Each carry equal marks). Attempt any 3.

1. Write a note on evolution of Organisational behavior.Also explain the

models of OB.

Ans Historical development of Organisational behaviour

The historical development of organisational behaviour are

Various Historical Concepts 1. Industrial Revolution: It has only been since the Industrial Revolution of the

nineteenth century that relatively large number of individuals have been

required to work together in manager- subordinate relationships. Prior to this

many of the large organisations that did exist, were military ones in which the

authority of the leader was supreme and practically unquestioned, since

membership was not voluntary.

Behavioural problems were relatively easy to deal with under these conditions.

It is certainly no accident that much of our current knowledge about human

behavior has been derived from organisations in which influencing behaviour

consists of more than just giving orders.

Famous industrialist like William C Durant, Henry Ford, Andrew Carnegie, and

John D Rock feller were men of brilliant managerial qualities. They possessed

the managerial qualities necessary for the initial stages if industrialization.

However, when the industrial revolution began to mature and become stabilized,

this approach was no longer appropriate.

2. Scientific Management: The great industrialist was primarily concerned with

overall managerial organisation in order for their companies to survive and

prosper. The scientific management movement around the turn of the century

took an arrower, operations perspective. Yet, the two approaches were certainly

not contradictory. The managers in both cases applied the scientific method to

their problems and they thought that effective management at all levels was the

key to organisational success.

Fredrick W Taylor(1856 - 1915) is the recognized father of scientific

management.

Taylor started scientific management in his time-and-motion studies at the

Midvale Steel Company in the early 1900's. As an industrial engineer, he was

concerned within efficiencies in manual labour jobs and believed that by

scientifically studying the specific motions that made up the total job, a more

rational, objective and effective method of performing the job could be

determined. In his early years as a foreman in the steel industry, he saw different

workers doing the same job in different ways. It was his opinion that each man

could not be doing his job in the optimal way, and he set out to find the "one

best way" to perform the job efficiently. His argument proved to be correct and

in some instances "taylorism" resulted in productivity increases of 400 percent.

In almost all cases, his methods improved productivity over existing levels.

Taylor had actually shop and engineering experience and therefore was

intimately involved with tools, products and various machining and

manufacturing operations. His well- known metal -cutting experiments

demonstrated the scientific management approach. Over a period of twenty-six

years, Taylor tested every conceivable variation in speed, feed,d epth of cut, and

kind of cutting tool. The outcome of this experimentation was high speed steel,

considered one of the most significant contributions to the development of large-

scale production.

Coupled with Taylor's logical, rational, engineering -like approach to

management was a simple theory of human behaviour: people are primarily

motivated by economic rewards and well take direction if offered the

opportunity to better their economic positions. Put simply, taylor's theory stated

that:

o Physical work could be scientifically studied to determine the optimal method

of performing a job.

o Workers could there after be made more efficient by being given

prescriptions for how they were to do their jobs.

o Workers would be willing to adhere to these prescriptions if paid on

"differential piece work" basis.

In addition to advocating the use of scientific means to develop the best way to

do a task, Taylor argued that several other principles were important.

iv. Workers with appropriate abilities had to be selected and trained in the

appropriate task method.

v. Supervisors needed to build cooperation among the workers to ensure that

they followed the designated method of work. Building such cooperation

included soliciting workers' suggestions and being willing to discuss ideas for

improved work methods.

vi. There needed to be a clear division of work responsibilities. Previously, the

workers planned how to approach a task, and then they executed it. Under the

Taylor scheme, it was management's job to do the task planning, using

scientific methods.

Taylor's four principles of scientific management are summarized here: -

o Scientifically study each part of a task and develop the best method for

performing the task.

o Carefully select workers and train them to perform the task by using the

scientifically developed method.

o Cooperate fully with workers to ensure that they use the proper method.

o Divide work and responsibility so that management is responsible for

planning work methods using scientific principles and workers are

responsible for executing the work accordingly.

Many have criticized Taylor's work for dehumanizing the work place and

treating workers like machines, but his overall contribution to management was

significant. Although others were studying similar methods at the same general

time, Taylor was one of the first totake the theory and practice of management

out of the realm of intuitive judgment and into the realm of scientific inquiry

and reasoning.

Taylor's ideas on time study, standardization of work practices, goal setting,

money as a motivator, scientific selection of workers and rest pauses have all

proved to be successful techniques of management today. Taylor was by no

means the only note worthy scientific manager. Others in the movement, such as

Frank and Lillian Gilberth and Henry L Gantt made especially significant

contributions.

The Gilbreths: Other major advocates of scientific management were the

husband and wife team of Frank Gilbreth (1868 - 1924) and Lillian Moller

Gilberth (1878 - 1972). As Frank become involved in training young brick

layers, he noticed the in efficiencies that were handed down from experienced

workers. To remedy the situation he proposedusing motion studies to streamline

the bricklaying process. Frank also designed special scaffolding for different

types of jobs and devised precise directions for mortar consistency.

On the basis of these and other ideas, Frank was able to reduce the motions

involved in brick laying from 18 ½ to 4. Using his approach, workers increased

the number of bricks laid per day from 1000 to 2700 with no increase in

physical exertion.

Frank married Lillian Moller, who began working with him on projects while

she completed her doctorate in psychology. The two continued their studies

aimed at eliminating unnecessary motions and expanded their interests to

exploring ways of reducing task fatigue. Part of their work involved the is

olation of 17 basic motions, each called atherblig ("Gilbreth" spelled backward,

with the "t" and "h" reversed). Therbligs included such motions as select,

position, and hold - motions that were used to study tasks in a number of

industries. The Gilbreths used the therblig concept to study tasks in a number of

industries. The Gilbreths used the therblig concept to study jobs and also

pioneered the use of motion picture technology in studying jobs.

Lillian's doctoral thesis was published as a book, The Psychology of

Management, making it one of the early works applying the findings of

psychology to the workplace. At the insistence of the publisher, the author was

lilted as L.M. Gilbreth to disguise the fact that the book was written by a

woman.

Lillian helped define scientific management by arguing that scientific studies of

management must focus on both analysis and synthesis. With analysis, a task is

broken down into its essential parts or elements. With synthesis, the task is

reconstituted to include only those elements necessary for efficient work. She

also had a particular interest in the human implications of scientific

management, arguing that the purpose of scientific management is to help

people reach their maximum potential by developing their skills and abilities.

Lillian Gilbreth ranks as the first woman to gain prominence as a major

contributor to the development of management as a science.

Henry L Gantt (1861-1919): One of Taylor's closest associates, Henry Gantt

latter become an independent consultant and made several contributions of his

own. The most well -known is the Gantt Chart, a graphic aid to planning,

scheduling and control that is still in use today. He also devised a unique pay

incentive system that not only paid workers extra for reaching standard in the

allotted time but also awarded bonuses to supervisors when workers reached

standard. He wanted to encourage supervisors to coach workers who were

having difficulties.

The scientific managers like Taylor, Frank and Lillian Gilberth and Henry Gantt

were not the first or only group that recognized the importance of the operating

functions. Ahundred years earlier, Adam Smith had carefully pointed out the

advantages of division of labour and in 1832, Charles Babbage, a British

mathematician with some asto unding managerial insights, discussed

transference of skill in his book Economy of Machinery and Manufacture.

The Human Relations Movement: The second major step on the way to

current organisational behaviour theory was the Human Relations Movement

that began in the 1930's and continued in various forms until the 1950's. The

practice of management, which places heavy emphasis on employee cooperation

and morale, might be classified as human relations. Raymond Mills states that

the human relation approach was simply to "treat people as human beings

(instead of machines in the productive process), acknowledge their needs to

belong and to feel important by listening to and heeding their complaints where

possible and by involving them in certain decisions concerning working

conditions and other matters, then morale would surely improve and workers

would cooperate with management in achieving good production".

The Human Relations Movement, popularized by Elton Mayo and his famous

Hawthorne studies conducted at the Hawthorne Plant of the Western Electric

Company, in many ways it remained the foundation of much of our management

thinking today. Before the Hawthorne studies officially started, Elton Mayo headed

a research team, which was investigating the causes of very high turnover in the

mule-spinning department of a Philadelphia textile mill in 1923 and 1924. After

interviewing and consulting the workers, the team set up a series of rest pauses,

which resulted in greatly reduced turnover and more positive worker attitudes and

morale.

The five models of organisational behaviour are the:

autocratic model,

custodial model,

supportive model,

collegial model and

system model.

Autocratic model

Autocratic model is the model that depends upon strength, power and formal

authority.

In an autocratic organisation, the people (management/owners) who manage the

tasks in an organisation have formal authority for controlling the employees who

work under them. These lower-level employees have little control over the work

function. Their ideas and innovations are not generally welcomed, as the key

decisions are made at the top management level.

The guiding principle behind this model is that management/owners have

enormous business expertise, and the average employee has relatively low levels of

skill and needs to be fully directed and guided. This type of autocratic management

system was common in factories in the industrial revolution era.

One of the more significant problems associated with the autocratic model is that

the management team is required to micromanage the staff – where they have to

watch all the details and make every single decision. Clearly, in a more modern-

day organisation, where highly paid specialists are employed an autocratic system

becomes impractical and highly inefficient.

The autocratic model is also a detractor to job satisfaction and employee morale.

This is because employees do not feel valued and part of the overall team. This

leads to a low-level of work performance. While the autocratic model might be

appropriate for some very automated factory situations, it has become outdated for

most modern-day organisations.

Custodial model

The custodial model is based around the concept of providing economic security

for employees – through wages and other benefits – that will create employee

loyalty and motivation.

In some countries, many professional companies provide health benefits, corporate

cars, financial packaging of salary, and so on – these are incentives designed to

attract and retain quality staff.

The underlying theory for the organisation is that they will have a greater skilled

workforce, more motivated employees, and have a competitive advantage through

employee knowledge and expertise.

One of the downsides with the custodial model is that it also attracts and retains

low performance staff as well. Or perhaps even deliver a lower level of motivation

from some staff who feel that they are “trapped” in an organisation because the

benefits are too good to leave.

Supportive model

Unlike the two earlier approaches, the supportive model is focused around aspiring

leadership.

It is not based upon control and authority (the autocratic model) or upon incentives

(the custodial model), but instead tries to motivate staff through the manager-

employee relationship and how employees are treated on a day-to-day basis.

Quite opposite to the autocratic model, this approach states that employees are self-

motivated and have value and insight to contribute to the organisation, beyond just

their day-to-day role.

The intent of this model is to motivate employees through a positive workplace

where their ideas are encouraged and often adapted. Therefore, the employees have

some form of “buy-in” to the organisation and its direction.

Collegial model

The collegial model is based around teamwork – everybody working as colleagues

(hence the name of the model).

The overall environment and corporate culture need to be aligned to this model,

where everybody is actively participating – is not about status and job titles –

everybody is encouraged to work together to build a better organisation.

The role of the manager is to foster this teamwork and create positive and energetic

workplaces. In much regard, the manager can be considered to be the “coach” of

the team. And as coach, the goal is to make the team perform well overall, rather

than focus on their own performance, or the performance of key individuals.

The collegial model is quite effective in organisations that need to find new

approaches – marketing teams, research and development, technology/software –

indeed anywhere the competitive landscape is constantly changing and ideas and

innovation are key competitive success factors.

System model

The final organisational model is referred to as the system model.

This is the most contemporary model of the five models discussed in this article. In

the system model, the organisation looks at the overall structure and team

environment, and considers that individuals have different goals, talents and

potential.

The intent of the system model is to try and balance the goals of the individual

with the goals of the organisation.

Individuals obviously want good remuneration, job security, but also want to work

in a positive work environment where the organisation adds value to the

community and/or its customers.

The system of model should be an overall partnership of managers and employees

with a common goal, and where everybody feels that they have a stake in the

organisation.

2. Discuss the term “ Group Dynamics”. Explain Structural dynamics of

groups.

Ans.

Group dynamics deals with the attitudes and behavioral patterns of a group. Group

dynamics concern how groups are formed, what is their structure and which

processes are followed in their functioning. Thus, it is concerned with the

interactions and forces operating between groups.

Group dynamics is relevant to groups of all kinds – both formal and informal. If

the UPA government has set up Group of Ministers for every governance issue, the

Supreme Court of India has 27 Group of Judges committees overseeing all manner

of non-judicial work in the apex court. In an organizational setting, the term groups

are a very common and the study of groups and group dynamics is an important

area of study.

What is A Group?

Every organization is a group unto itself. A group refers to two or more people

who share a common meaning and evaluation of themselves and come together to

achieve common goals. In other words, a group is a collection of people who

interact with one another; accept rights and obligations as members and who share

a common identity.

Characteristics of a Group:

ADVERTISEMENTS:

Regardless of the size or the purpose, every group has similar characteristics:

(a) 2 or more persons (if it is one person, it is not a group)

(b) Formal social structure (the rules of the game are defined)

(c) Common fate (they will swim together)

(d) Common goals (the destiny is the same and emotionally connected)

(e) Face-to-face interaction (they will talk with each other)

(f) Interdependence (each one is complimentary to the other)

(g) Self-definition as group members (what one is who belongs to the group)

ADVERTISEMENTS:

(h) Recognition by others (yes, you belong to the group).

Process/Stages of Group Development/Evolution:

Group Development is a dynamic process. How do groups evolve? There is a

process of five stages through which groups pass through. The process includes the

five stages: forming, storming, forming, performing, and adjourning.

Forming:

The first stage in the life of a group is concerned with forming a group. This stage

is characterized by members seeking either a work assignment (in a formal group)

or other benefit, like status, affiliation, power, etc. (in an informal group).

Members at this stage either engage in busy type of activity or show apathy.

Storming:

The next stage in this group is marked by the formation of dyads and triads.

Members seek out familiar or similar individuals and begin a deeper sharing of

self. Continued attention to the subgroup creates a differentiation in the group and

tensions across the dyads / triads may appear. Pairing is a common phenomenon.

There will be conflict about controlling the group.

Norming:

The third stage of group development is marked by a more serious concern about

task performance. The dyads/triads begin to open up and seek out other members

in the group. Efforts are made to establish various norms for task performance.

Members begin to take greater responsibility for their own group and relationship

while the authority figure becomes relaxed. Once this stage is complete, a clear

picture will emerge about hierarchy of leadership. The norming stage is over with

the solidification of the group structure and a sense of group identity and

camaraderie.

Performing:

This is a stage of a fully functional group where members see themselves as a

group and get involved in the task. Each person makes a contribution and the

authority figure is also seen as a part of the group. Group norms are followed and

collective pressure is exerted to ensure the Process of Group effectiveness of the

group.

The group may redefine its goals Development in the light of information from the

outside environment and show an autonomous will to pursue those goals. The

long-term viability of the group is established and nurtured.

Adjourning:

In the case of temporary groups, like project team, task force, or any other such

group, which have a limited task at hand, also have a fifth stage, This is known as

adjourning.

The group decides to disband. Some members may feel happy over the

performance, and some may be unhappy over the stoppage of meeting with group

members. Adjourning may also be referred to as mourning, i.e. mourning the

adjournment of the group.

The readers must note that the four stages of group development mentioned above

for permanent groups are merely suggestive. In reality, several stages may go on

simultaneously.

Types of Groups:

One way to classify the groups is by way of formality – formal and informal.

While formal groups are established by an organization to achieve its goals,

informal groups merge spontaneously. Formal groups may take the form of

command groups, task groups, and functional groups.

1. Command Groups:

Command groups are specified by the organizational chart and often consist of a

supervisor and the subordinates that report to that supervisor. An example of a

command group is a market research firm CEO and the research associates under

him.

2. Task Groups:

Task groups consist of people who work together to achieve a common task.

Members are brought together to accomplish a narrow range of goals within a

specified time period. Task groups are also commonly referred to as task forces.

The organization appoints members and assigns the goals and tasks to be

accomplished.

Examples of assigned tasks are the development of a new product, the

improvement of a production process, or designing the syllabus under semester

system.

Other common task groups are ad hoc committees, project groups, and standing

committees. Ad hoc committees are temporary groups created to resolve a specific

complaint or develop a process are normally disbanded after the group completes

the assigned task.

3. Functional Groups:

A functional group is created by the organization to accomplish specific goals

within an unspecified time frame. Functional groups remain in existence after

achievement of current goals and objectives. Examples of functional groups would

be a marketing department, a customer service department, or an accounting

department.

In contrast to formal groups, informal groups are formed naturally and in response

to the common interests and shared values of individuals. They are created for

purposes other than the accomplishment of organizational goals and do not have a

specified time frame. Informal groups are not appointed by the organization and

members can invite others to join from time to time.

Informal groups can have a strong influence in organizations that can either be

positive or negative. For example, employees who form an informal group can

either discuss how to improve a production process or how to create shortcuts that

jeopardize quality. Informal groups can take the form of interest groups, friendship

groups, or reference groups.

i. Interest Group:

Interest groups usually continue over time and may last longer than general

informal groups. Members of interest groups may not be part of the same

organizational department but they are bound together by some other common

interest.

The goals and objectives of group interests are specific to each group and may not

be related to organizational goals and objectives. An example of an interest group

would be students who come together to form a study group for a specific class.

ii. Friendship Groups:

Friendship groups are formed by members who enjoy similar social activities,

political beliefs, religious values, or other common bonds. Members enjoy each

other‟s company and often meet after work to participate in these activities. For

example, a group of employees who form a friendship group may have a yoga

group, a Rajasthani association in Delhi, or a kitty party lunch once a month.

iii. Reference Groups:

A reference group is a type of group that people use to evaluate themselves. The

main objectives of reference groups are to seek social validation and social

comparison. Social validation allows individuals to justify their attitudes and

values while social comparison helps individuals evaluate their own actions by

comparing themselves to others. Reference groups have a strong influence on

members‟ behavior. Such groups are formed voluntarily. Family, friends, and

religious affiliations are strong reference groups for most individuals.

Factors Affecting Group Behaviour:

The success or failure of a group depends upon so many factors. Group member

resources, structure (group size, group roles, group norms, and group

cohesiveness), group processes (the communication, group decision making

processes, power dynamics, conflicting interactions, etc.) and group tasks

(complexity and interdependence).

1. Group Member Resources:

The members‟ knowledge, abilities, skills; and personality characteristics

(sociability, self- reliance, and independence) are the resources the group members

bring in with them. The success depends upon these resources as useful to the task.

2. Group Structure:

Group Size:

Group size can vary from 2 people to a very large number of people. Small groups

of two to ten are thought to be more effective because each member has ample

opportunity to take part and engage actively in the group. Large groups may waste

time by deciding on processes and trying to decide who should participate next.

Evidence supports the notion that as the size of the group increases, satisfaction

increases up to a certain point. Increasing the size of a group beyond 10-12

members‟ results in decreased satisfaction. It is increasingly difficult for members

of large groups to identify with one another and experience cohesion.

Group Roles:

In formal groups, roles are always predetermined and assigned to members. Each

role shall have specific responsibilities and duties. There are, however, emergent

roles that develop naturally to meet the needs of the groups.

These emergent roles will often substitute the assigned roles as individuals begin to

express themselves and become more assertive. Group roles can then be classified

into work roles, maintenance roles, and blocking roles.

Work roles are task-oriented activities that involve accomplishing the group‟s

goals. They involve a variety of specific roles such as initiator, informer, clarifier,

summarizer, and reality tester.

Maintenance roles are social-emotional activities that help members maintain their

involvement in the group and raise their personal commitment to the group. The

maintenance roles are harmonizer, gatekeeper, consensus tester, encourager, and

compromiser.

Blocking roles are activities that disrupt the group. Blockers will stubbornly resist

the group‟s ideas, disagree with group members for personal reasons, and will have

hidden agendas. They may take the form of dominating discussions, verbally

attacking other group members, and distracting the group with trivial information

or unnecessary humour.

Often times the blocking behaviour may not be intended as negative. Sometimes a

member may share a joke in order to break the tension, or may question a decision

in order to force group members to rethink the issue. The blocking roles are

aggressor, blocker, dominator, comedian, and avoidance behaviour.

Role conflicts arise when there is ambiguity (confusion about delegation and no

specific job descriptions) between the sent role and the received role which leads to

frustration and dissatisfaction, ultimately leading to turnover; inconsistency

between the perceived role and role behaviour (conflict between work roles and

family roles); and conflicting demands from different sources while performing the

task.

Group Norms:

Norms define the acceptable standard or boundaries of acceptable and

unacceptable behaviour, shared by group members. They are typically created in

order to facilitate group survival, make behaviour more predictable, avoid

embarrassing situations, and express the values of the group.

Each group will create its own norms that might determine from the work

performance to dress to making comments in a meeting. Groups exert pressure on

members to force them to conform to the group‟s standards and at times not to

perform at higher levels. The norms often reflect the level of commitment,

motivation, and performance of the group.

The majority of the group must agree that the norms are appropriate in order for

the behaviour to be accepted. There must also be a shared understanding that the

group supports the norms. It should be noted, however, that members might violate

group norms from time to time.

If the majority of members do not adhere to the norms, then they will eventually

change and will no longer serve as a standard for evaluating behaviour. Group

members who do not conform to the norms will be punished by being excluded,

ignored, or asked to leave the group.

Group Cohesiveness:

Cohesiveness refers to the bonding of group members or unity, feelings of

attraction for each other and desire to remain part of the group. Many factors

influence the amount of group cohesiveness – agreement on group goals,

frequency of interaction, personal attractiveness, inter-group competition,

favourable evaluation, etc.

The more difficult it is to obtain group membership the more cohesive the group

will be. Groups also tend to become cohesive when they are in intense competition

with other groups or face a serious external threat to survival. Smaller groups and

those who spend considerable time together also tend to be more cohesive.

Cohesiveness in work groups has many positive effects, including worker

satisfaction, low turnover and absenteeism, and higher productivity. However,

highly cohesive groups may be detrimental to organizational performance if their

goals are misaligned with organizational goals.

Highly cohesive groups may also be more vulnerable to groupthink. Groupthink

occurs when members of a group exert pressure on each other to come to a

consensus in decision making. Groupthink results in careless judgments, unrealistic

appraisals of alternative courses of action, and a lack of reality testing.

Evidence suggests that groups typically outperform individuals when the tasks

involved require a variety of skills, experience, and decision making. Groups are

often more flexible and can quickly assemble, achieve goals, and disband or move

on to another set of objectives.

Many organizations have found that groups have many motivational aspects as

well. Group members are more likely to participate in decision-making and

problem-solving activities leading to empowerment and increased productivity.

Groups complete most of the work in an organization; thus, the effectiveness of the

organization is limited by the effectiveness of its groups.

3. Group Processes:

Decision-making by a group is superior, because group generates more information

and knowledge, generates diverse alternatives, increases acceptance of a solution,

and increases legitimacy. But it is also true, that decision making is like „munde

munde matirbhinna‟.

Decisions take longer time, minority is dominated, pressure is applied to conform

to group decisions, and none is responsible for the decisions. Group processes also

include communication, conflict management, and leadership that we shall discuss

in details in the chapters to follow hereafter.

Turning Groups into Effective Teams:

All teams are groups but not all groups are teams. Teams often are difficult to form

because it takes time for members to learn how to work together. People in every

workplace talk about building the team, working as a team, and my team, but few

understand how to create the experience of team work or how to develop an

effective team. Belonging to a team, in the broadest sense, is a result of feeling part

of something larger than oneself. It has a lot to do with your understanding of the

mission or objectives of your organization.

In a team-oriented environment, one contributes to the overall success of the

organization. One works with fellow members of the organization to produce these

results. Even though you have a specific job function and you belong to a specific

department, you are unified with other organization members to accomplish the

overall objectives. The bigger picture drives your actions; your function exists to

serve the bigger picture.

It is on record that teams are better than groups, because they are more flexible and

responsive to dynamic environment. A work group has no opportunity to involve

in collective works.

It is the work team whose members „work intensely on a specific, common goal

using their positive synergy, individual and mutual accountability, and

complementary skills‟.

Team-building helps to increase intra-group and inter-group effectiveness to bring

members together, make them share their perception of each other and understand

each other‟s point of view.

Thus, resolve problems and work together in a cooperative and collaborative mode.

Teams can be of four types – problem-solving teams (only making suggestion),

self-managed, teams (operate without a manager), cross-functional teams (a group

of experts from different specialities), and virtual team (members collaborate

online). In terms of size, teams may be institutional (comprising of hundreds of

members) and operational (a small, cooperative group, in regular contact and

contributes responsibly to achieve task at hand).

Eight Cs for Team Building:

To show business results and profitability, ways are explored by the executives to

improve their productivity.

Successful team building, that creates effective, focused work teams, requires

attention to each of the following:

1. Clear Expectations:

The managers must clearly tell the team members of the expected performance and

the team members must understand the reason for its creation. For it the

organization must support the team with resources of people, time and money.

2. Commitment:

Team members must participate in the team, feel that the team mission is

important, and show commitment to accomplishing the team mission and expected

outcomes. Commitment will come if team members perceive their service as

valuable to the organization and to their own careers.

3. Competence:

Team members must have the knowledge, skill and capabilities, the resources,

strategies and support needed to accomplish its mission to address the issues for

which the team was formed.

4. Control:

The team must have not only enough freedom and empowerment to feel the

ownership necessary to accomplish its charter, but also the accountability. There

has to be a defined review process.

5. Collaboration:

The team should understand group processes and work effectively and

cooperatively with other members of the team. For it they have to understand the

roles and responsibilities of team members, team leaders, and team recorders.

6. Communication:

To make team members clear about the priority of their tasks, and receive regular

feedback, team members must clearly and honestly with each other. Diverse

opinions be welcome and conflicts be taken up positively.

7. Creativity:

The team should value creative thinking, unique solutions, and new ideas; and

reward members who take reasonable risks to make improvements. If necessary, it

should provide the training, education, access to books and films, and field trips to

stimulate new thinking.

The creative development of new products, new technologies, new services, or

new organizational structures is possible because teams may have variety of skills

needed for successful innovation.

Team members can uncover each other‟s flaws and balance each other‟s strengths

and weaknesses. Managers should empower the team and make it accountable for

the innovation process.

8. Coordination:

Teams should understand the concept of internal customer to whom they provide a

product or a service. Team efforts need to be coordinated by a central leadership

team that assists the groups to obtain what they need for success.

The cross- functional and multi-department teams must work together effectively.

The organization should develop a customer-focused and process-focused

orientation and move away from traditional departmental thinking.

Spend time and attention on each of these eight tips to ensure your work teams

contribute most effectively to your business success. Your team members would

love you, your business will see new heights, and empowered people will “own”

and be responsible to their work processes

3. How a Group can be made cohesive? Do you agree with the fact that

“some group are more cohesive than other”? Does group cohesiveness

affect productivity?

Ans. Group cohesiveness is one of the characteristic features of the groups, which

is very important from behaviouristic point of view. Cohesiveness is the degree to

which the group members are attracted to each other and are motivated to stay in

the groups. Cohesiveness defines the degree of closeness that the members feel

with the groups. It is understood as the extent of liking each member has towards

others in the group and how far everyone wants to remain as a member of the

group.

“Cohesiveness refers to the extent of unity „in the group and is reflected in

members‟ conformity to the norms of the group, feeling of attraction for each other

and wanting to be co-members of the group.” Attraction, cohesiveness and

conformity are all intertwined. The more the members feel attracted to the group,

the greater will be the group cohesiveness. The greater the cohesiveness, the

greater the influence of the group members to persuade one another to conform to

the group norms. The greater the conformity, the greater the identity of the

members to the group and the greater the group cohesiveness.

ADVERTISEMENTS:

Cohesiveness is a very important group attribute. Managers must offer

answer to such questions as:

(i) What are the sources and causes of cohesiveness

(ii) What are the consequences of cohesiveness.

Now we will explain the answers to these questions in detail:

ADVERTISEMENTS:

Consequences of Cohesiveness:

Group cohesiveness has only positive consequences.

These positive outcomes are explained in detail as follows:

1. More Participation:

Higher the degree of group cohesiveness, closer will be the interpersonal

relationships among the members. As a result members will participate actively in

group affairs and activities. As the members consider the group as their own, just

like a family, they will help other members of the group in times of need which

will further strengthen their bonds. The turnover of members will be very low. If

possible, all the members attend the group meetings and group activities and take

active part in discussions relating to preparing of strategies for achieving individual

and group goals.

2. More Conformity:

One of the factors which influence cohesiveness is similarity of attitudes and

values. As a result, members tend to like each other and perceive themselves as

similar. These characteristics lead members to be relatively dependent on the group

for satisfaction and, thus, they are susceptible to being influenced. For example, if

any member is getting involved in organisational politics for enhancing his

personal goals, the group might put social pressure on him and make him comply

with the group norms.

3. More Success:

Cohesiveness and success are mutually dependent upon each other. Cohesiveness

makes the goal achievement easier and goal achievement adds to success. The

reason for this relationship is that higher degree of cohesiveness leads to high

degree of communication, participation and conformity to group norms. Such

coordinated efforts result in agreement about the goals to be achieved, the methods

of achieving them and finally achieving the final goals.

4. More Communication:

Members of cohesive groups communicate with each other more than the members

of non-cohesive groups. Because the members share common ideologies, goals,

backgrounds or attitudes, they are inclined to greater communicativeness. Such

communication is reinforcing as it tends to foster and cement positive social

relations as well as depth in personal relationships.

5. More Personal Satisfaction:

Members of cohesive groups are more satisfied as compared to members of non-

cohesive groups. Thus is understandable because if members are not satisfied they

will leave the group and join some other group. Members are more satisfied due to

so many factors which include friendliness, respect, support, achievement,

protection and a feeling of security.

6. High Productivity:

Cohesiveness may contribute to increased productivity because:

ADVERTISEMENTS:

(i) People in cohesive groups experience fewer work related anxieties and tensions

(ii) Highly cohesive groups tend to have lower absenteeism and turnover and

(iii) Cohesiveness decreases productivity differences among groups.

Studies consistently show that the relationship of cohesiveness and productivity

depends on the performance related norms established by the group. If

performance related norms are high, a cohesive group will be more productive than

will a less cohesive group. But if cohesiveness is high and performance norms are

low, productivity will be low.

If cohesiveness is low and performance norms are high, productivity increases but

less than in high cohesiveness-high norms situation. Where cohesiveness and

performance related norms are both low, productivity will tend to fall into the low

to moderate range.

These conclusions are summarized in the following figure:

The worst situation for the manager is a highly cohesive group with low

performance norms. Here members are highly motivated to work for their personal

satisfaction only not for the organisational goals. Here the success of the

management will depend upon how to direct the activities of highly cohesive group

towards the successful attainment of organisational goals.

The consequences of cohesiveness are now illustrated with the help of the

following diagram:

Managerial Actions for Increasing or Encouraging Cohesiveness:

A manager can follow any one or more of the following suggestions to

encourage cohesiveness:

1. Make the group smaller

2. Encourage agreement with group goals

3. Increase the time members spend together

4. Increase the status of the group and the perceived difficulty of getting

membership of the group

5. Stimulate competition with other groups.

6. Give rewards to the group rather than to members.

7. Physically isolate the group

8. Increase membership homogeneity

9. Increase interaction among members

Managerial Actions to Decrease or Discourage Cohesiveness:

Sometimes high cohesiveness adversely affects the productivity. In such cases

managers have to reduce the cohesiveness of the groups.

Following are some of the actions which can be taken by the managers:

1. Induce disagreement on group goals

2. Increase membership heterogeneity

3. Restrict interactions among members

4. Increase group size

5. Reduce the time members spend together

6. Allocate rewards to individuals rather than to group member.

7. Remove physical isolation

8. Disband the group

9. Introduce a dominating member

4. Define Motivation. Expalin Vroom’s expectancy theory of Motivation.

Give its managerial implications also.

Ans.

Motivation is the reason for people's actions, desires and needs. Motivation is also

one's direction to behavior, or what causes a person to want to repeat a behavior.

An individual's motivation may be inspired by others or events (extrinsic

motivation)[1]

or it may come from within the individual (intrinsic motivation)[2]

.

Motivation has been considered as one of the most important reasons that inspires

a person to move forward.[3]

Mastering motivation to allow sustained and

deliberate practice is central to high levels of achievement e.g. in the worlds of

elite sport, medicine or music.[4]

Vroom expectancy motivation theory

Whereas Maslow and Herzberg look at the relationship between internal needs and

the resulting effort expended to fulfil them, Vroom's expectancy theory separates

effort (which arises from motivation), performance, and outcomes.

Vroom's expectancy theory assumes that behavior results from conscious choices

among alternatives whose purpose it is to maximize pleasure and to minimize pain.

Vroom realized that an employee's performance is based on individual factors such

as personality, skills, knowledge, experience and abilities. He stated that effort,

performance and motivation are linked in a person's motivation. He uses the

variables Expectancy, Instrumentality and Valence to account for this.

Expectancy is the belief that increased effort will lead to increased performance

i.e. if I work harder then this will be better. This is affected by such things as:

1. Having the right resources available (e.g. raw materials, time)

2. Having the right skills to do the job

3. Having the necessary support to get the job done (e.g. supervisor support, or

correct information on the job)

Instrumentality is the belief that if you perform well that a valued outcome will

be received. The degree to which a first level outcome will lead to the second level

outcome. i.e. if I do a good job, there is something in it for me. This is affected by

such things as:

1. Clear understanding of the relationship between performance and outcomes – e.g.

the rules of the reward 'game'

2. Trust in the people who will take the decisions on who gets what outcome

3. Transparency of the process that decides who gets what outcome

Valence is the importance that the individual places upon the expected outcome.

For the valence to be positive, the person must prefer attaining the outcome to not

attaining it. For example, if someone is mainly motivated by money, he or she

might not value offers of additional time off.

The three elements are important behind choosing one element over another

because they are clearly defined: effort-performance expectancy (E>P expectancy)

and performance-outcome expectancy (P>O expectancy).

E>P expectancy: our assessment of the probability that our efforts will lead to the

required performance level.

P>O expectancy: our assessment of the probability that our successful

performance will lead to certain outcomes.

Crucially, Vroom's expectancy theory works on perceptions – so even if an

employer thinks they have provided everything appropriate for motivation, and

even if this works with most people in that organisation, it doesn't mean that

someone won't perceive that it doesn't work for them.

At first glance expectancy theory would seem most applicable to a traditional-

attitude work situation where how motivated the employee is depends on whether

they want the reward on offer for doing a good job and whether they believe more

effort will lead to that reward.

However, it could equally apply to any situation where someone does something

because they expect a certain outcome. For example, I recycle paper because I

think it's important to conserve resources and take a stand on environmental issues

(valence); I think that the more effort I put into recycling the more paper I will

recycle (expectancy); and I think that the more paper I recycle then less resources

will be used (instrumentality)

Thus, Vroom's expectancy theory of motivation is not about self-interest in

rewards but about the associations people make towards expected outcomes and

the contribution they feel they can make towards those outcomes. e

*********