Biotechnology Research and Applications:Looking ForwardChapter 14

Learning Outcomes

List some of the tools used in genomics and the advances made possible by them.

Describe how bioinformatics and microarray technology are speeding genetic studies and the search for novel pharmaceuticals.

Give examples of how RNA technologies impact research and development of new therapeutics.

Discuss the field of proteomics, the methods used for protein study, and the potential benefits of proteomic research.

Explain how advances in stem cell research, regenerative medicine, and synthetic biology may lead to improved health care.

Describe how biotechnologies are being used to understand and protect the environment.

Outline the important applications of the growing biotechnology fields of veterinary biotech, dental biotech, nanotechnology, bioterrorism, and biodefense.

14.1 Advances in Molecular Biology Lead to New Biotechnologies

Molecular biologists study DNA, RNA, and/or proteins to understand how organisms and their cells work and how they might be manipulated.

Genomics

Genomics includes determining the nucleotide sequence, how the sequence is read and regulated, and how the sequence and genes vary from organism to organism.

Bioinformatics

During experimentation, as large amounts of numerical and sequence data are collected, the data may be organized into a computer file called a biological database.

Microarrays and Genomic AnalysisMicroarrays can show the most probable expression of a genetic sequence.

RNA and Genomics

Advances in PCR Speed Research and DevelopmentTwo new PCR processes allow scientists to use PCR to amplify nucleic acid sections from single- stranded samples (such as RNA) and to measure PCR product as it is made.

There are several forms of RNA interacting with DNA and other RNA molecules to turn some genes on and off.RNA of Interest

• RNAi• siRNA• microRNA

Proteomics

X-Ray Crystallography

Protein (x-ray) crystallography visualizes the positions of atoms in a molecule based on x-ray wave diffraction, and the constructive and destructive interference that results off the atoms in the sample.

Proteomics includes the study of RNA splicing (exons—the expressed portion of a mRNA transcript, and introns—the sections of a mRNA transcript that are removed before translation) and other posttranscriptional modifications.

Mass Spectrometry

The mass spectrometer is an instrument that measures the masses and relative concentrations of atoms and molecules.

Nuclear magnetic resonance measures the spin on nuclei (protons) of particular isotopes in a magnetic field.

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

Protein Arrays

Protein arrays are a fusion of microarray and ELISA techniques, processed on a “protein chip.”

Vocabulary

• Genomics – the study of all the genes and DNA code of an organism

• Bioinformatics – the use of computers and databases to analyze and relate large amounts of biological data

• Shotgun cloning – a method of cloning used during the sequencing of the human genome that involves digesting DNA into 500 bp pieces, generating libraries from those fragments, and eventually sequencing the libraries

• Reverse transcription PCR – the use of reverse transcriptase to produce cDNA frommRNA for use in PCR, abbreviated “RT-PCR”

• Real-time PCR – the use of fluorescent probe technology to measure PCR product as it is being produced, also called quantitative RT-PCR or qRT-PCR

• RNAi – an abbreviation for RNA interference, a type of double-stranded RNA that is chopped in small pieces then engulfed by the cell, and binds to and interferes with the cells native RNA or DNA, blocking protein production

Vocabulary

• siRNA – an abbreviation for short-interfering RNA, a type of single-stranded RNA oligo (fragment) that is created by scientists to target a gene for silencing

• microRNA – the small pieces of RNA that are known to interrupt posttranscriptional RNA function by binding to mRNA as soon as it is made

• Northern blot – a process in which RNA fragments on a gel are transferred to a positively charged membrane (a blot) to be probed by labeled cDNA

• Transcriptome – all of the mRNA in a cell at a given point in time

• Proteomics – the study of how, when, and where proteins are used in cells

• Proteome – all of an organism’s protein and protein-related material

• NMR – abbreviation for nuclear magnetic resonance, a technique that measures the spin of nuclei (protons) of isotopes in a magnetic field to study physical, chemical, and biological properties of proteins, including their structure in aqueous (watery) solutions

Vocabulary

• Protein (x-ray) crystallography – a technique that uses x-ray wave diffraction patterns to visualize the positions of atoms in a protein molecule to reveal its three-dimensional structure

• X-ray diffraction pattern – a pattern of light intensities that develops when an x-ray beam is passed through a mounted crystalline structure

• Salting out – a technique for crystallizing proteins that involves precipitating a sample of pure protein using a stringent salt gradient of sodium chloride, ammonium sulfate, or some other salt

• Protein arrays – a fusion of technologies, where protein samples bound on the glass slide (protein chip) are assessed using antibodies or other recognition material

14.1 Review Questions

1. How much of the human genome was sequenced utilizing shotgun cloning?

2. Name a plant and an animal whose entire genome has been put on a GeneChip® microarray for the purpose of studying gene function and expression.

3. MicroRNA, RNAi, and siRNA all operate in a similar fashion. What do they do?

4. What is the name of the technique that uses an x-ray to study the structure of a protein crystal? What is the x-ray image called?

5. What causes proteins to crystallize out of solution?

14.2 New Biotechnologies to Address Some of Our Biggest Challenges

stem cells and regenerative medicine environmental biotechnology biofuels biodefense

Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine

Stem cells are unspecialized cells that have not yet differentiated into cells with a specific function.

Environmental Biotechnology

This is a vast field with many applications for monitoring and correcting the health of entire species, populations, communities, and ecosystems.

Biodefense: Protection Against Bioterrorism

Biodefense is the term for all of the methods used to protect people from exposure to biological agents.

Biofuels

Biofuels are alternate energy compounds (petroleum alternatives) that are derived from living things or once living things (collectively called biomass).

Vocabulary

• Embryonic stem cells – the unspecialized cells, found in developing embryos, that have the ability to differentiate into a wide range of specialized cells

• Adult stem cells – the unspecialized cells found in specialized tissues and organs that keep their ability to divide and differentiate into cells with specific functions

• Pluripotent – the stem cells that can specialize into any type of tissue regenerative medicine

• Regenerative medicine – the field of medicine that focuses on replacement or restoration of damaged tissues or organ

• Environmental technology – a field of biotechnology whose applications include monitoring and correcting the health of populations, communities, and ecosystems

• Bioterrorism – the use of biological agents to attack humans, plants, or animals

• Biodefense – all the methods used to protect a population from exposure to biological agents

• Biometric – the measurement and statistical analysis of biological specimens or processes

14.2 Review Questions

1. What does pluripotent mean and how does it apply to stem cells?

2. Why is biodiesel a preferred fuel as compared to ethanol?

3. What is the name of the process by which strategies are used to solve environmental problems, such as oil spills, soil erosion, or fertilizer pollution?

4. What is the function of the Autonomous Pathogen Detection System?

14.3 Other Fields Impacted by Biotechnology

Marine Biotechnology

The potential benefits and/or the risks of ocean biotechnology are of great interest given the degree of human dependence on the ocean and the fact that so many species live in aquatic environments.

Synthetic Biology

The creation of the first synthetic cell was reported in 2010.

Veterinary Biotechnology

The animal health industry invests more than $400 million a year in research and development of diagnostics and therapeutics.

Nanotechnology

Several new nanotechnology advances are in the area of biotechnology, such as immunity nanoparticles (iron particles with antibodies on them) being used to fight ovarian cancer.

Vocabulary

• Synthetic biology – the application of biotechnologies to design and construct new biological systems, such as macromolecules, metabolic pathways, cells, tissues, or organisms

• Marine biotechnology – the study and manipulation of marine organisms, their component molecules, cells, tissues, or organs

• Nanotechnology – pertaining to all technologies that operate on a nanometer scale

14.3 Review Questions

1. How might synthetic biology be used to correct a disease such as diabetes?

2. List a few examples of veterinary biotechnology products.

3. What is the approximate size of the instruments and products of nanotechnology?

14.4 Opportunities in Biotechnology: Living and Working in a Bioeconomy

Biotechnology Is a Global Endeavor

Many companies have research and development, manufacturing, or administrative facilities in several different countries.

Biotechnology is a Diverse Endeavor Requiring a Diverse Workforce

Biotechnologies are practiced in academic (university), regulatory (governmental), and corporate (industry) facilities.

In each, many different employees are needed, some with scientific backgrounds, some with business backgrounds, and some with background and experience in both.

Questions and Comments?