biology study guide (exam 1)

8/8/2019 Biology Study Guide (Exam 1)

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Biology Study Guide-Exam 1Chapters (13-19; 34-38)

Chapter 1:

Biology

1. the scientific study of life.

People

1. Rachael Carson (pg. 683)

a. Wrote a book Silent Spring (1962) about the effects of DDTon birds and insects.

DDT - was used as a chemical fertilizer, but it lost itskilling power.

Had harmful effects on migratory birds.

Traces of the pesticide were turning up worldwide,

thousands of miles from where it was sprayed. (was

found in a mother's milk).

The 1970's brought a series of legislative acts aimed atcurbing pollution and cleaning up the environment.

The control of nature is a phrased conceived in

arrogance, born of the Neanderthal age of biology and

philosophy, when it was supposed that nature exists

for the convenience of man.- Rachael Carson, Silent

Spring

2. Jane Goodall

a. Goodall is best known for her study of Chimpanzee socialand family life. She began studying them in Tanzania(1960).


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These findings suggest similarities between humans andchimpanzees exist in more than genes alone, but can beseen in emotion, intelligence, and family and socialrelationships.

She found that, it isnt only human beings who havepersonality, who are capable of rational thought [and]emotions like joy and sorrow.

Goodall insists that these gestures are evidence of "theclose, supportive, affectionate bonds that developbetween family members and other individuals withina community,

Goodalls research is best known to the scientificcommunity for challenging two long-standing beliefs ofthe day:

that only humans could construct and use tools,

Over the course of her study, Goodall foundevidence of mental traits in chimpanzees such asreasoned thought, abstraction, generalization,symbolic representation, and even the concept of

self, all previously thought to be uniquely humanabilities.

And that chimpanzees were vegetarians (To keep thehierarchy, chimps will kill others and babies to keepthere dominance. They also will feed on smallerprimates.

Twelve Levels Of Life (pg 2)

1. Biospherea. Consists of all the environments on Earth that support life

(most regions of land, bodies of water, and the loweratmosphere).

2. Ecosystemsa. Consists of all the organisms living in a particular area, as


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well as all nonliving, physical components of theenvironment with which the organisms interact (air, soil,water and sunlight).

Ex: the Florida coast

3. Communitya. The entire array of organisms inhabiting a particularecosystem.

Ex: all organisms on the Florida coast.

4. Populationa. Consists of all the individuals of a species living in a specific

area.

Ex: A group of brown pelicans.

5. Organisma. An individual living thing.

( bacterium, fungus, protist, plant, animal).

Ex: a brown pelican.

6. Organ systema. A group of organs that work together in performing vital

body functions.

Ex; Nervous system

7. Organsa. A structure consisting of several tissues adapted as a group

to perform specific functions.

Ex: brain

8. Tissuesa. An integrated group of cells with common function,

structure, or both.

Each organ is made up of several different tissues.

9. Cella. The basic unit of living matter separated from the

environment by a plasma membrane; the fundamentalstructural unit of all life.


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2 types of cells: Prokaryotic- no membrane bound organelles. Eukaryotic- has membrane bound organelles.

10. Organelle

a. A membrane-enclosed structure with a specialized functionwithin a cell.

11. Moleculea. A group of two or more atoms held together by covalent

bonds.

Ex: DNA molecules.

12. Atoma. The smallest unit of matter that retains the properties of an

element.

Seven Common Properties to All Organisms (pg 5)

1. Ordera. All things exhibit complex organization.

2. Regulationa. Mechanisms maintain an organism's internal environment

within the limits that sustain life. Ex; maintain blood flow, maintain body temperature,

maintain water levels.

3. Growth and Developmenta. Inherited information carried by genes, controls the pattern

of growth and development of the organism.

4. Energy Processing

a. Organisms take in energy and transform it to perform all oflife's activities.

Ex: when a bear eats a fish, it will use the chemicalenergy stored in the fish to power its own activities andchemical reactions (metabolism).

5. Response to the Environmenta. all organisms respond to environmental stimuli.


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Ex: Animals responding to a predator.

6. Reproduction

7. Evolutionary adaptation

a. Adaptations evolve over many generations as individualswith traits best suited to their environment pass them off totheir offspring.

Three Domains of Life (pg 7)

1. Bacteria (prokaryotes)a. Most diverse and widespread prokaryotes and are divided

into several kingdoms.

2. Archaea (prokaryotes)a. Many live in Earth's most extreme environments, such as,

boiling hot springs and salty lakes. Also, includes multiplekingdoms.

3. Eukarya (eukaryotes)a. Also, has multiple kingdoms: Protists, Plantae, Fungi, and

Animalia.

Seven Taxonomic Levels a branch of biology that names and classifies species.

2. Kingdoma. Monera, Protista, Plantae, Fungi and Animalia

3. Phylum*Acronym: King Philip Comes Over ForGood Sex

4. Class

5. Order

6. Familya. -idae

7. Genus


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a. the first part of a species binomial (ex: homo).

8. Speciesa. a group whose members possess similar anatomical

characteristics and have the ability to interbreed and

produce viable, fertile offspring. Ex: Homo sapiens- The first word (genus) is always

capitalized and the second word (species) is alwayslowercase.

Evolution (pg 8)

1. Origin of Species by Charles Darwin (2 parts)

a. Evolution - descent with modification (2 parts)

Unity of Life- descent from a common ancestor

Diversity of Life- modification as species diverge fromancestors.

b. Natural Selection (observed) (2 parts)

Individual variation Individuals in a population vary in many heritable traits

(no 2 organisms are the same).

Overproduction of offspring and competition a population of any species has the potential to

produce far more offspring than will survive to produceoffspring of their own.

Which Leads to:

Unequal Reproductive Success Individuals are unequal in their likelihood of

surviving and reproducing. Individuals best suited to

the environment will leave greatest number ofhealthy, fertile offspring.

Over Time, Favorable Traits Accumulate in a Population Over many generations, a higher and higher

proportion of individuals will have the advantageoustraits.


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Scientific Method (5 steps)

1. Observation2. Question3. Hypothesis

4. Predict5. Test

Two types of reasoning

1. Inductive reasoning (used in discovery science)

a. this kind of reasoning derives general principles from alarge number of specific observations.

Apply something small to something big (ex: allorganisms are made up of cells).

2. Deductive reasoning (Hypothesis-based science)

a. is the logic used in hypothesis-based science to come upwith ways to test hypotheses.

Flows from general to specific.

Chapter 13:

Evidence that Reinforces the Evolutionary View (pg 262)

1. Biogeography

a. The geographic distribution of species.b. This helps to explain that organisms evolve from ancestral

species.

2. Comparative Anatomy

a. illustrates that evolution is a remodeling process in whichancestral structures that originally function in one capacitybecome modified as they take on new functions

b. The kind of process that Darwin called descent.


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Homology- Similarity in characteristics that result fromcommon ancestry.

Homologous structures- features that often havedifferent functions but are structurally similar because

of a common ancestor.

Vestigial organs- an homologous structures that areof marginal or perhaps no importance to theorganism.

3. Molecular biology

a. Molecular biology has enabled biologists to read a molecularhistory of evolution in the DNA sequence of organisms.

The heredity background of an organism is documentedin it DNA.

Darwin's boldest hypothesis is that all life forms arerelated.

Molecular biology provides strong evidence for thisclaim: all forms of life use the same genetic language

of DNA, RNA, and the genetic code is essentiallyuniversal.

Genetic Variation (pg 264)

1. 2 things produce genetic variation

a. Mutation a change in nucleotide sequence of DNA

b. Sexual Reproduction

Two Main Causes of Evolutionary Change (pg 268)


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1. Natural Selection

a. Populations consist of varied individuals, and some variantsleave more offspring then others.

2. Genetic Drifta. A change in the gene pool of a population due to chance

The smaller the population, the more impact genetic driftis likely to have.

b. Three situations where genetic drift can have asignificant impact on population

Bottleneck Effect

Earthquakes, floods, and fires may kill large numbersof individuals, leaving a small surviving population thatis unlikely to have the same genetic makeup as theoriginal population.

Founder Effect

When individuals colonize an isolated island or othernew habitat.

Gene Flow

Where a population may gain or lose genetic makeupwhen fertile individuals move in or out of a population.

Narrows gene pools.

Chapter 14:


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Ways to Define a Species

1. The Biological Species Concept

a. Defines a species as a group of populations whose members

have the potential to interbreed in nature and producefertile offspring.

Reproductive isolation- prevents genetic exchange (geneflow) and maintians the gap between species.

Members of one species don't mate with anotherspecies because they will have sterile offspring. (ex:mule, liger)

2. Morphological Species Concepta. Classification of a species based on observable and

measurable physical traits such as shape, size, and otherfeatures of morphology (form).

Very subjective (not scientific).

3. Ecological Species Concept

a. Identifies species in terms of their ecological niches,focusing on unique adaptations to particular roles in abiological community.

The space you fill in the environment.

4. Phylogenetic Species Concept

a. Defines a species as the smallest group of individuals thatshare a common ancestor (same genetic history).


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Reproductive Barriers

1. A biological feature of an organism itself- to prevent

individuals of closely related species from interbreeding whenthere ranges overlap.

2. Two Types of Barriers

a. Prezygotic Barriers (prevent mating or fertilization bwspecies).

Five Types:

Temporal Isolation

Mating or flowering occurs at different seasons ortimes of the day

Habitat Isolation

Populations live in different habitats and do notmeet each other.

Behavioral Isolation

There is little or no sexual attraction bw differentspecies.

Mechanical Isolation

Structural differences in genitalia and flowersprevent copulation or pollen transfer

Gametic Isolation

Male and/or female gametes die before uniting orfail to unite. (sperm and egg aren't hospitable)

b. Postzygotic Barriers (operates after hybrid zygote isformed).


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Three types:

Inviablity

Most hybrid offspring do not survive to reproduce.

Sterility

The hybrid reaches maturity, but sterile. (ex: a mulecan't reproduce)

Hybrid Breakdown

The first generation of hybrid offspring are fine, butthe second generation is either feeble or sterile.

Three Shapes of Bacteria

1. Cocci- Berry shaped

2. Bacilli- Rod shaped

3. Spirilla - Spiral

Four ways Plants have Adapted to Land

1. They obtain resources from the soil and air

a. Roots anchor and draw nutrients from soil

b. Leaves draw in CO2 for photosynthesis

c. Stems connects soil and air

Xylem- dead cells convey water and minerals

Phloem- living, distributes sugars

2. Support of the Plant Body

a. Lignin- the cell walls of some plant tissues, including xylem,are thickened and reinforced by this chemical.

3. Maintaining Moisture


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a. A waxy cuticle helps to retain moisture.

4. Reproducing on Land

a. Gametangia- male and female structures that consist of

protective jackets of cells surrounding the gameteproducing cells

b. Sporangia- The protective structure where plants producespores.

Spore- a cell that can develop into a new organismwithout fusing with another cell.

Ecological Benefits of Fungi

1. Decomposers

2. Alcohol (with yeast)

3. Mushrooms

4. Penicillin

5. Blue Cheeses

6. Truffles

7. Bread

Chapter 18:

Characteristic of Animal Body Plans1. Radial Symmetry

a. An imaginary slice through the central axis divides a radialsymmetrical animal into mirror images

Ex: anemone


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2. Bilateral Symmetry

a. Has a mirror image on the right and left side.

Has an Anterior (a distinct head) and a Posterior (tail)end'; and a Dorsal (back) and Ventral (bottom, belly),surface.

Example: lobster

3. Body Cavity

a. A fluid filled space between the digestive tract and theouter body wall cushions the internal organs and enablesthem to grow and move independently of the body wall.

Animals with three layers tissues can be characterized by

a presences or absence of a body cavity.

4. Hydrostatic Skeleton

a. Soft bodied animals, have a non-compressible fluid in thebody cavity that provides a rigid structure against whichmuscles contract, moving the animal.

Ex: earthworms

Chapter 19:

Four Characteristics of Phylum Chordata

1. Dorsal, Hollow Nerve Cord

2. Notochord

a. A flexible, supportive, longitudinal rod b/w digestive tractand nerve cord.

3. Pharyngeal Slits

4. Post-Anal Tail


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Eight Characteristics of Humans

1. Bipeda l- walk on two feet

2. Shorter Jaw and Flatter Faces

3. Larger Brain

4. Language

5. Symbolic Thought - think about objects and things not present

6. Complex Tools

7. Long-Term Pair Bonding

8. Long Parental Care

Major Terrestrial Ecosystems of the World

1. Tundra

a. Where: Siberia and Northern Canada

b. Precipitation: 10 inches.

Light all day in the summerc. Soil: poor

Has permafrost

d. Plants: Mosses, Lichens, Dwarf trees

e. Animals: Lemmings, Arctic Fox, Musk ox, Snowy owl.Caribou and Deer-fly in the summer.


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2. Boreal Forest

a. Where: North America and Eurasia

b. Precipitation: 20 inches

c. Soil: Acidic, Decomposing pine

Permafrost is patchy

d. Plants: Spruces, firs, aspen, birch

e. Animals: Caribou, wolves, bear, moose, rabbit, sable, mink,birds, and insects.

3. Temperate Rain Forest

a. Where: Northwest US, Southeast Australia.b. Precipitation: 50 or more inches

c. Soil: Poor, but lots of leaf litter. Timber harvesting.

Permafrost: no

d. Plants: Western Hemlock, Douglas fir, fern, lichen, moss.

e. Animals: Squirrels, rats, mule deer, birds and lizards.

4. Temperature Deciduous Forest

a. Where: Southeast US

b. Precipitation: 30-60 inches

c. Soil: Rich topsoil with a lower clay level.

d. Plants: Oak, Hickory, Maple, Beech, and Magnolia

e. Animals: Puma, Deer, Bear, rabbit, squirrel

5. Grassland

a. Where: IL, IO, MN, NE, KS, MT, SD.


c. Soil: Nutrients just below topsoil. Ag- rarest biome

d. Plants: tall grasses


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e. Animals: Bison, Elk, Wolves, Prairie dogs, fox, birds of prey

6. Chaparral

a. Where: Southwest US and Australia.

b. Precipitation: 30 inches

c. Soil: Thin. Frequent fires.

d. Plants: Evergreen shrubs, shrub oak.

e. Animals: Mule deer, wood rats, lizards, and birds.

7. Desert

a. Where: Africa, Peru, Chile, UT, NV.

b. Precipitation: below 10 inches.

c. Soil: Low in organic and high in minerals. Groundwaterconsumption.

d. Plants: Cactus, yucca, Joshua trees

e. Animals: Gerbils, Kangaroo, rats, jack rabbit, fox, owl.

8. Savanna

a. Where: Africa, Northern Australia.

b. Precipitation: 30- 60 inches.

c. Soil: Low in minerals. (cattle)

d. Plants: Grasses, acacia

e. Animals: Wildebeests, antelope, giraffe, zebra, elephant

9. Tropical Rainforest

a. Where: Central America


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c. Soil: Weathered material, low in minerals. (deforestation)

d. Plants: Flowering plants, orchids, bromeliads.

e. Animals: Monkey, sloths, many things in the forest canopy

Freshwater Stratification

1. Thermal Stratification

a. refers to the annual summer vertical gradient in watertemperature in lakes that results in the physical separationof the water column into distinct thermal zones.

2. Three layersa. Epilimnion

Refers to the circulating, superficial layer of the lakelying above the metalimnion.

b. Metalimniom

refers to the layer of water in a lake between theepilimnion and the hypolimnion, in which the

temperature exhibits the greatest difference in avertical direction.

Thermocline - a transitional temperature layer thatis coincident with the metalimnion; it relates to thesurface water body zone with greatest temperaturechange in a vertical direction.

The thermocline forms within the metalimnionduring summer stratification. It is the plane ofmaximum temperature decrease with respect todepth.

c. Hypolimnion

Refers to the deep layer of the lake lying below themetalimnion and removed from surface influences(e.g., wind-inducing mixing) and atmospheric contact


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(e.g., oxygen).

3. During the spring and fall season, thermal stratification breaksdown due to temperature change and the whole lakecirculates as one body.

4. As winter approaches, the temperature of the surface waterwill drop as nighttime cooling dominates heat transfer. A pointis reached where the density of the cooling surface waterbecomes greater than the density of the deep water, andoverturning begins as the dense surface water moves downunder the influence of gravity. This process is aided by wind orany other process (currents for example) that agitates the

water. This effect also occurs in Arctic and Antarctic waters,bringing water to the surface which, although low in oxygen, ishigher in nutrients than the original surface water. Thisenriching of surface nutrients may produce blooms ofphytoplankton, making these areas productive.

Three Patterns of Dispersal

refers to the way individuals are spaced with their area.

1. Clumped Dispersion Pattern

a. Individuals are grouped in patches.

Most common pattern in nature.

Clumping often results from an unequal distribution ofresources in the environment.

2. Uniform Dispersion Patterna. Where individuals are evenly dispersed.

Ex: an orchard, every tree is evenly spaced.

3. Random Dispersion Pattern

a. Individuals in a population are spaced in a unpredictable
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algal_bloomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phytoplanktonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phytoplanktonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algal_bloom


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way, without a pattern.

Ex: dandelions.

Very rare.

J and S Shaped Curves

1. Population Growth

a. Exponential Growth

J curve - The lower part of the J, where the slope of theline is flat, results from the relatively slow growth when Nis small. As the population increases, the slope becomessteeper.

It keeps going, because there is no restriction on theabilities of the organisms to live, grow, and reproduce.

b. Limiting Factors

Limiting factors are environmental factors that restrictpopulation growth.

S curve or Logistic growth Mode l is a description ofidealized population growth that is slowed by limiting

factors as the population size increases. Carrying Capacity is the maximum population size that a

particular environment can sustain (carry).

c. What affects population growth

Limited food supplies

Decreases births and increases death

Space Habitat loss, decreases births

Population density

Crowding increases disease and increases death.

Ex: Warsaw ghetto.


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Weather

extreme temps increase deaths.

r/K Selection Theories

a. relates to the selection of combinations of traits in anorganism that trade off between quantity or quality ofoffspring. The focus upon either increased quantity ofoffspring at the expense of individual parental investment,or reduced quantity of offspring with a correspondingincreased parental investment, is varied to promote successin particular environments.

1. R-Selection

a. One life history pattern is typified by small-bodied, shortlived animals that develop and reach sexual maturityrapidly, have a large number of offspring, and offer little orno parental care. This set of life history traits occurs inenvironments where resources are abundant, permittingexponential growth.

b. It is called r-selection because r (the per capita rate ofincrease) is maximized.

c. Habitats that favor r-selected species may experiencefloods, hurricanes, droughts, or cold weather that createnew opportunities by suddenly reducing the population tolow levels.

d. Ex: small rodents, insects, dandelions.

2. K-selection

a. Large bodied, long-lived animals develop slowly andproduce few, but well cared-for, offspring.

b. Occurs in environments where the population size is nearcarrying-capacity (K), so it is called K-selection.

c. Population growth in these situations is limited by density-dependent factors. Because competition for resources is


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keen, K-selected organisms gain an advantage by allocatingenergy to their own survival and to the survival of theirdescendants.

d. Typically stable climate.

Age Structure pyramids

1. Rapid Growth (base- lots of children; Peak- no old people) ex:afghanistan

2. Slow Growth (Base- not as many kids; Peak- no old people) ex:US

3. Decreasing Growth (Base- no new births, middle- has biggestpopulation, peak- no old people) ex: Italy

Competitive Exclusion Principle:

1. Community - all the populations in an area

2. Competitive Exclusion Principle - if there are 2 speciescompeting for the same resource, one will out compete theother. No two species can have the same niche.

a. the competitive exclusion principle, is a proposition whichstates that two species competing for the same resourcescannot stably coexist if other ecological factors areconstant. One of the two competitors will always overcomethe other, leading to either the extinction of this competitoror an evolutionary or behavioral shift towards a different

ecological niche. The principle has been paraphrased intothe maxim "complete competitors cannot coexist".

3. In general, the effect of inter-specific competition is negativefor both populations (-/-).

Mutalism- both populations benefit (+/+).


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ex: flowers and pollinators; plants and mycorrhizae;hippo and the microbes that live in its stomach.

Predation- refers to an interaction in which one species(the predator) kills and eats another (the prey). (+/-)

Herbivory- consumption of plant parts or algae by ananimal. (+/-)

4. If you don't want to be eaten- you have to think smarter:

a. Batesian mimicry- when a harmless organism mimics adangerous organism.

Ex: King snake and Coral snake

b. Mullerian Mimicry- when two unpalatable organisms look

alike.

Water Cycle

1. Precipitation is condensed water vapor that falls to the Earth'ssurface. Most precipitation occurs as rain, but also includessnow, hail, fog drip, graupel, and sleet.

a. Canopy interception is the precipitation that is interceptedby plant foliage and eventually evaporates back to theatmosphere rather than falling to the ground.

2. Runoff includes the variety of ways by which water movesacross the land. This includes both surface runoff and channelrunoff. As it flows, the water may infiltrate into the ground,evaporate into the air, become stored in lakes or reservoirs, orbe extracted for agricultural or other human uses.

3. Infiltration is the flow of water from the ground surface into theground. Once infiltrated, the water becomes soil moisture orgroundwater.

4. Subsurface Flow is the flow of water underground, in the


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vadose zone and aquifers. Subsurface water may return to thesurface (eg. as a spring or by being pumped) or eventuallyseep into the oceans. Water returns to the land surface atlower elevation than where it infiltrated, under the force ofgravity or gravity induced pressures. Groundwater tends to

move slowly, and is replenished slowly, so it can remain inaquifers for thousands of years.

5. Evaporation is the transformation of water from liquid to gasphases as it moves from the ground or bodies of water into theoverlying atmosphere. The source of energy for evaporation isprimarily solar radiation. Evaporation often implicitly includestranspiration from plants, though together they are specificallyreferred to as evapotranspiration.

6. Sublimation is the state change directly from solid water (snowor ice) to water vapor.

7. Advection is the movement of water in solid, liquid, or vaporstates through the atmosphere. Without advection, waterthat evaporated over the oceans could not precipitate overland.

8. Condensation is the transformation of water vapor to liquidwater droplets in the air, producing clouds and fog.

biology study guide (exam 1)

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