Biology I G/TBiology I G/T

What you should know by the What you should know by the end of the course!end of the course!

Review for the Final/HSAReview for the Final/HSA

a. What kind of bond is a. What kind of bond is labeled A?labeled A?

b. What kind of bond is b. What kind of bond is labeled B?labeled B?

c. Which bond(s) is/are c. Which bond(s) is/are weak and constantly weak and constantly break and reform.break and reform.

Question #1: Examine the following group of water molecules and answer the questions.

A →

B →

a.a. CovalentCovalent

b.b.HydrogenHydrogen

c.c. HydrogenHydrogen

Question #2: Why is hydrogen bonding between water molecules important for life on earth? Include the following in your answer.

A. Use at least two properties of water.

B. Explain why the hydrogen bonding is necessary to give water these properties.

C. Explain why the property is necessary to life on earth.

Answers on next two Answers on next two slidesslides

Possible AnswersPossible Answers

PropertyProperty

1.1. Cohesive (sticks to self) & Cohesive (sticks to self) & Adhesive (sticks to other Adhesive (sticks to other things) due to H-bondingthings) due to H-bonding

2.2. Unique Density PropertyUnique Density Property Ice (solid form) is less Ice (solid form) is less

dense than water (liquid) dense than water (liquid) due to H-bonds forming due to H-bonds forming as molecules slow down - as molecules slow down - keeping molecules more keeping molecules more spread out)spread out)

Why necessary to life on Why necessary to life on earth?earth?

1a.1a.Water can be transported Water can be transported against gravity in plants – against gravity in plants – allows plants to be the allows plants to be the base of the foodwebbase of the foodweb

1b.1b.Causes surface tension Causes surface tension and provides for aquatic and provides for aquatic ecosystemsecosystems

2.2. Ice floats allowing oceans Ice floats allowing oceans and lakes to freeze from and lakes to freeze from the top down allowing the top down allowing living things to live living things to live underneathunderneath

Possible AnswersPossible Answers3.3. Almost Universal Solvent Almost Universal Solvent

(dissolves all polar and ionic (dissolves all polar and ionic cmpds.) due to water cmpds.) due to water surrounding molecules and surrounding molecules and pulling them apart – partially pulling them apart – partially neg. O is attracted to pos. and neg. O is attracted to pos. and partially pos. H is attracted to partially pos. H is attracted to neg.neg.

4.4. High Specific Heat (can absorb High Specific Heat (can absorb or lose a lot of heat before or lose a lot of heat before temperature changes) – as heat temperature changes) – as heat is added, energy is used to is added, energy is used to break H bonds before molecules break H bonds before molecules can move faster (temp. can move faster (temp. increase)increase)

5.5. High Heat of Vaporization High Heat of Vaporization (takes longer to evaporate) (takes longer to evaporate) since must break H bonds since must break H bonds before can move fast enough to before can move fast enough to evap.)evap.)

3a. 3a. Allows salts, proteins, to be Allows salts, proteins, to be dissolved in cells, blood, sapdissolved in cells, blood, sap

3b. 3b. Allows blood and sap to carry Allows blood and sap to carry oxygen, nutrients, messengersoxygen, nutrients, messengers

3b. 3b. Allows biological fluids to act Allows biological fluids to act as buffersas buffers

4.4. Maintains moderate temp. on Maintains moderate temp. on EarthEarth

Helps maintain body Helps maintain body temperaturetemperature

5a.5a. Cools body since molecules Cools body since molecules with highest energy (temp.) with highest energy (temp.) leaveleave

5b.5b. Cools aquatic ecosystems Cools aquatic ecosystems

Question #3: Question #3: pHpH

A. If the pH of a biological solution was changed A. If the pH of a biological solution was changed from 7 to 5, does that mean there are more or less from 7 to 5, does that mean there are more or less H+ in the solution and how many times more or H+ in the solution and how many times more or less? Is it more acidic or basic?less? Is it more acidic or basic?

B. Why is the maintenance of pH in biological B. Why is the maintenance of pH in biological systems important?systems important?

C. What maintains the correct pH and why?C. What maintains the correct pH and why?

A. 100 x more H+ (each pH unit is 10X) more acidic

B. If the pH changes from normal, proteins denature (unfold) into their primary structure and do not function therefore no enzymes would function and no chemical reactions could happen

C. Buffers – salt solutions made of positive and negative ion pairs that can bind up any excess H+ or OH-

Question #4: Basic Question #4: Basic ChemistryChemistry

A. What determines the reactivity of an atom (if it will chemically react with another atom and what will it bond with?)

B. What does polar mean?C. List three biologically relevant bonds from

strongest to weakest. Define each.

A. The # of electrons in the outer most energy level

B. A covalently bonded molecule in which some of the atoms are larger and pull on the electrons harder so that they are closer to the bigger atom. This causes part of the molecule to be partially positive and some partially negative – the larger atom has the electrons closer so it is the partially negative one.

C. Covalent (sharing electrons), ionic (transfer of electrons creating oppositely charged ions), hydrogen (weak attraction between two polar molecules)

Question 5: Recognition of Organic Question 5: Recognition of Organic Monomers.Monomers.

For the next four slides:For the next four slides:

• List the name of the List the name of the monomer as it appears on monomer as it appears on the screen.the screen.

• State what macromolecule State what macromolecule category the monomer category the monomer goes with.goes with.

• State a major function of State a major function of the macromolecule.the macromolecule.

• Explain how the structure Explain how the structure matches the function.matches the function.A. Monosaccharide

B. Carbohydrates

C. Short term energy

D. Many C-H bonds storing energy gathered from the sun in photosynthesis and easy to release the energy due to it being polar and water soluble which makes it easy to transport to the mitochondria of every cell where there is an abundance of enzymes to break it down

A. List the name of the A. List the name of the monomer as it appears on monomer as it appears on the screen.the screen.

B. State what B. State what macromolecule category macromolecule category the monomer goes with.the monomer goes with.

C. State a major function of C. State a major function of the macromolecule.the macromolecule.

D. Explain how the structure D. Explain how the structure matches the function.matches the function.

A. Amino acid

B. Protein

C. Structure (Fibrous proteins), Globular Proteins - Enzymes, Messengers and Receptors, Protein Channels, Antibodies, Carriers, etc.

D. Fibrous – multiple polypeptides wound around each other – twisted rope stucture makes it very strong

Globular – specific shape like enzymes fitting active site to substrate to catalyze specific chemical reactions.

A. List the name of the monomer A. List the name of the monomer as it appears on the screen.as it appears on the screen.B. State what macromolecule B. State what macromolecule category the monomer goes with.category the monomer goes with.C. State a major function of the C. State a major function of the macromolecule.macromolecule.D. Explain how the structure D. Explain how the structure matches the function.matches the function.

A. Nucleotide

B. Nucleic acid

C. Code for proteins, replicate

D. Can form an inforamtional code because - 4 different nitrogen bases that can be put in any order and are held in that order by the strong covalent bonds between the sugars and phosphates in the backbone. The order determines the order of amino acids and thus protein structure. Base pairing alllows it to always match the right 3 nucleotides to the right amino acid.

It can copy itself – base pairing ensures an ability to make an exact copy after separation of the two strands. The strands separate easily due to weak hydrogen bonds between the base pairs.

A. List the name of the monomer as it appears on the screen.A. List the name of the monomer as it appears on the screen.B. State what macromolecule category the monomer goes with.B. State what macromolecule category the monomer goes with.C. State a major function of the macromolecule.C. State a major function of the macromolecule.D. Explain how the structure matches the function.D. Explain how the structure matches the function.

A. Fatty acid

B. Lipids

C. Long term energy storage, insulation, padding, phospholipids for cell membranes

D. Most C-H bonds of any organic molecule so more compact storable energy form. Not water soluble, hard to transport and mix with enzymes so can be stored for a long time, slow to break down.

Question 6: Protein Question 6: Protein FoldingFolding

A. What folding level of structure(s) is functional for a protein?A. What folding level of structure(s) is functional for a protein?

B. Where in the cell do proteins fold if they are secreted B. Where in the cell do proteins fold if they are secreted proteins?proteins?

C. Why is protein shape so critical to living things?C. Why is protein shape so critical to living things?

D. Give an example of a misshapen protein, it’s effect on the D. Give an example of a misshapen protein, it’s effect on the organism, and what caused the protein to be the wrong organism, and what caused the protein to be the wrong shapeshape

A. Tertiary or quarternary

B. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

C. Protein shape governs the function of the proteins and proteins run everything in the body. If enzymes are misshapen then chemical reactions can’t happen; if messengers are misshapen, the cell can’t receive signals to tell it what to do etc.

D. Hemoglobin – causes sickle cell anemia – red blood cells can’t carry oxygen as effectively, cellular respiration slowed, lack of energy, clogging of capillaries due to shape of blood cells – caused by a single nucleotide change in the gene that codes for the hemoglobin protein

Question #7: General Question #7: General EnzymesEnzymesA.A. Why do living things need enzymes to do Why do living things need enzymes to do

chemical reactions?chemical reactions?B.B. Why is it good that living things need Why is it good that living things need

enzymes to do chemical reactions?enzymes to do chemical reactions?C.C. How do enzymes lower the activation How do enzymes lower the activation

energy? Explain at the molecular levelenergy? Explain at the molecular level..A. Body temperature cannot be too great so there isn’t enough

activation energy to get chemical reactions to go so enzymes must lower the activation energy

B. If reactions could happen on their own (if body temperature provided enough activation energy) then there would be no control over any reactions, they would all just happen anywhere in the body all of the time. Since enzymes are needed, specific chemical reactions will only happen when and where the enzymes are located

C. For breaking chemical bonds – the induced fit strains the bonds making them weaker so that it doesn’t take as much energy to get the reaction to go and body temperature will be enough for the activation energy.

D. For making chemical bonds – it squeezes them tightly together so that its doesn’t take as much energy to form the bond

Question #8: Enzymatic Question #8: Enzymatic ReactionsReactions

A. Label the following reaction with active site, enzyme, A. Label the following reaction with active site, enzyme, products, substrate, enzyme/substrate complex products, substrate, enzyme/substrate complex

`

Questions #9: How do things Questions #9: How do things effect the rate of enzyme effect the rate of enzyme

reactions?reactions?A.A. How can you speed up an enzyme catalyzed reaction?How can you speed up an enzyme catalyzed reaction?B.B. How does temperature effect the rate of enzyme How does temperature effect the rate of enzyme

catalyzed reactions and why?catalyzed reactions and why?C.C. How does the enzyme and substrate concentration How does the enzyme and substrate concentration

effect the rate of enzyme reactions and why?effect the rate of enzyme reactions and why?D.D. How does pH effect the rate of enzyme reactions and How does pH effect the rate of enzyme reactions and

why?why?

A. Increase temp, amount of enzymes, amt. of substrates, decrease the space they’re in

B. Increases the rate of reactions due to increase enzyme/substrate collisions but after the optimal temperature is reached, the activity quickly goes to zero due to denaturation of enzymes

C. If you increase either the enzyme or the substrate concentration there will be more enzyme substrate collisions so increase rates of reaction – however it will level off at a certain point since there is only so much enzyme if you are increasing the substrate and only so much substrate if you are increasing the enzyme

D. If you change the pH from the normal pH of the enzyme then it denatures and you get no activity

Question #9 continuedQuestion #9 continuedD.D. What are two ways to increase What are two ways to increase

substrate concentration?substrate concentration?E.E. Give two ways that the body uses to Give two ways that the body uses to

control enzymes so that chemical control enzymes so that chemical reactions happen at a certain time.reactions happen at a certain time.

D. Increase the amount of substrate, decrease the space or volume of fluid the enzymes and substrates are in

E. Activate enzymes when needed that are inactive, turn on genes to make the enzyme needed, have certain areas of the body at different pH levels since enzymes only work at the right pH, make more enzymes to increase the enzyme concentration, feedback inhibition – the product inhibits an earlier enzyme in the enzymatic pathway so that as more product is made, the reaction goes slower

Question #10: Cells in Question #10: Cells in GeneralGeneral

A.A. Why must all living things be made of cells? Give the Why must all living things be made of cells? Give the three major reasons.three major reasons.

B.B. Why must cells be microscopically tiny?Why must cells be microscopically tiny?C.C. What is the major part of the cell membrane made out of What is the major part of the cell membrane made out of

and why?and why?D.D. What is the major function of all cells?What is the major function of all cells?

A. Living things need to made out of small compartments mostly because it is necessary to keep enzyme/substrate concentrations high enough to get chemical reactions to happen in a decent amount of time – in a bigger space, chemical reactions would be too slow.

B. Beside the speed of chemical reactions, speed of diffusion is way too slow unless the surface area/volume ratio is high and it is only in very small compartments, otherwise it would take too long to get nutrients. 2nd – speed of transport – slow (15 cm/day) but since cells are so small it only takes about 1 sec. to cross the cell

C. Phospholipids – cells live in a water environment and most of cytoplasm is water and lipids are the only organic molecule that doesn’t dissolve in water.

D. To make proteins which then carry out all of the cells functions – contracting in muscles, sending messengers to other cells, determining what chemical reactions that cell does, receiving messages to know what to do, etc, etc.

Question #11 Cell Question #11 Cell Membrane PartsMembrane PartsOn the drawing below are the parts of a cell membrane. On the drawing below are the parts of a cell membrane.

Label each numbered part. Hint: there are three different Label each numbered part. Hint: there are three different types of protein channels, a receptor protein and a marker types of protein channels, a receptor protein and a marker

protein beside the main structure of the membraneprotein beside the main structure of the membrane

2

↓1 3

↓

Phospholipid ↑

4

↑

5

↑

6

Phosphate

↑

8 ↑

7Marker Protein

Question #12 Methods to Question #12 Methods to get in and out of cellsget in and out of cells

A.A. What process uses proteins channels, but uses no energy What process uses proteins channels, but uses no energy because specific molecules move from high to low because specific molecules move from high to low concentration through the channel? Give a real life concentration through the channel? Give a real life example.example.

B.B. What process is a way to get really large things into the What process is a way to get really large things into the cell? Give a real life examplecell? Give a real life example

C.C. How does Oxygen pass through the membrane?How does Oxygen pass through the membrane?D.D. What processes used protein channels to pump things What processes used protein channels to pump things

from low to high concentration? Give an example.from low to high concentration? Give an example.

A. Facilitated diffusion (type of passive transport) This is how most things get in and out of cells like glucose in, amino acids in, Na+ in, nucleotides in

B. Endocytosis – for things like cholesterol, all food in a single celled organism since they don’t have a digestive system to break down food into monomers, macrophages take in whole bacteria this way

C. Simple diffusion – right thru the phospholipid bilayer part

D. Active transport – muscle cells pump out Na+, ocean fish can pump salt out of their cells

See Methods Illustration See Methods Illustration BelowBelow

Question #13: Cell Question #13: Cell OrganellesOrganelles

State the name and function of each organelle as State the name and function of each organelle as it pops up – be sure to give a detailed function!it pops up – be sure to give a detailed function!

Mitochondria

Cellular Respiration, slowly breaks down organic molecules – usually sugar – to make ATP to supply useable energy to the cell

Golgi Apparatus

Modifies and packages proteins for export from the cell

Any proteins that need to go to a particular place need localization signals to tell them where to go

Label all three things!

SER – makes phospholipids, in muscles cells it stores calcium, in liver cells it detoxifies drugs and alcohol

Ribosomes – makes proteins – where the tRNA matches up the mRNA codons with the right amino acids

RER – where completed protein folds and is modified and then sent to Golgi

Question #14 Organelle Question #14 Organelle Cont.Cont.

#2

A. Label #1 and #2 –

B. State the function of #2

#1

B. Digest old worn out cell parts, in protozoa digests all foods since they don’t have a digestive system, macrophages use them to digest whole bacteria

A. What do the microfilaments and microtubules make up?

B. Give two functions of the microtubules.

A. Cytoskeleton

B. Transport things around the inside of the cell and give the cell shape and structure – the shape of the cell ultimately determines the function of the cell since it influences which genes get read

Question 15: Still Question 15: Still OrganellesOrganelles

A.A. How can you distinguish plant cells from animal cells?How can you distinguish plant cells from animal cells?B.B. What two organelles create turgor pressure and why is What two organelles create turgor pressure and why is

turgor important?turgor important?C.C. Why is the nucleus called the control center of the Why is the nucleus called the control center of the

cell?cell?

A. Plant cells have a large central vacuole, cell wall, chloroplasts, no centrioles, and usually no lysosomes where animal cells have many small vacuoles, no cell wall. remember that plants do have mitochondria – the chloroplasts make the sugar and the mitochondria breakdown the sugar to make ATP which is the useable form of energy

B. Cell wall and vacuole together to create the turgor – the vacuole fills with water and presses against the cytoskeleton which presses against the cell wall Tugor is important because plants don’t have bones and muscles and this makes them stand up to help the leaves be exposed to more sunlight

C. The nucleus contains, protects, and organizes the DNA which codes for proteins and proteins run the cell - if the DNA gets destroyed then the cell dies, the organization of the DNA determines what genes get read which controls what proteins are mdae in the cell, also provides a small space for enzyme/substrate concentration so that transcription and replication happen efficiently

Questions #16: Questions #16: PhotosynthesisPhotosynthesis

A.A. What four things are needed for photosynthesis?What four things are needed for photosynthesis?

B.B. In what part of photosynthesis is each used?In what part of photosynthesis is each used?

C.C. What are the products of photosynthesis?What are the products of photosynthesis?

A. Carbon dioxide and water, chlorophyll and light

B. Water is used in the light reactions to replace the hydrogens that leave the chlorophyll with their high energy electrons. Light is used to energize the electrons on the H in chlorophyll, chlorophyll provides the H for the sugar, carbon dioxide ( provides the carbon and oxygen part of the sugar

C. Sugar and oxygen (biproduct)

Question #17: Cellular Question #17: Cellular RespirationRespiration

A.A. What is needed for aerobic cellular respiration?What is needed for aerobic cellular respiration?

B.B. Why must cellular respiration take place in all living Why must cellular respiration take place in all living things?things?

C.C. What part of cellular respiration yields the most energy?What part of cellular respiration yields the most energy?

D.D. What are the products of CR and what molecule stores What are the products of CR and what molecule stores the energy at the end of CR?the energy at the end of CR?

E.E. What is produced during fermentation in yeast?What is produced during fermentation in yeast?

F.F. Where does the Kreb’s cycle happen?Where does the Kreb’s cycle happen?

A. Sugar, oxygen

B. If glucose was burned more quickly too much heat would be released causing proteins to denature

C. Electron transport chain (32 per glucose)

D. Carbon dioxide, water, and ATP – ATP

E. Alcohol and carbon dioxide

F. Mitochondrial matrix

Question #18: DNA Question #18: DNA StructureStructure

A.A. Where are H bonds in DNA and why is it important that Where are H bonds in DNA and why is it important that they are H?they are H?

B.B. Where are the covalent bonds and why is it important Where are the covalent bonds and why is it important that they are covalent?that they are covalent?

C.C. What part of the nucleotide is the coding part? Why?What part of the nucleotide is the coding part? Why?

D.D. What are the two functions of the DNA molecule?What are the two functions of the DNA molecule?

E.E. Why is base pairing important to DNA carrying out Why is base pairing important to DNA carrying out both of it’s functions?both of it’s functions?

A.A. What is transcription and translation and where in the cell What is transcription and translation and where in the cell do each take place?do each take place?

B.B. What is a codon and an anti-codon?What is a codon and an anti-codon?

C.C. Given the following DNA sequence, give the mRNA, tRNA, Given the following DNA sequence, give the mRNA, tRNA, and amino acid. TACGGCATCAAAand amino acid. TACGGCATCAAA

D.D. How does the RNA polymerase know where to begin How does the RNA polymerase know where to begin transcription?transcription?

E.E. How does the ribosome know where to begin translation?How does the ribosome know where to begin translation?

F.F. What happens during RNA processing.What happens during RNA processing.

G.G. What happens to the final protein if one nucleotide is What happens to the final protein if one nucleotide is mutated – please give three possibilities and explain why mutated – please give three possibilities and explain why each would happen?each would happen?

Question #19: Protein Question #19: Protein SynthesisSynthesis

Question #20: Cell CycleQuestion #20: Cell CycleA.A. What happens during S phase of the cell cycle and why does What happens during S phase of the cell cycle and why does

it need to happen?it need to happen?

B.B. Tell the difference between chromatin and chromosomes Tell the difference between chromatin and chromosomes and when during the cell cycle you would find each.and when during the cell cycle you would find each.

C.C. What are the phases of mitosis and in general what happens What are the phases of mitosis and in general what happens in each?in each?

D.D. When during the cell cycle is most of the protein synthesis When during the cell cycle is most of the protein synthesis happening?happening?

E.E. What enzyme copies the DNA?What enzyme copies the DNA?

F.F. What enzyme opens the replication forks?What enzyme opens the replication forks?

G.G. Draw a picture showing two replication forks at an origin of Draw a picture showing two replication forks at an origin of replication and show the leading and lagging strands.replication and show the leading and lagging strands.

Question #21: Meiosis vs. Question #21: Meiosis vs. MitosisMitosis

A.A. Happens in somatic cellsHappens in somatic cells

B.B. Happens in germ cells (tricky)Happens in germ cells (tricky)

C.C. Has two divisionsHas two divisions

D.D. Has 46 chromosomes lined up down the equator of the cellHas 46 chromosomes lined up down the equator of the cell

E.E. Has chromosomes lined up in pairs down the equator of the Has chromosomes lined up in pairs down the equator of the cellcell

F.F. Makes haploid cellsMakes haploid cells

G.G. Has daughter cells that are an exact replica of the original Has daughter cells that are an exact replica of the original cellcell

H.H. Forms an embryo from a zygoteForms an embryo from a zygote

I.I. Happens only in the ovaries and testesHappens only in the ovaries and testes

A.A. What three ways bring about genetic variation What three ways bring about genetic variation through meiosis?through meiosis?

B.B. How does Mendel’s Law of Segregation relate to How does Mendel’s Law of Segregation relate to meiosis?meiosis?

C.C. How does Mendel’s Law of Independent Assortment How does Mendel’s Law of Independent Assortment relate to meiosis?relate to meiosis?

D.D. What form is the DNA in during meiosis?What form is the DNA in during meiosis?

E.E. What is the purpose of meiosis?What is the purpose of meiosis?

Question #22: MeiosisQuestion #22: Meiosis

Question #23: GeneticsQuestion #23: GeneticsA.A. A man with sickle cell anemia has a daughter will A man with sickle cell anemia has a daughter will

sickle cell? What are the chances that he and his sickle cell? What are the chances that he and his wife will have a second child with sickle cell?wife will have a second child with sickle cell?