biology eoc highlight review courtesy of mr. s. russillo, with some adaptations…
TRANSCRIPT
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Biology EOC Highlight Review
Courtesy of Mr. S. Russillo, with some adaptations…
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Biology is a Science
• Observation vs Inference• Experimental Design
– Independent variable– Dependent variable– Controlled variable
• Graphing rules• Use math to analyze data• Use tools to measure (in metrics!)
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Characteristics of Life
• Made of one or more cells• Display organization• Grow and develop• Reproduce• Respond to stimulus• Require energy• Maintain homeostasis• Adaptations evolve over time
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Viruses
• Not considered living things• Pathogens that can mutate to resist vaccines• Acellular• Require a host cell to reproduce• Ex. HIV, Influenza, Smallpox
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Review of Matter
• Elements vs Compounds• Atoms vs Molecules• Subatomic particles
– Atomic number– Atomic mass– Ion– Isotopes
• Bonds– Ionic– Covalent– Hydrogen
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Chemical Reactions
• Reactants• Products
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Enzymes• Catalysts in living things• Specific to a particular substrate• Reusable• Affected by temperature and pH
(denatured)
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Enzymes reduce activation energy
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Water
• Necessary for life• Polar covalent bond: polar molecule• Properties:
– Universal solvent– Density of ice– Adhesion– Cohesion– Holds onto a considerable amount of heat
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Water Cycle
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pH
• Water molecules naturally dissociate (fall apart)
• Acids: more H+ than OH-, pH 1-6• Bases: more OH- than H+ pH 8-12
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Organic Compounds• All living things are made of organic
compounds. • Contain the element Carbon
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Why carbon?• Can make 4 covalent bonds• Can bond to itself and a variety of
other elements• Can make a variety of shapes• Can make chains of varying lengths
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Other important elements in living things
• Hydrogen• Oxygen• Phosphorus• Nitrogen• Sulfur
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Macromolecules
• Large molecules: built of subunits (monmers)
• Four classes: Carbohydrates, Proteins, Lipids, Nucleic Acids
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• Built by dehydration synthesis (condensation)
• Broken down by hydrolysis
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Carbohydrates
• Monomer- monosaccharide • Function- energy source,
storage, and structure• Tests: glucose-Benedicts
starch- Iodine
fructose• Ex. Cellulose, glycogen,
starch
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Lipids
• Made of fatty acids and glycerol• HYDROPHOBIC• Function- energy storage, insulation, hormones,
and water proofing• Tests: brown paper test • Examples: fats, waxes and steroids
Lipid vs. water
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Nucleic Acids
• Monomer- nucleotide• Function- carry
genetic information• Ex. DNA and RNA
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Proteins• Monomer- amino acids• Function- building and repairing cells,
communication, enzymes, transport, and regulation
• Tests- Biurets• Examples: enzymes, hemoglobin
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Carbon Cycle
• Photosynthesis• Cellular Respiration• Decomposition• Combustion
• Autotrophs• Heterotrophs
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Autotroph vs. Heterotroph
• Obtain energy from the environment
• Photosynthesis or chemosynthesis
• “Producers”
• Obtain energy from other living things
• “Consumers”
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Cell Theory
• All living things are composed of one or more cells
• Cells are the basic unit of structure and organization of all living organisms
• Cells arise only from previously existing cells, with cells passing copies of their genetic material on to their daughter cells
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CellsProkaryotes• Simple, no membrane
bound organelles• Bacteria only• One circular
chromosome• Includes: chromosome,
ribosomes, cytoplasm, and plasma membrane
• SMALLEukaryotes• Membrane bound
organelles • Plants and Animals• True nucleus
containing chromosomes
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Nucleus• “Control Center”• Contains chromosomes
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MitochondriaSingular: Mitochondrion
• “Powerhouse” of the cell
• Produces energy in the form of ATP
• Site of Aerobic respiration
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Chloroplast
• Site of photosynthesis
• Plant cells ONLY• Contains the
pigment chlorophyll
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Vacuole
• Storage of excess materials: water, waste, nutrients
• Plant cells usually contain one large vacuole
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Ribosomes
• Proteins are synthesized• Found in both prokaryotes and
eukaryotes
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Plasma Membraneaka: Cell Membrane
• Surrounds the cell• Regulates what
enters/leaves the cell• Helps maintain
homeostasis• Made of
phospholipids with embedded proteins (lipid bilayer, fluid mosaic model)
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Cell Wall
• Plant and fungi and bacterial cells ONLY• Surrounds cell and provides support and
protection.• Made of cellulose in plants (chitin in
fungi, peptidoglycan in bacteria)
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Extracellular features: movement through watery environment
Cilia: hairs Flagella: tails
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Eukaryotes
Plant• Cell wall • Chloroplast• Large central vacuole
Animal
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Cell OrganizationCell
Tissue
Organ
Organ System
Individual organism
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Cell Specialization• cells develop to perform different functions• Form directly related to function• Regulated by genes: all have same genes, only certain ones
are activated
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Cell to Cell Communication
• Chemical Signals (hormones) can be sent from one cell to another
• Receptor proteins on the plasma membrane receive the signal
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Cells have needs
• Need nutrients and oxygen• Need to remove wastes
Cell transport
• Substances must cross membrane selective permeability
• Active vs Passive
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Diffusion
• Form of passive transport (NO ENERGY NEEDED) across a membrane
• Solutes move from high concentration to low concentration
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Osmosis• Diffusion of water (also passive
transport)
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Facilitated Diffusion
• Also passive transport• Molecules move from high to low
concentration• Require a channel protein
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Active Transport
• Particles moving against the concentration gradient which REQUIRES ENERGY (ATP)
• Low concentration to high concentration
• Requires transport protein
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• Endocytosis• Exocytosis
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comparison
Passive transport• Molecules move from
high to low• Move WITH
concentration gradient• Continues until
dynamic equilibrium is reached
• No energy required
Active transport• Molecules move from
low to high• Move against
concentration gradient• Maintains
concentration differences
• Requires energy
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ATP
• Energy storing molecule
• Can be used for quick energy by the cell
• Energy is stored in the phosphate bonds
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Photosynthesis
• Water and Carbon Dioxide used to produce Glucose and Oxygen
• H2O+CO2C6H12O6+O2
• Occurs in the chloroplast
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Aerobic Respiration
• Used to release energy (ATP) for cellular use
• C6H12O6+O2H2O+CO2
• Occurs in the mitochondria
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Anaerobic Respirationaka Fermentation
• Does not require Oxygen• also used to release energy, but not as
efficient as aerobic respiration (less ATP)• Products include CO2 and lactic acid or alcohol • Two Types: Alcoholic Fermentation and Lactic
Acid Fermentation
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Body systems
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DNA / RNA
• Carry genetic information• Made of a chain of nucleotides• Nucleotides contain a sugar,
phosphate, and a nitrogen base
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DNA / RNADNA• Double stranded• “Double Helix”• Four base pairs: ATGC• Sugar is Deoxyribose• Found in nucleus
RNA• Single stranded• Four base pairs:
AUCG• Sugar is Ribose
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Chargaff’s Base Pair Rule
• In DNA, Adenine always pairs with Thymine, and
Guanine always pairs with Cytosine
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Replication
• Making of an identical strand of DNA
• “semi” conservative
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Central Dogma
DNA RNA protein trait
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Transcription
• DNAmRNA• Occurs in
nucleus• Complementary
mRNA strand is produced from a segment of DNA
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Translation• Connects amino acids in the correct
order to make a protein• Occurs in the cytoplasm within the
ribosomes
A- amino acidB- tRNAC- anticodonD- codonE- mRNAF- RibosomeG-polypeptide
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Codon• Sequence of three mRNA nucleotides
that code for an amino acid
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Mutations• Change in DNA code • May cause a change in protein
produced• NOT always harmful
Sickle Cell Mutation
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Mitosis
• Cell division• Produces two
identical diploid daughter cells
• Occurs in body cells to grow and repair
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Cancer
• Error in cell growth with causes uncontrolled cell growth
• Has environment and genetic variables
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Meiosis
• Cell division• Produces four
different haploid daughter cells (gametes)
• Occurs in sex cells to form gametes
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Crossing Over
• Homologous chromosomes exchange parts of their DNA
• Creates variation in gametes
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Nondisjunction
• Homologous chromosomes fail to separate during meiosis
• Can lead to Down Syndrome, Turners Syndrome, and Klinefelters Syndrome
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Karyotype• Picture of someone's
chromosomes• Can detect
chromosomal disorders
Ex. Down Syndrome, Klinefelter’s Syndrome, and Turners Syndrome
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Asexual vs. Sexual Reproduction
Asexual• One parent• Identical offspring• Variation only thru
mutations• Examples:
budding, fragmentation, fission
Sexual• Two parents• Offspring different
from parents• More variation• Fertilization (fusion
of gametes)
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Inheritance
• Traits are specific characteristics inherited from parents
• Genes are the factors that determine traits
• The different forms of a gene are called alleles
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Dominant/Recessive Alleles
• Dominant alleles are expressed, if present, and recessive are hidden
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Genotypeactual alleles an individual has for a trait
Homozygous• Both alleles are the
same• Ex. BB or bb
Heterozygous• Both alleles
are different• Ex. Bb
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Phenotype• The actual characteristic displayed
by the individual (ex. brown eyes, Hemophiliac)
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Incomplete Dominance
• Heterozygote shows a blending of the dominant and recessive phenotypes
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Codominance
• Heterozygote expresses BOTH dominant and recessive traits
• Ex. Roan animals
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Polygenic Traits
• Traits are influenced by more than one gene
• Ex. skin color
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Multiple Alleles
• More than two alleles for a trait (an individual still only inherits two)
• Ex. Blood Type (IA,IB, i)type A = IAIA or IAitype B = IBIB or IBitype AB= IAIB
type O = ii
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Sex Linked Traits
• Sex Chromosomes– Female = XX– Male = XY
• Sex linked traits are carried on the X chromosome
• Ex. Hemophilia, red-green colorblindness
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Test Cross• used to determine the phenotype of
an unknown dominant individual• uses a homozygous recessive
individual as the “test”
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Pedigree
• similar to a family tree• Shows pattern of inheritance of a
specific trait through a family
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Genetic Disorders and the Environment
• Many diseases have both genetic and environmental factors
• Ex. Cancer, diabetes, PKU
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Human Genome Project
• Sequencing of human DNA
• Being used to develop gene therapies
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Gel Electrophoresis
• Technique used to separate molecules (DNA or proteins) based on their size
• Sometimes called a DNA fingerprint
• Used to analyze and compare DNA
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Recombinant DNA
• Cell with DNA from another source
• Bacteria used to produce human insulin
• Human gene inserted into bacterial plasmid
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Transgenic Organism
• An organism with a gene from another source
• used to improve food supply, research, and healthcare
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Clone• An organism made from one cell of
another organism• A genetically identical copy
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Origin of Life
• Abiotic earth LACKED Oxygen• Early organims anaerobic
prokaryotes
Miller and Urey Experiment recreating The abiotic atomospere
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Endosymbiotic Theory• Eukaryotic cells evolved from
prokaryotes • Early prokaryotes engulfed other
prokaryotes and developed symbiotic relationships
• Evidence includes mitochondria and chloroplast have prokaryotic type DNA
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Abiogenesis• Living from non-living or
spontaneous generation• Disproved by Redi and
Pasteur’s experiments
Biogenesis• Living from Living
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Evolution
• Change in a population over time– Charles Darwin– Changes in allele frequencies
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Natural Selection
• Fit organisms survive, reproduce, and pass on traits
Requirements:• Variation• Competition
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Adaptations
• Trait that increases survival
• For Example,– Beaks that make it
easier to eat insects– Bright flowers to
attract pollinators– Vascular tissue in
plants to adapt to life on land
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Evidence for Evolution• Fossil Record• Biochemical
Similarities• Shared anatomical
structures
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Antibiotic and Pesticide Resistance
• Populations will eventually become resistant to pesticides and antibiotics with overuse
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Coevolution
• Two organisms evolve in response to each other
Ex. Flowering plants and their pollinators
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Effects of Natural Selection
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Also…
• Artificial selection
• Sexual selection
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Fossil Records
• Punctuated equilibrium• gradualism
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Speciation
• Evolution of a new species
• Species: can reproduce and produce fertile offspring
• must be isolation between populations
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Binomial Nomenclature
• Two word naming system• Scientific name• Uses Genus and Species names• Ex. Dogs: Canis familiaris
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Dichotomous Keys
• Used to identify organisms• Paired set of questions with two choices
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Levels of Organization
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Phylogenic tree
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More closely related organismswill have:
• more commonalities in DNA and protein sequences
• Common structures built with same bones
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Protists
• Unicellular Eukaryotes• Can be autotrophic or heterotrophic• Reproduce mostly asexually
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Fungi
• Multicellular eukaryotes (yeast are the only unicellular fungi)
• Heterotrophs• Reproduce asexually
and sexually
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Plants
• Multicelluar eukaryotes
• Autotrophs• Reproduce sexually
and asexually
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Non Vascular Plants• Also called
Bryophytes• No true roots or
vascular tissue causing them to be small in size
• Must live in moist environments
• Reproduce with spores
Ex. Mosses, liverworts
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Gymnosperms
• Non-flowering vascular plants
• Reproduce with cones that contain
seeds• Ex. Conifers (pine
trees)
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Angiosperms
• Flowering vascular plants
• Flower is main reproductive organ
• Seeds are enclosed within a fruit
• Ex. Deciduous plants
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Movement of materials
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reproduction
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Animals
• Multicellular eukaryotes
• Heterotrophs• Reproduce
sexually and asexually
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Insects• Transport through open
circulatory system• Exchange gases
through spiracles and tracheal tubes
• Most reproduce sexually with internal fertilization
• Develop through metamorphosis
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Annelids(segmented worms)
• Transport through closed circulatory system
• Exchange gases through moist skin• Reproduce asexually and sexually
with internal fertilization
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Fish
• Vertebrates• Aquatic• Jaws• Paired fins• Scales• Gills• Single loop circulatory system
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Amphibians• Transport through a closed
circulatory system involving a three chambered heart
• Gas exchange in young with gills, adults lungs and moist skin
• Reproduce sexually with external fertilization
• Develop through metamorphosis
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Reptiles
• vertebrates• Fully adapted to life on land• Shelled egg• Scales• Lungs for gas exchange• Double circulation
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Birds
• Vertebrates• Endotherms• Feathers• Lightweight bones• 4 chambered heart
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Mammals
• closed circulatory system involving a four chambered heart
• Gas exchange through lungs• Reproduce sexually with internal fertilization• Young develop in a uterus and exchange
nutrients and oxygen through the placenta (placental mammals)
• Endotherms• Hair• Milk
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Ecosystems
• Collection of abiotic (nonlivng) and biotic (living) factors in an area
• Together they influence growth, survival, and productivity of an organism
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Matter cycles, energy flows
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Trophic Levels
• Steps in a food chain/web
• Energy passes from one organism to another
• About 10% of the energy at one level passes to the next
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Predation
• Predator eats prey• Evolve in response
to one another
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competition
• When organisms “fight” for access to the same resource– Intraspecific: same species
– Interspecific: different species
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Symbiotic Relationships
• Relationship between two organisms in which one benefits
• Types:– Mutualism (+,+)– Parasitism (+,-)– Commensalism (+,
o)
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Population growth
Exponential Logistic
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Carrying Capacity
• Maximum number of individuals that an ecosystem can sustainably support
• Limiting factors:– Food availability– Competition– Disease– Predation– Natural Disasters
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Human Population
• Growth= birth rate-death rate
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Human ImpactsPositive
• Reforestation• Cover Cropping• Recycling• Sustainable practice
Negative
• Acid Rain• Deforestation• Habitat Destruction• Invasive Species• Ozone depletion from
the release of CFCs
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Global Warming
• Increase in the average temperature of the earth
• Caused by the release of too much CO2 into the atmosphere which amplifies the greenhouse effect
• Burning of fossil fuels, volcanic eruptions
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Bioaccumulation
• An increase in environmental toxins at higher tropic levels
• Ex. DDT and birds of prey
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succession
• Changes in an ecosystem over time• Primary succession: very beginning
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• Secondary succession: life makes a comeback after a catastrophe
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Biomes
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Innate Behavior• Behaviors an animal
is born with• Includes suckling,
migration, hibernation
• Ex. weaving of spider webs
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Learned Behavior
• Behavior an animal acquires during its lifetime
• Includes– Habituation– Conditioning– Trial and error
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Social Behavior
• Communication between individuals of the same species
• Can be courtship, territorial or chemical (pheromones)