biology dma 1/5/05

Prepare an entire piece of paper for notes like this:

Mendelian Genetics Vocabulary

Main topics Details, pictures, examples

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Biology DMA 1/6/2005Biology DMA 1/6/2005

allele:

Short for Allelomorph (from Greek allos “other” and morph “form”).

Any of a group of possible mutational forms of a gene.

Generally used in reference to one form (dominant or recessive) of a characterisitic or trait.

In the tall pea plant Tt, T is the allele for tall and t is the allele for short.

genotype:

The genetic makeup of an organism.

Genotype is communicated as a list of the alleles for a specific trait in an organism.

In a pure bred tall pea plant, the genotype is TT.

In a hybrid tall pea plant, the genotype is Tt.

phenotype:

The genetically and environmentally determined physical appearance of an organism.Phenotype is communicated as a description of the physical appearance of an inherited genotype.The phenotype of TT is a tall pea plant.The phenotype of Tt is also a tall pea plant.The phenotype of tt is a short pea plant.

homozygous:

Having identical alleles for a particular trait.

Being pure bred for a particular trait.

TT, tt, RR, rr, AA, BB, OO, etc.

heterozygous:

Having two different alleles for a particular trait.

Being hybrid for a particular trait.

Tt, Rr, AB, etc.

P generation:

The first two organisms crossed in a genetics experiment; the parent organisms.

F1 generation:

(from Latin filius “son”)

The offspring produced by the genetic crossing of the parent generation; the “children” of the P generation.

The offspring of a cross between a homozygous tall pea plant and a homozygous short pea plant: T T

t Tt Tt

t Tt Tt

F2 generation:

The offspring produced by crossing two members of an F1 generation; the “grandchildren” of the P generation.

Choosing any two of the offspring of the cross TT x tt, the subsequent offspring produced: T T T t

t Tt Tt T TT Tt

t Tt Tt t Tt tt

F1 F2

hybrid cross:

A genetic cross of two parent organisms that are heterozygous for a particular trait.

A cross between two hybrid parents.

A cross that produces a 3:1 (75%/25%) phenotypic ratio.

G g

G GG Gg

g Gg gg

test cross:

A cross performed to identify if an organism is heterozygous or homozygous.

The organism is crossed with another organism that is homozygous recessive for the same trait. Analysis of the F1 generation will reveal the genotype of the unknown parent.

Is it homozygous or heterozygous?

f f f f

F Ff Ff F Ff Ff

? ?f ?f F Ff Ff

f f

F Ff Ff If all of the offspring are fuzzy?

f ff ff If 14 offspring are fuzzy and 15

offspring are scaly?

dihybrid cross:

A cross between two organisms that involves two different sets of alleles.

A cross between a tall wrinkled pea and a short round pea.

TTrr x ttRR

Tr Tr Tr Tr

tR TtRr TtRr TtRr TtRr




FOIL and dihybrid crosses

First TTrr Tr ttRR tR

Outer TTrr Tr ttRR tR

Inner TTrr Tr ttRR tR

Last TTrr Tr ttRR tR

Dihybrid cross practice

Complete a dihybrid cross between a homozygous short heterozygous round pea and a heterozygous tall homozygous wrinkled pea.

Write out the fraction of each different genotype.Write out the fraction of each different phenotype.

sex-linked trait:

Genetic characteristics that are carried on sex chromosomes.Characteristics that are generally carried only by the x chromosome.Red-green color blindness is a common sex linked trait. Homozygous recessive genotypes exhibit the color blindness phenotype. Males are statistically more likely to be affected than females.

A color blind male is crossed with a normal female:

Xn Y XN XN Xn XNY XN XN Xn XNY

A normal male is crossed with a “carrier” female:

XN Y XN XN XN XNY

Xn XN Xn XnY

incomplete dominance:Failure of a dominant phenotype to be fully expressed in an organism carrying a dominant and a recessive allele. The result is usually a phenotype that is intermediate between the homozygous dominant and the homozygous recessive forms.

A cross between red snapdragons (RR) and white snapdragons (rr) makes pink snapdragons.

R R

r Rr Rr

r Rr Rr

Incomplete DominanceIncomplete Dominance

Incomplete DominanceIncomplete DominanceA cross between pink snapdragons (Rr) and pink snapdragons (Rr) makes pink snapdragons, white snapdragons, and red snapdragons.

R r

R RR Rr

r Rr rr

Incomplete DominanceIncomplete DominanceA cross between pink snapdragons (Rr) and white snapdragons (rr) makes pink snapdragons and white snapdragons.

R r

r Rr rr

r Rr rr

Incomplete DominanceIncomplete DominanceA cross between pink snapdragons (Rr) and red snapdragons (RR) makes pink snapdragons, and red snapdragons.

R r

R RR Rr

R RR Rr

TLTL is the genotype for a long tailed cat.TNTN is the genotype for a no tailed cat.

A test cross between a long tailed cat and a no tailed cat is performed.

TL TL

TN TLTN TLTN

TN TLTN TLTN

The genotype TLTN produces the medium length tail phenotype.

codominance:

Both alleles of a pair are fully expressed in heterozygous organisms.

A is a dominant allele for human blood type.

B is a dominant allele for human blood type.

O is a recessive allele for human blood type.

A test cross is performed between homozygous A and homozygous B.

B B

A AB AB

A AB AB

All offspring would have type AB blood.

A test cross is performed between a person with type AB blood and type O blood.

A B

O AO BO

O AO BO

The offspring would have either type A blood or type B blood.

A child has type O blood.

The mother has type A blood and the father has type B blood.

What are the actual genotypes of both parents?

A ?

B AB ?B

? A? OO

pedigree:

A diagram setting forth the ancestral history or genealogical register.

A chart that is used to trace the movement of alleles through a group of related organisms.

Biology DMA 1/7/05

Prepare a piece of paper for today’s quiz.

Number from one to ten.

Leave ample space for setting up Punnett squares. Some of your answers will actually be Punnett squares.

A cross is performed between a black guinea pig and a white guinea pig. Some time passes. Five baby guinea pigs are born, and they all end up with black fur.

1. What is the genetics term that is used to describe both the mother and father guinea pigs?

2. What is the genetics term that is used to describe the physical appearance of all five of the baby guinea pigs?

3. Based on the physical appearance of all of the babies, what is the genetics term that describes the allele for black fur?

Two of the “second generation” black guinea pigs of opposite gender are placed in a separate cage and given some privacy. Some time passes. Eight babies are born. Five of the babies have black fur and three have white fur.

4. What is the genotype of both parents for the “second generation”? (write two answers)

5. What is the genotype of the three white babies?

6. What is the correct genetics terminology for “second generation”?

7. What are the genotypes for the labeled guinea pigs? This pedigree is set up to display phenotypes (fur color).

A

B

D

C

E F

8. Two pink flowering roses are crossed. The seeds are harvested and planted. Several years later, three types of offspring are obvious:

many pink roses, a few white

roses, and a few red roses.

In general, red roses are

much more common than

white roses. Create a Punnett

square that illustrates this

cross.

9. What genetics term describes

the inheritance of the alleles in this case of the pink roses?

10.Penelope has type AA blood.

She has several boyfriends scattered around the country: Theseus, with type AB blood, Daedalus with type OO blood, and Agamemnon with type BB blood.

Penelope gives birth to Icarus, who has type A blood. Icarus marries Hailey, who has type B blood. They have four kids: Stan (AB), Dan (O), Fran (A), and Hailu (B).

Who was the father of Icarus?

Biology DMA 1/10/05

How is codominance different from incomplete dominance?

Biology DMA 1/13/05Biology DMA 1/13/05Prepare an entire piece of paper for notes like this:

1800 1850 1900 1950 2000

1825 1875 1925 1975

Modern Genetics Vocabulary



gene:

A hereditary unit that occupies a specific location (locus) within the chromosome.

A unit that has one or more specific effects on the phenotype of an organism.

A unit that can mutate to various allelic forms.

epistasis:epistasis:The nonreciprocal interaction of non-allelic genes.

A situation arising when expression of one type of gene masks or covers up the expression of another gene.

Agouti (A) is dominant to albino (a).

Agouti (B) is dominant to black (b).

Possible genotypes and phenotypes:

AABBAABbAAbbAaBBAaBbAabbaaBBaaBbaabb

AaBb x AaBb AB Ab aB ab

AB AABB AABb AaBB AaBb

Ab AABb AAbb AaBb Aabb

aB AaBB AaBb aaBB aaBb

ab AaBb Aabb aaBb aabb

lethal allele:

An allele that is lethal to the organism in a homozygous form. Heterozygous forms do not display the lethal allele. It produces 2:1 phenotypic ratios.

Mm x Mm

M m

M MM Mm

m Mm mm

The Case of the Tailless Cats

Gregor Mendel

Working with pea plants,

Mendel discovered

dominant and recessive

traits are passed from one

generation to another in

predictable ratios. He published his results in the paper Versuche über Pflanzen-Hybriden

in 1865.

34 years pass

Independent Research Confirms Mendel’s

DiscoveriesHugo de Vries works with primroses.1900

Carl Correns works with peas.1900

Erich von Tschermak works with peas and primroses.1900

ChromosomesNettie Stevens makes the connection between gender and the X and Y chromosomes.1905

Edmund Beecher Wilson independently makes the same connection.1905

Thomas Hunt Morgan1910

Studied the genetics of Drosophila.

Found a white eyed mutant male.

Identified a connection between sex

and genetic characteristics.

Hermann J. Muller

1927

Used X-rays to induce mutations in

Drosophila. Created techniques that allow scientists to make

mutations in test organisms.

Extra credit: what award did

Muller receive for his work?


Why would a geneticist find it useful to study mutated organisms?

Hint: Compare and Contrast

Dig out these notes, we’re continuing them today:

1800 1850 1900 1950 2000

1825 1875 1925 1975

Modern Genetics Vocabulary



Fred Griffith’s Experiment 1928

Proposed that some unknown “principle” was able to transform the harmless R strain of Diplococcus into the killer S strain.

Barbara McClintock1931Working with maize plant mutants created with X-rays, discovers “jumping genes”.This upsets the notion that genes occupy fixed locations within all cells of an organism.

"I know my corn plants intimately, and I find it a great pleasure to know them."

crossing-over:

A process where ends of homologous chromosomes are swapped and exchanged during meiosis.

One Gene/One Enzyme HypothesisOne Gene/One Enzyme Hypothesis

1941

George Beadle and Edward Tatum irradiate Neurospora crassa, a haploid bread mold, and study the growth of the mutants on special media solutions.

Bread mold mutants are grown in broths missing one of the 20 essential amino acids.

Mold that fails to grow in a brothis identified as having a mutation that prevents the formation of an enzyme.

The “The “Transforming PrincipleTransforming Principle” 1944” 1944"Assuming that the sodium desoxyribonucleate and the active principle are one and the same substance, then the transformation described represents a change that is chemically induced and specifically directed by a known chemical compound. If the results of the present study

on the chemical nature of the transforming

principle are confirmed, then nucleic acids must be regarded as possessing biological specificity...."

Oswald Avery

Maclyn MacLeodColin MacLeod

Chargaff’s Rule 1950

Erwin Chargaff noticed there is a

1:1 ratio of

adenine to thymine and

guanine to cytosine in DNA.

An Important Picture

Sodium deoxyribose nucleate from calf thymus, Structure B, Photo 51, taken by Rosalind E. Franklin 1951

1952

Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase use radioisotopes of sulfur and phosphorus to confirm that DNA is the molecule involved in heredity.

The Hershey/Chase Blender Experiment

An Important Lab Report

James Watson Francis Crick

deoxyribonucleic acid:A nucleic acid polymer comprised of nucleotides: the sugar deoxyribose joined to a phosphate group and one of the nitrogenous bases adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine.

DNA

Exploring the Way Life WorksAnswer these questions on your own paper.

1. Which parts of a nucleotide form the backbone of the DNA molecule? (4.5)

2. In genetics, what is a “transformation”? (4.5)3. How is a nucleotide different from a gene? (4.5)4. What is a complementary sequence? (4.6)5. Which bases form pairs? (4.6)6. What holds these pairs together? (4.6)7. What is a helix and what causes DNA to have a double

helix? (4.7)8. What functions are provided to DNA by the double

helical form? (4.7)

Exploring the Way Life WorksAnswer these questions on your own paper. (Yes, the same paper from 1/18.)

9. What happens to DNA before Mitosis or Meiosis? (4.8)10. What characteristic of the form of DNA allows it to

make two perfect copies of itself? (4.8)11. What term used by scientists refers to DNA copying

itself ? (4.8)12. Why is it inaccurate to say that DNA copies itself, as I

have done in the two previous questions? (4.9)13. How fast is DNA replicated? (4.9)14. Why are enzymes important for replication? (4.9)15. How many polymerase enzymes are required for

replication and what do they do? (4.9)16. What process and organelle produces the ATP

required for replication? (review from this semester)

Exploring the Way Life WorksAnswer these questions on your own paper. (Yes, the same paper from 1/18 and 1/19.)

17. How do scientists make copies of a piece of DNA? What is the technical name for this process? (4.10)

18. What is PCR and how does it work? (4.10)19. What are VNTRs and how are they used by scientists? (4.10)20. How do restriction enzymes work? (4.10)21. Create an analogy for how gel electrophoresis works. (4.10)22. How were PCR and DNA fingerprinting used to identify the

heart of Dauphin Louis XVII? (4.10)23. How do organisms correct mistakes or damaged nucleotides

in DNA? (4.11)24. What are three changes that can happen to DNA due to a

mutation? (4.12)25. How is RNA different from DNA? [Compare and Contrast]

(4.13, 5.8)


Prepare a piece of paper for today’s lab activity on DNA Replication.

There will be numbered procedural steps today labeled as “step #”.

There will be questions to answer today labeled as “question #”. There are six questions.

Replication LabReplication LabQuestion #1: What are the four nucleotide

bases that make up DNA?

Step #1: Choose one person for your partner. Move so that you can work next to them. Everyone writes the answers on their own papers. There are no shared answer papers.

Step #2: Pick up the following amounts and kinds of paper clips: 14 blue, 14 white, 9 red, and 9 green.

Replication LabReplication Lab

Blue represents adenine, white represents thymine, red represents cytosine, and green represents guanine.

Step #3: Use the appropriate paper clips to make the following strand of DNA:

A AA A GG CC T T T T AA T T G GG GQuestion #2: What is the complementary

strand of DNA for the chain you just made?


Step #4: Make the complementary strand out of the appropriate paper clips.

Step #5: Match up the complementary bases so that you have created a double strand. This is a model of a portion of the gene for human growth hormone (hGH).


Step #6: Open the hGH DNA as shown:

A AA A GG CC

T TT T AA TT G GG G

AA TT AA C CC C

AA

T TT T CC GG


Step #7: Using the remaining paper clips, start making new strands of DNA that will complement the two strands you are separating. Continue until you have two new hGH DNA molecules.

Question #3: What differences are there between the two genes?

Question #4: What characteristics of the form of DNA affect it’s ability to replicate?


Question #5: What effect does a mutation have on replication?

Step #8: Disassemble one of the two hGH genes.

Step #9: Disassemble the complementary strand that you made earlier.


Step #10: The remaining DNA is exposed to harmful UV radiation from a tanning booth, causing a mutation. Change the second adenine into cytosine. Make the appropriate paperclip switch.

Step #11: Make the complementary DNA that will bind to this mutated gene.

Step #12: Replicate the mutated gene.


Question #6: How will replication lead to the spread of this gene throughout a number of new cells?

Step #13: Disassemble all of the paperclips and put them back in the container.

Biology DMA 1/24/2005Biology DMA 1/24/2005Read “5.4 How Orders Translate into Assembled Boxes of Donuts” in Exploring the Way Life Works.

There are four different nucleotides in DNA (A,T,?, and ?). There are 20 different amino acids used to build proteins.

How many different 3 nucleotide codes are possible?

One three letter code means “start” and three codes mean “stop”. Each amino acid has more than one code. How many codes would each amino acid have?


From Genes to Proteins



Transcription/Translation LabTranscription/Translation Lab AAUGGCAUAGGCACCACGCUCGGACGUGUAGGUAGCCGAGGAGGACCAGGAGUAUG

ribonucleic acid:A nucleic acid made from the sugar ribose, a phosphate molecule, and a nitrogenous base (adenine, uracil, guanine, and cytosine).

mRNA: the type of ribonucleic acid that carries the “message” from the DNA in the nucleus to the ribosome in the cytoplasm.

tRNA: the type of ribonucleic acid that gathers amino acids during protein synthesis.

rRNA: the type of ribonucleic acid that is found in the structure of the ribosome.

AAUGGCAUAGGCACCACGCUCGGACGUGUAGGUAGCCGAGGAGGACCAGGAGUAUG

codon:

A sequence of three nucleotide bases in a strand of DNA that is the code for one of the twenty amino acids used to construct proteins.

A start codon signals the beginning of the new protein to the ribosome.

A stop codon signals the end of a complete protein.

AATGGCATAGGCACCACGCTCGGACGTGTAGGTAGCCGAGGAGGACCAGGAGTATGAA

ATATATTAGCGCCGTACGGCCGATGCAT

Cell Nucleus

Transcription

ATATA TT AG CG CC G A C G G T C G AT G C C A G C T

Cell Nucleus

Transcription

ATATA TT AG CG CC G A C G G T C G AT C U G C C A G C U G C C A G C T

Cell Nucleus

Transcription

ATATATTAGCGCCGTACGGCCGAT

GC C U G C C A G C U

AT

Cell Nucleus

Transcription

TranslationTranslation

tRNA U C G

rRNA

mRNA C U G C C A G C U etc.

rRNA

Ribosome

Linked amino acids

Transcription/Translation Lab CodesTranscription/Translation Lab Codes

Proline CCG red starburst Glycine CAA yellow starburst Histidine CAU orange starburst Start AUG Stop UAA Uracil U red m&m Thymine T brown/green m&m Guanine G yellow m&m Cytosine C blue m&m Adenine A orange m&m

Transcription/Translation LabTranscription/Translation Lab

• On a piece of paper, draw a nucleus and a On a piece of paper, draw a nucleus and a ribosome.ribosome.

• Using the appropriate materials, create the Using the appropriate materials, create the following strand of DNA in the nucleus:following strand of DNA in the nucleus:

TACGTAGTTGTAATTTACGTAGTTGTAATT• Using the appropriate materials, create the Using the appropriate materials, create the

strand of complementary mRNA.strand of complementary mRNA.• Move the mRNA through the ribosome Move the mRNA through the ribosome

and assemble the protein.and assemble the protein.



TACGTTGTAGGCATTTACGTTGTAGGCATT• Using the appropriate materials, create the Using the appropriate materials, create the

strand of complementary mRNA.strand of complementary mRNA.

• Move the mRNA through the ribosome Move the mRNA through the ribosome and assemble the protein.and assemble the protein.



TACGTAGGCGTTATTTACGTAGGCGTTATT• A mutation occurs. Delete . A mutation occurs. Delete .

• Using the appropriate materials, create the Using the appropriate materials, create the strand of complementary mRNA.strand of complementary mRNA.

• Move the mRNA through the ribosome Move the mRNA through the ribosome and assemble the protein.and assemble the protein.


What is a system?

List three examples of systems.


Cells as Systems



Summary A summary, as directed, will

go here

Cells as SystemsCells as Systems

Match the organelle or cellular structure with the correct cellular process

Nucleus Photosynthesis

Cell membrane Diffusion

Chloroplast Translation

Vacuole Protection

Ribosome Replication

Mitochondria Movement of molecules

Cell wall Storage

Cytoplasm Respiration

Transcription

Carbohydrate Synthesis/Use SystemSolar energy

AtmosphereSoil

Chloroplast(photosynthesis) Cell Membrane

(diffusion)Cytoplasm(molecule movement)

Mitochondria(respiration) Associated molecules

ATP C6H12O6 O2

CO2

Phosphate H2O ADP

Protein Synthesis System

Nucleus(control) Ribosome

(translation)Cytoplasm(molecule movement)

Associated moleculesmRNA DNA tRNAamino acids rRNA

Replication System Chloroplast(photosynthesis) Cell Membrane

(diffusion)Nucleus(control/replication) Ribosome

(translation)Mitochondria Cytoplasm(respiration) (molecule movement) Vacuole Associated molecules(storage) glucose mRNA DNA tRNA ATP

amino acids rRNA CO2 H2O O2

Works Cited

Felluga, Dino. Undergraduate Guide to Literary Theory. 17 Dec. 1999. Purdue University. 15 Nov. 2000 <http://omni.cc.purdue.edu%7Efelluga/theory2.html>.

Denver Plants.com Shedding some light… on your growing. 2003. nSnare Digital Media. 8 Jan. 2005. <http://www.denverplants.com/index.htm>.

Science, Tobacco, and You. 2005. Florida State University Research Foundation, Inc. 10 Jan. 2005. <http://scienceu.fsu.edu/index.html>.

Atkins, David L. Color Blindness. 16 Dec. 1998. George Washington University. 10 Jan. 2005. <http://sky.bsd.uchicago.edu/lcy_ref/synap/colorblind.html>.

Got Pets Online.com. 2005. GotPetsOnline.com. 7 Jan. 2005. <http://www.gotpetsonline.com/>.***Online Biology Book Farrabee***Profiles in Science National Library of Medicine. 6 Aug. 2004. U.S. National Library of Medicine.

15 Jan. 2005. <http://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/>.LaMunyon, Craig W. PCB 4522/6446: Molecular Genetics. 2001. Dakotacom. 15 Jan. 2005.

<http://www.dakotacom.net/~clamunyon/F01MolGen/F01MolGenSyl.html>.Nobelprize.org. 14 Dec. 2004. The Nobel Foundation. 15 Jan. 2005. <http://nobelprize.org>.Lasker Foundation.Harden, Victoria A. Office of NIH History. 2004. Department of Health and Human Services. 15

Jan. 2005. <http://history.nih.gov>.Mead, Cliff, Tom Hager, Chris Petersen and Ryan Wick. Linus Pauling and the Race for DNA a

Documentary History. Special Collection, The Valley Library, Oregon State University. 15 Jan. 2005. <http://osulibrary.oregonstate.edu/specialcollections/coll/pauling/dna/index.html>.

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