HISTORY OF HISTORY OF BIOGEOGRAPHYBIOGEOGRAPHY

PERSISTENT THEMES IN PERSISTENT THEMES IN BIOGEOGRAPHY:BIOGEOGRAPHY:

1. Classifying geographic regions based on their 1. Classifying geographic regions based on their biotasbiotas

PERSISTENT THEMES IN PERSISTENT THEMES IN BIOGEOGRAPHY:BIOGEOGRAPHY:

2. Reconstructing the 2. Reconstructing the historical development of historical development of biotas, including their biotas, including their origin, spread, and origin, spread, and diversificationdiversification

PERSISTENT THEMES IN PERSISTENT THEMES IN

BIOGEOGRAPHYBIOGEOGRAPHY:: 3. Explaining geographic variation in the 3. Explaining geographic variation in the

characteristics of individuals and populations of characteristics of individuals and populations of closely related species, including trends in closely related species, including trends in morphology, behavior, and demography.morphology, behavior, and demography.

EARLY EARLY BIOGEOGRAPHBIOGEOGRAPH

Y (1700's):Y (1700's): Carolus LinnaeusCarolus Linnaeus (1707 (1707

- 1778)- 1778) - Binomial nomenclature- Binomial nomenclature - Life originated or - Life originated or

survived great flood on survived great flood on Mount Ararat –> spread Mount Ararat –> spread from this point around from this point around the world.the world.

EARLY EARLY BIOGEOGRAPHY BIOGEOGRAPHY

(1700's):(1700's): Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de BuffonGeorges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon

(1707-1788) (1707-1788)

French NaturalistFrench Naturalist

- Northern origin of species migrating to Southern - Northern origin of species migrating to Southern Hemispheres –> separation of New World and Old Hemispheres –> separation of New World and Old World.World.

Buffon’s LawBuffon’s Law - Environmentally similar but isolated - Environmentally similar but isolated regions have distinct assemblages of mammals and regions have distinct assemblages of mammals and birds.birds.

EARLY BIOGEOGRAPHY (1700's):EARLY BIOGEOGRAPHY (1700's):

Sir Joseph BanksSir Joseph Banks (1750's - 1800's) and (1750's - 1800's) and colleagues continued to find supporting colleagues continued to find supporting evidence for Buffon’s Law but also found evidence for Buffon’s Law but also found exceptions –> exceptions –> Cosmopolitan speciesCosmopolitan species..

EARLY BIOGEOGRAPHY (1700's):EARLY BIOGEOGRAPHY (1700's):

Johann Reinhold Johann Reinhold ForsterForster (1729-1798) (1729-1798)

- Phytogeography- Phytogeography - Buffon’s Law also true - Buffon’s Law also true

for plantsfor plants - Also observed tendency - Also observed tendency

for plant diversity to for plant diversity to decline towards poles –> decline towards poles –> attributed to latitudinal attributed to latitudinal trends in surface heattrends in surface heat

EARLY BIOGEOGRAPHY (1700's):EARLY BIOGEOGRAPHY (1700's):

Karl WilldenowKarl Willdenow (1765-1812) (1765-1812) - German botanist- German botanist - Floristic provinces of Europe- Floristic provinces of Europe - Proposed multiple sites of origination- Proposed multiple sites of origination

EARLY BIOGEOGRAPHY (1700's):EARLY BIOGEOGRAPHY (1700's):

Alexander von Alexander von HumboldtHumboldt (1769-1859) (1769-1859)

- Student of Willdenow- Student of Willdenow - Further generalized - Further generalized

Buffon’s Law to include Buffon’s Law to include plants and most plants and most terrestrial animalsterrestrial animals

- Floristic belts - within - Floristic belts - within regions, plants are regions, plants are distributed in elevational distributed in elevational zone zone

EARLY BIOGEOGRAPHY (1700's):EARLY BIOGEOGRAPHY (1700's):

Augustin P. de CandolleAugustin P. de Candolle (1778-1841) (1778-1841) - Swiss botanist- Swiss botanist - Organisms compete for resources (light, heat, - Organisms compete for resources (light, heat,

water)water) - Contributed to Forster’s observations on - Contributed to Forster’s observations on

insular florasinsular floras

BIOGEOGRAPHY IN THE BIOGEOGRAPHY IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY:NINETEENTH CENTURY:

Three important advances of the 19th century:Three important advances of the 19th century:

1. A better estimate of the age of the earth (many early 1. A better estimate of the age of the earth (many early biogeographers were working with an estimate of only a few biogeographers were working with an estimate of only a few thousand years)thousand years)

2. A better understanding of the dynamic nature of the 2. A better understanding of the dynamic nature of the continents and oceans (i.e., continental drift and plate tectonics)continents and oceans (i.e., continental drift and plate tectonics)

3. A better understanding of the mechanisms involved in the 3. A better understanding of the mechanisms involved in the spread and diversification of speciesspread and diversification of species

BIOGEOGRAPHY IN THE BIOGEOGRAPHY IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY:NINETEENTH CENTURY:

Adolphe BrongniartAdolphe Brongniart (1801 -1876) and (1801 -1876) and Charles Charles LyellLyell (1797-1875) (1797-1875)

- Fathers of Paleobotany and geology, - Fathers of Paleobotany and geology, respectivelyrespectively

- Used fossil records to infer conditions of past - Used fossil records to infer conditions of past climatesclimates

- Lyell also documented sea levels had changed- Lyell also documented sea levels had changed - Demonstrated extinctions in the fossil record- Demonstrated extinctions in the fossil record

- Lyell unfortunately continued to believe that - Lyell unfortunately continued to believe that species were NOT mutable and that new species species were NOT mutable and that new species did NOT arise from existing species. did NOT arise from existing species.

- Realized along with other geologists such as - Realized along with other geologists such as James Hutton (1726-1797) that the earth was James Hutton (1726-1797) that the earth was much older than previously thought.much older than previously thought.

Four British Scientists:Four British Scientists: Charles DarwinCharles Darwin - “The Origin of Species” in 1858- “The Origin of Species” in 1858 - Set sail in 1831 on a 5 year voyage of the HMS - Set sail in 1831 on a 5 year voyage of the HMS

BeagleBeagle - Patterns of variability in the Galapagos - Patterns of variability in the Galapagos

ArchipelagoArchipelago

Four British Scientists:Four British Scientists:

Joseph Dalton HookerJoseph Dalton Hooker - Strong supporter of Charles Darwin- Strong supporter of Charles Darwin - Studied plants of the Southern Hemisphere- Studied plants of the Southern Hemisphere Correct about affinities of Southern hemisphere Correct about affinities of Southern hemisphere

plants but wrong about mechanism of dispersalplants but wrong about mechanism of dispersal

Four British Scientists:Four British Scientists: - - Proposed the emergence and submergence Proposed the emergence and submergence

of ancient and undiscovered continents and of ancient and undiscovered continents and landbridgeslandbridges

- Stressed the importance of studying insular - Stressed the importance of studying insular biotasbiotas

Confirmed earlier observations of Forster Confirmed earlier observations of Forster and others that insular floras tend to be and others that insular floras tend to be more depauperate than those on the more depauperate than those on the mainland, and noted that as island isolation mainland, and noted that as island isolation increases, the number of plant species increases, the number of plant species decreases, while distinctiveness of the flora decreases, while distinctiveness of the flora increases.increases.

- Also drew analogy between the flora of - Also drew analogy between the flora of ocean islands and high mountainsocean islands and high mountains

Four British Scientists:Four British Scientists: Philip Lutley SclaterPhilip Lutley Sclater - - Ornithologist who described 1067 species, Ornithologist who described 1067 species,

135 genera, and 2 families of birds135 genera, and 2 families of birds - Six biogeographic regions still in use today- Six biogeographic regions still in use today

Four British Scientists:Four British Scientists:

Alfred Russel WallaceAlfred Russel Wallace - Considered the father of - Considered the father of

ZoogeographyZoogeography - Thee major books - The Malay Archipelago - Thee major books - The Malay Archipelago

(1869), The Geographical Distribution of (1869), The Geographical Distribution of Animals (1876) and Island Life (1880)Animals (1876) and Island Life (1880)

- Wallace’s worked greatly expanded on - Wallace’s worked greatly expanded on Sclater’s 1858 schemeSclater’s 1858 scheme

Four British Scientists:Four British Scientists: Wallace’s Line - sharp faunal gap between the Wallace’s Line - sharp faunal gap between the

islands of Bali and Lombok in the East Indies - islands of Bali and Lombok in the East Indies - where many species of SE Asia reach their where many species of SE Asia reach their distributional limit and are replaced by forms distributional limit and are replaced by forms from Australasiafrom Australasia

Wallace’s LineWallace’s Line

Wallace's Biogeographical Regions - Wallace's Biogeographical Regions - 18761876

Palaearctic Region: temperate Eurasia. Palaearctic Region: temperate Eurasia. Ethiopian: Africa, south of the Tropic of Cancer. Ethiopian: Africa, south of the Tropic of Cancer. Oriental: Tropical Asia, including the adjacent tropical Oriental: Tropical Asia, including the adjacent tropical

Greater Sunda Islands. Greater Sunda Islands. Australian: including New Guinea and adjacent islands. Australian: including New Guinea and adjacent islands. Nearctic: North America south to central Mexico. Nearctic: North America south to central Mexico. Neotropical: South America and central America as far Neotropical: South America and central America as far

north as central Americanorth as central America

BIOGEOGRAPHY IN THE BIOGEOGRAPHY IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY:NINETEENTH CENTURY:

C. Hart Merriam (1894)C. Hart Merriam (1894) Extensive field studies in the southwestern Extensive field studies in the southwestern

North AmericaNorth America Observed that elevation changes in vegetation Observed that elevation changes in vegetation

type and plant species composition are generally type and plant species composition are generally equivalent to the latitudinal vegetation changes equivalent to the latitudinal vegetation changes found as one moves toward the poles. found as one moves toward the poles.

Merriam’s Life ZonesMerriam’s Life Zones

Called belts of similar Called belts of similar vegetation “Life Zones”vegetation “Life Zones”

Correctly concluded that Correctly concluded that elevational zonation like elevational zonation like latitudinal zonation is a latitudinal zonation is a response of species and response of species and communities to communities to environmental gradients environmental gradients of temperature and of temperature and rainfallrainfall

Morphogeographic Rules:Morphogeographic Rules:

Gloger’s ruleGloger’s rule - within a species, individuals - within a species, individuals from more humid habitats tend to be darker in from more humid habitats tend to be darker in color than those from drier habitatscolor than those from drier habitats

Morphogeographic Rules:Morphogeographic Rules:

Bergmann’s ruleBergmann’s rule - in endothermic vertebrates, - in endothermic vertebrates, races from cooler climates tend to have larger races from cooler climates tend to have larger body sizes, and hence smaller surface-to-volume body sizes, and hence smaller surface-to-volume ratios, races of the same species from warmer ratios, races of the same species from warmer climatesclimates

Morphogeographic Rules:Morphogeographic Rules:

Allen’s ruleAllen’s rule - among endothermic species, limbs - among endothermic species, limbs and other extremities are shorter and more and other extremities are shorter and more compact in individuals living in colder climatescompact in individuals living in colder climates

Morphogeographic Rules:Morphogeographic Rules:

Cope’s ruleCope’s rule - the evolution of a group shows a - the evolution of a group shows a trend toward increased body size. Although trend toward increased body size. Although there are many exceptions, there does appear to there are many exceptions, there does appear to that certain advantages of large size have that certain advantages of large size have resulted in repeated increases in size in many resulted in repeated increases in size in many animal lineagesanimal lineages

FIRST HALF OF THE TWENTIETH FIRST HALF OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY:CENTURY:

Numerous paleontologist described the origin, Numerous paleontologist described the origin, dispersal, radiation , and decline of land vertebrates.dispersal, radiation , and decline of land vertebrates.

Explanations for how terrestrial organisms could have Explanations for how terrestrial organisms could have spread from one landmass to another landmass spread from one landmass to another landmass included:included:

- short-lived landbridges or island archipelagos- short-lived landbridges or island archipelagos - former continents, now sunken- former continents, now sunken - once-joined continents, now drifted apart- once-joined continents, now drifted apart

BIOGEOGRAPHY SINCE THE BIOGEOGRAPHY SINCE THE 1950s:1950s:

Four major developments: Four major developments:

1. Acceptance of plate tectonics1. Acceptance of plate tectonics

2. Development of new phylogenetic methods2. Development of new phylogenetic methods

3. New ways of conducting research in ecological biogeography3. New ways of conducting research in ecological biogeography

4. Investigations of the mechanisms that limit distributions4. Investigations of the mechanisms that limit distributions

Continental DriftContinental Drift

Until the 1960's, most biogeographers Until the 1960's, most biogeographers considered the earth’s crust to be fixed and considered the earth’s crust to be fixed and without lateral movementwithout lateral movement

Antonio Snider-PelligriniAntonio Snider-Pelligrini in 1858 first in 1858 first introduced the theory of plate tectonics and introduced the theory of plate tectonics and continental driftcontinental drift

Continental DriftContinental Drift

Alfred L. WegenerAlfred L. Wegener, a German meteorologist, , a German meteorologist, reproposed the theory of continental drift reproposed the theory of continental drift

- 60 years later - 60 years later - published his theories between 1912 and 1956- published his theories between 1912 and 1956 - based on extensive geological and some biological - based on extensive geological and some biological

evidenceevidence - harshly rejected and criticized by most biogeographers- harshly rejected and criticized by most biogeographers - finally accepted in the late 1960's when geological - finally accepted in the late 1960's when geological

evidence became irrefutable evidence became irrefutable

Island BiogeographyIsland Biogeography

Robert H. MacArthurRobert H. MacArthur and and Edward O. WilsonEdward O. Wilson (1960's)(1960's)

- Equilibrium theory of island biogeography- Equilibrium theory of island biogeography - Focused on fundamental processes - - Focused on fundamental processes -

immigration and extinctionimmigration and extinction

BiogeographyBiogeography

Increasing number of Increasing number of publications in the past 3 publications in the past 3 decadesdecades

Advances in computer Advances in computer technology and related technology and related techniques such as techniques such as satellite imagery, satellite imagery, geographic information geographic information system (GIS), have system (GIS), have increased our ability to increased our ability to answer questions answer questions