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Biodiversity Conservation in Sri Lanka

BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATIONIN SRI LANKA

A Framework for Action

The Ministry of Forestry and Environment acknowledges the technical assistance rendered by IUCN - TheWorld Conservation Union (Sri Lanka) in the preparation of Biodiversity Conservation in Sri Lanka: AFramework for Action, with funding from the Global Environment Facility through the World Bank. The

lay-out and printing of this document were carried out with financial assistance of the German FederalMinistry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) through the IUCN South & South East Asian

Regional Biodiversity Programme.

APPROVED BY THE CABINET OF MINISTERS ON 27 AUGUST, 1998

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Biodiversity Conservation in Sri Lanka:A Framework for Action

© Ministry of Forestry and Environment

ISBN 955-9120-03-4

Published byMinistry of Forestry and Environment

"Sampathpaya",Rajamalwatte Road,

BattaramullaSri Lanka

Published in 1999

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Message of the Hon. Minister of Forestry and Environment

The word biodiversity is of recent origin. However, we have a strong tradition in our culture in conservationof our biological wealth. Our ancient records have numerous references to the initiatives taken by the rulers topreserve flora and fauna. For instance, King Devanampiyatissa declared an animal sanctuary in 3rd centuryBC.

Sri Lanka has a rich diversity of flora and fauna, owing to the varied climate, topography and soils. The highdiversity of ecosystems has provided habitats for rich species diversity, and edaphic and climatic variants ofindividual species. Sri Lanka is heavily dependent on her biological resources to sustain its economy, makingit incumbent upon us to take very serious note of the threats to our indigenous biota and to the naturalecosystems of which they are a part.

In the modern times, there have been various developmental activities in the country. There was the develop-ment of settlement agriculture in the 50's and 60's, followed by industrial development and the 'green'revolution. These coupled with the phenomenal increase of human population have placed severe stress on theenvironment, resulting in today's crisis predicament. As a result of these development processes, we are losingwild populations, and thus the genetic diversity. Many endemic species, including medicinal plant specieswhich have been used for centuries in our traditional systems of health care are either lost or under threat.Indeed, these losses cannot be valued.

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is a welcome move to arrest the erosion of biodiversity world-wide. Indeed, Sri Lanka, being proactive to the needs, was one of the early countries to ratify the CBD in1994. As a first step in implementing the CBD, Sri Lanka has prepared a framework for action for theconservation of biodiversity (BCAP), which has been approved by the Cabinet of Ministers in August 1998.

I am particularly pleased that the government has now a definite policy framework for the conservation ofbiodiversity. It necessarily brings out a commitment from all stakeholders to achieve the goals of thisdocument. In the current context of our economy, it is of paramount importance to proceed with the stateddevelopment plans of the government. This framework document has provided the background to plan thestrategy to balance the forces between conservation and development.

There are numerous state agencies managing Sri Lanka's natural resources. Indeed, some resources such asforests are managed by more than one agency. It is therefore of utmost importance to seek ways and means ofintegrating sectorial plans and policies within the common framework of the BCAP so that all those who havea stake in natural resources understand their responsibilities towards conservation and sustainable use ofbiodiversity. An equally important facet is to bring in the provincial administrations into the framework of theBCAP - for they are all managing the country's biological wealth.

As the national focal point for the CBD, my Ministry fervently hopes that this endeavour will bring about thecoordination and promotion of this national effort to conserve the nation's beleaguered biodiversity.

Nandimithra EkanayakeMinister of Forestry and Environment iii

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Message by the Secretary to the Ministry ofForestry and Environment

I am pleased to provide this message on the occasion of the publication of "Biodiversity Conservation in SriLanka - A Framework for Action" prepared by my Ministry. This document heralds a new era in focusing onthe Government's programmes on conservation and sustainable use of Sri Lanka's rich biological diversity.

The publication of this document is the culmination of a long and arduous preparatory process. The Ministrywith technical assistance provided by IUCN - The World Conservation Union, Sri Lanka began this importantactivity with the preparation of a strategy document setting out the steps and actions needed for the prepara-tion of a plan of action for biodiversity conservation. The preparation of this strategy was an intenselyparticipatory process involving many discussions and consultations with relevant agencies and stake-holders,which was completed in 1994.

The preparation of "Biodiversity Conservation in Sri Lanka - A Framework for Action" began in early 1996.Once again, with the technical assistance provided by IUCN, my Ministry took the initiative to consult allstake-holders, in the participatory process. Several drafts were reviewed over a period of one year, and thefinal document resulting from these consultations was approved by the Cabinet of Ministers in August 1998.It should be noted that for expediency, this document uses statistics and data that were widely available in theearly 1990's. Much of the data, and in particular those relating to statistics on genera and taxa have been usedmore to underscore the status and trends in biological diversity. These have been helpful in formulating thefinal recommendations contained in this document. It is understood that research on plant and animal tax-onomy is, of course, a continuing activity, and new species are regularly discovered and added to existinglistings. For example, a considerable number of new amphibian species have been discovered recently by localscientists. Thus some of the statistics on species given in the publication may be different to that recorded atthe present time. Some readers may therefore get a feeling of unreality and may consider it a rebuff to theinquiring mind; yet, however, such discrepancies will not materially affect the general trends encompassing thefinal recommendations. To the discerning mind, updated information on our biological wealth will be continu-ously available in various technical publications.

I hope that this publication will catalyze the relevant agencies to reflect biodiversity in their respective plansand programmes in order to facilitate my Ministry's efforts in this important national endeavour.

K. A. S. GunasekeraSecretary, Ministry of Forestry and Environment

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ContentsMessage of the Hon. Minister of Forestry and Environment ..............................................iiiMessage by the Secretary to the Ministry of Forestry and Environment ...........................ivContents.....................................................................................................................................v

Abbreviations ...........................................................................................................................vii

Chapter 1

Introduction .................................................................................................................. 1

Chapter 2

Sri Lanka and Its Biodiversity - an Overview .............................................................. 5

2.1 Physical Features ...................................................................................... 5

2.2 History and Culture .................................................................................. 5

2.3 Population and People ............................................................................ 10

2.4 Land Ownership and Tenure .................................................................. 10

2.5 Biodiversity - a Broad Overview ........................................................... 10

2.6 The Need to Conserve ........................................................................... 14

Chapter 3

The Major Ecosystems ................................................................................................ 17

3.1 Forests .................................................................................................... 17

3.2 Wetlands................................................................................................. 23

3.3 Coastal and Marine Systems .................................................................. 28

3.4 Agricultural Systems............................................................................... 32

Chapter 4

Bio-regions ................................................................................................................ 37

Chapter 5

Principles, Goal and Broad Objectives........................................................................ 43

5.1 Biodiversity Management Principles ..................................................... 43

5.2 The Goal of Biodiversity Conservation ............................................... 43

5.3 The Broad Objectives ............................................................................. 44

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Chapter 6

Biodiversity Conservation - Proposals for Action ..................................................... 45

6.1 Forests .................................................................................................... 45

6.2 Wetlands................................................................................................. 51

6.3 Coastal and Marine Systems .................................................................. 55

6.4 Agriculture Systems................................................................................ 63

6.5 Priority Action for Selected Bioregions ............................................... 65

6.6 Ex situ Conservation ............................................................................ 66

6.7 Research................................................................................................. 69

6.8 Education and Awareness ...................................................................... 70

6.9 Biodiversity Information ....................................................................... 73

6.10 Legal Measures ....................................................................................... 75

6.11 Institutional Support ............................................................................... 77

6.12 Valuation of Biodiversity ...................................................................... 79

Chapter 7

Integrating National Efforts for Biodiversity Conservation........................................ 81

7.1 The Role of Government........................................................................ 81

7.2 Community-based Resource Management ............................................. 82

7.3 The Role of Non-governmental Organizations ...................................... 83

7.4 The Role of the Private Sector .............................................................. 83

Chapter 8

Implementation ............................................................................................................ 85

Appendices ........................................................................................................................... 90

Appendix 1 - The BCAP Preparation Process ...................................................... 90

Appendix 2 - Provisional List of Threatened Species of VascularPlants in Sri Lanka........................................................................... 94Provisional List of Threatened Animal Species in Sri Lanka ....... 102

Appendix 3 - Glossary.......................................................................................... 118

Appendix 4 - Sources of Information .................................................................. 121

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Introduction

The term Biological Diversity or Biodiversity isnew. However, in Sri Lanka, the basic concept ofbiodiversity and its conservation is as old as therecorded history of the country, dating back toover 2000 years. When the monarchs of oldproclaimed edicts for the preservation of wildlifein defined areas, they were, in today’s context,establishing "protected areas". When the villagecommunities systematically organized theirlandscape, with the irrigation tanks and cultivatedareas in the low-lying land, the settlements at higherlevels, and the catchments in the hilly areas leftunder forest, they were recognizing theenvironmental value of conserving the natural forestin the catchments. When the farmers cultivatedmany different varieties of rice, recognizing theirspecial qualities regarding food value, cookingproperties, palatability, medicinal value, etc., theywere in fact conserving the genetic diversity of thisspecies; and this diversity remains to this day, butis now under threat due to the preference for high-yielding varieties with a narrow genetic base. Whenthe households raised multi-tiered crops in theirhome gardens, they were conserving and usingsustainably a multitude of species for food,medicine, fuel and fodder, while at the same timereplicating the structure of a natural forest.

The Convention on Biological Diversity,which aims to conserve the planet’s biologicalspecies and provide for their sustainable use bypresent and future generations, was placed beforethe heads of state for signature at the United NationsConference on Environment and Development, orEarth Summit, on 5 June 1992. The nations of theworld gave a clear expression of their concern "thatbiological diversity is being significantly reducedby human activities" when over 150 of them signedthe Convention within two weeks, and subsequentratification proceeded so fast that, within 18 months,the Convention came into force. Sri Lanka ratifiedthe Convention in March 1994.

Biodiversity is the variety of organismsfound on earth. The definition given in theConvention is more explanatory; it is: "thevariability among living organisms from all sources

including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and otheraquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexesof which they are a part; this includes diversitywithin species, between species and of ecosystems.”

Article 6 of the Convention requires eachcontracting party to: "(a) Develop nationalstrategies, plans or programmes for the conservationand sustainable use of biological diversity or adaptfor this purpose existing strategies, plans orprogrammes which shall reflect,inter alia, the measures set out in this Conventionrelevant to the contracting party concerned: and"(b) Integrate, as far as possible and as appropriate,the conservation and sustainable use of biologicaldiversity into relevant sectoral plans, programmesand policies.”

The preparation of this BiodiversityConservation Action Plan (BCAP) was undertakenin response to Article 6 of the Convention.Agriculture, the plantation industry, and fisheriesare vital sectors of Sri Lanka’s developmentprogramme. The use of biological resources istherefore of critical importance to the sustenanceof the country’s economy. What the plan proposesis a course of action to ensure that the biologicaldiversity within the country is conserved and usedsustainably and that development programmespursued by the different sectors do not cause seriousor irreversible damage to the indigenousbiodiversity.

The value of the nation’s biodiversity hasnot gone unrecognized by the government andpeople of Sri Lanka. There are many legislativeenactments that deal with the protection ofbiological resources. In 1980, the NationalEnvironmental Act constituted the CentralEnvironmental Authority. Soon after, in responseto the World Conservation Strategy, Sri Lankabegan preparing a National Conservation Strategy(NCS), one of the first countries in Asia to do so.In 1988, after a lengthy process of survey andconsultation, the NCS was adopted as the centre-piece of the government’s policies to deal withenvironmental degradation in the country. Then, in1991, based on the recommendations of the NCS,a National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP) was

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adopted for a four year period. The implementationexperience led, in 1994, to a revised NEAP, for theperiod 1995-98. Over the years these environmentalpolicy frameworks have influenced and helped shapeseveral generations of sectoral and nationaldevelopment strategies.

The National Conservation Strategy, theNational Environmental Action Plan, the ForestrySector Master Plan, the National Coastal ZoneManagement Plan, and Coastal 2000, are some ofthe policy instruments that have addressedbiodiversity conservation. There are manygovernment institutions whose responsibility it isto translate these policy initiatives into action. Theseinclude the Forest Department, Coast ConservationDepartment, Department of Wildlife Conservation,Central Environmental Authority, Department ofAgriculture, Botanical Gardens and ZoologicalGardens. However, despite the legal, policy andinstitutional support for its conservation, thecountry’s biodiversity is continuing to get depleted.There are many causes for this; the growth andmovement of populations, the opening of economicmarkets, and new trends in industrial developmentwill have a growing adverse impact on biodiversityunless more systematic and stringent correctivemeasures are taken.

The BCAP recognizes the many projects andprogrammes currently in progress for theconservation of biodiversity. However, some ofthese activities are stalled or not proceeding at theexpected rate, and the main reason for this isresource limitations. In the course of BCAPpreparation, the problems of depletion ofbiodiversity in the different ecosystems were subjectto causal chain analyses to determine the issues,proximate causes, underlying causes, and actionneeded.

The BCAP sets out the range of activitiesneeded for addressing biodiversity as a co-ordinated,holistic exercise. Many of the activities are atpresent in progress, and their inclusion in the Planwill add strength and a sense of urgency to thecurrent efforts. Other proposals address gaps inthe current programmes, which the relevantinstitutions should take up for implementation. Yetothers are new activities which the concernedinstitutions should undertake so as to ensure thesuccess of the national effort for biodiversityconservation. The BCAP urges that biodiversityconservation is of critical importance for theecological and economic sustenance of the nation,

and brings together within a single framework allthe activity areas that need to be addressed. ThePlan should, therefore, serve as a policy instrumentfor securing financial support both nationally andfrom foreign donors.

The BCAP presents a framework foraction. It has not attempted to spell out in detaileach activity and to set out the financial budgetand other resources needed. Such a step, it isargued, would not only be impractical but wouldhave been counter-productive had it been attempted.As stated earlier, many of the activities are ongoing,and many others, with very little additionalresources, could be accommodated in the ongoingprogrammes. Setting out resource needs andfinancial budgets for each activity would discouragethe institutions concerned from undertaking thetasks unless substantial additional resources aremade available. For activities where new resourcesare in fact needed, the institution concerned shouldhave the expertise and would be in the best positionto prepare project proposals.

In preparing the BCAP, the ecosystem diversityof Sri Lanka was categorized into four broad areas:forests, wetlands, coastal and marine systems, andagricultural systems. This classification, besidessignifying an ecological differentiation, is useful interms of the division of responsibilities betweendifferent organizations of government.

Chapter 2 which follows this Chapter givesa broad overview of the country and itsbiodiversity.* Chapter 3 describes the four majorecosystems, the species diversity within them, therelevant policies relating to them, and theirjurisdictional institutions.

Chapter 4 presents the results of a studycarried out in the course of BCAP preparation todivide the island and its offshore territory into bio-regions, and, using various criteria, to determinethe bio-regions that should be given high priorityin addressing biodiversity conservation issues.Chapter 5 sets out the guiding principles, the goaland the overall objectives of the Plan. Chapter 6sets out the proposals for action. In respect ofeach activity area, the section dealing with it hasfour parts: identifying the issues; the objectives;the recommended actions; and the mainimplementing institutions. Chapter 7 deals with theintersectoral and inter-institutional integrationneeded for the implementation of the BCAP.Chapter 8 is on implementation. It sets out the

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proposed institutional arrangements forimplementing the Plan and sets time frames forachieving various outputs. A two-year inceptionphase is proposed, followed by a ten-yearimplementation phase, the latter broken down intotwo phases of five years each. In practical terms, itis recommended that the Plan be subject to a reviewand revision at the end of the first five-year period.It is also recommended that a comprehensive reviewof progress be made three years after thecommencement of the first phase.

The BCAP has been prepared by IUCNSri Lanka in collaboration with the Ministry ofTransport, Environment and Women’s Affairs. TheNational Environmental Policy Project of theMinistry carried out two preparatory studies - onvaluation of biodiversity and biodiversityinformation. In preparing the BCAP, IUCN’s corestaff was supported by a team of nationalconsultants, many of whom worked for brief periodson the tasks assigned to them. Two internationalexperts were brought in by IUCN at different timesduring plan preparation to advise the consultancyteam.

The preparatory process was intenselyparticipatory. The members of the consultancy team

* In chapter 2, the main source of figures for species is Wijesinghe etal. (1993), Biological Conservation in Sri Lanka: a national statusreport, IUCN, Sri Lanka, the figures for flowering plants are fromMALF (1995), Sri Lanka Forestry Sector Master Plan; the figures forbirds are from Kotagama, S. W. (pers. com.); the figures for amphibiansare from Dutta, Sunil K. and Manamendra - Arachchi, Kelum (1996),The Amphibian Fauna of Sri Lanka, Wildlife Heritage Trust, SriLanka.

** In the text where the abbreviation ME is used, it refers to the Ministryin charge of the subject of Environment, which prior to 10 June 1997was the Ministry of Transport, Environment and Women's Affairs(MTEWA), and since then is the Ministry of Forestry and Environment(MFE).

met with several heads of institutions to discusstheir mandates and programmes as they relate tothe conservation and use of biodiversity and theprogrammatic gaps that exist. In addition, they haddiscussions with many well-informed individuals.Several workshops and seminars were held,commencing from the early stages of planpreparation, to seek the views of NGOs, governmentorganizations and the public. The collaboratingMinistry wrote to over a 100 NGOs scattered acrossthe country explaining the task in hand and seekingtheir views on the national efforts needed forconserving the country’s biodiversity. A round-tablewas held to discuss in depth the Convention andthe implications of its implementation in Sri Lanka.The BCAP is the product of these many consultativeprocesses. (See Appendix 1 for details).

The Ministry of Forestry and Environment(MFE)** and IUCN Sri Lanka wish to thank theGlobal Environment Facility and the World Bankfor providing assistance for the preparation of thisPlan.

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2.1 Physical Features

Sri Lanka is located at the southern point of theIndian sub-continent, between 5o 54' and 9° 52'North Latitude and 79o 39' and 81o 53' EastLongitude. Its land area is 6,570,134 ha.Topographically, the island consists of a south-central mountainous region which rises to anelevation of 2500 m, surrounded by broad lowlandplains at an elevation of 0 - 75 m above sea level.From the mountainous region nine major riversand 94 other rivers drain across the lowlands intothe Indian Ocean.

The climate is tropical overall, but it showsvariations across the island due mainly todifferences in rainfall and elevation. The rainfallshows seasonal fluctuations and is dependent onthe southwest and northeast monsoons and onconvectional and cyclonic effects. The meantemperature in the lowland areas is 270C in thewet region and 300C in the dry zone. It decreaseswith increase in altitude, and in the montane regionthe mean monthly temperature varies from 130C to160C, with the night temperature occasionallydropping to around zero.

The country has been divided into climaticregions in many different ways. Generally threebroad climatic regions are recognized: the wet zone,dry zone and intermediate zone. Whereas the dryzone is all lowland, the other two zones are furthersubdivided on the basis of altitude. Figure 2.1shows a division of the island into a large numberof agro-ecological regions, where the annual rainfalland its seasonal distribution and the altitude aretaken into consideration.

Geologically, 90 per cent of the islandconsists of Precambrian crystalline rocks. The othermain rock types are Miocene limestone depositsthat extend from the Jaffna peninsula and theadjoining offshore islands to the northwest coastas far as Puttalam and down the northeast coast toMullaitivu, and a small area of Jurassic depositsat Tabbowa andw Andigama, near Puttalam. Theoverlying soils are of many different types, but the

Sri Lanka and its Biodiversity - an Overview

red-yellow podzolic soils (lateritic red loams) inthe wet region and reddish brown earths in the dryzone are the most common.

Geomorphologically, Sri Lanka is part ofthe ancient continent of Gondwanaland. India andSri Lanka broke off from the disintegratingcontinent as what is called the Deccan Plate, and,as this plate drifted northwards, the two countriesbecame isolated around 20 million years ago. SriLanka has retained its present outline for the lastten million years, since the end of the Miocene.Today, Sri Lanka is separated from India by thenarrow Palk Strait, but it is likely that there hadbeen oscillations of the relative levels of the landand sea resulting in land connections with India forshort periods.

Sri Lanka, despite its small size, has a richdiversity of soils (Figure 2.2). Fourteen of theGreat Soil Groups have been recognized within thecountry. The Great Soil Groups in the dry zoneand the drier part of the intermediate zone areReddish Brown Earths (occupying the largest area),Low Humic Gley Soils, Non-calcic Brown Soils,Red-Yellow Latosols, Alluvial Soils (in the floodplains of the larger rivers), soils of the OldAlluvium, Solodized Solonetz (in the arid areas),Regosols (in the coastal areas), and Grumusols andRendzinas which are found in relatively smallextents.

The Great Soil Groups in the wet zone andin the wetter parts of the intermediate zone are theRed-Yellow Podzolic Soils (which is the dominanttype), Reddish Brown Latosolic Soils, ImmatureBrown Loams and Bog and Half-bog Soils (foundmainly in the tidal marshes).

2.2 History and CultureThe recorded history of Sri Lanka goes

back to the advent of Indo-Aryans from India in543 BC. Until the sixteenth century AD, the countryhad an independent, monarchical system ofgovernance. From 1505, the maritime areas weredominated successively by the Portuguese, Dutchand British. In 1815, the British assumed controlof the entire island after they annexed the central

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Box 2.1

”C ONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY ” IN ANCIENT LANKA

In centuries past, during the time of the Sinhala Kings, forests and animal life were an important part of thesocial fabric. They were accorded a special status and protected under the law of the land. Commenting onthis aspect of social life, John D’ Oyly (1835) states that ”Within Mahanuwara itself there was no doubt thatthe forest was strictly interdicted as a royal preserve - the ditch marking the limits of the city went round theking’s great thicket, Udawattekale, and people were not allowed even to gather firewood and withes in it.”

Like the Udawattekalle, other forests were also owned directly by the king, and considered Crown propertyor Rajasan taka. Any sort of activity within these. Tahansi Kalle”, or ”Forbidden Forests”, was strictlyprohibited. Almost every province of the Kandyan Kingdom had several such ”protected areas”, where anykind of cultivation, felling of trees, hunting or fishing were strictly prohibited, and punishable by a heavy fine.The king ensured that these laws were enforced by a regular Forest Department, comprising the ”KalleKorales” appointed by him. It was the duty of these officers to ensure that the Crown forests were notdamaged in any way.

Historical chronicles record that animals, too, were given special protection. The ”Niti Nighanduva”, whichis the repository of ancient Sinhala law, records that all elephants were regarded as the property of theCrown, and killing an elephant was perceived as one of the most atrocious of all crimes. In keeping with theprevalent social fabric, hunting and killing of animals appears to have been generally looked down upon, forthe ''Niti Nighanduva” statesthat animal slaughter was outlawed during the last 50 years of the KandyanKingdom, on the grounds that it was contrary to Buddhist principles.

Respect for forests and all forms of animal life was thus not only deeply enshrined in the moral and legalcodes of the ancient Sinhalese, it was also a part of their way of life. When the British began clearing theforests in the mid 19th century, it destroyed an ancient society and a way of life which had existed since thecoming of Buddhism to Sri Lanka in the third century B.C.

Source: Tammita Delgoda (1997)

During the time of monarchial rule,the concepts that we now recognize asbiodiversity conservation were ingrainedin the cultural and religious beliefs of thepeople of Sri Lanka. According to theMahavamsa, the great chronicle of SriLankan history, the protection of forestsand animals was esteemed highly by bothrulers and subjects. This respect for allforms of life is fostered by Buddhismwhich spurns animal slaughter. As farback as the third century BC, wildlife'sanctuaries' for the protection of faunaand flora existed in this country, whilethe concept of 'urban nature reserves' waspromulgated in the twelfth century AD.

With the onset of the colonial era,there was a dramatic change in the culturaland socio-political climate in the country.

During this period of foreign rule there was largescale destruction of the forests, particularly for the

A temple painting at the Mirissa Sumudragiri Viharaya depictingbiodiversity as a part of the wider human environment (Jinie Dela).

kingdom. Sri Lanka regained political independencein 1948 and became a Republic in 1972.

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Figure 2.1 Agro-Ecological Regions of Sri Lanka and Rainfall Expectancy (contd on page 8)

WU - Wet Zone Up CountryWM - Wet Zone Mid CountryWL - Wet Zone Low CountryIU - Intermediate Zone Up CountryIM - Intermediate Zone Mid CountryIL - Intermediate Zone Low CountryDL - Dry Zone Low Country

Each of the above zone contains severalagro-ecological regions as shown in the map

and accompanying tabulated data

Source : C R Panabokke and P Ratnaseeli Kannangara(1996)

Sri Lanka and its Biodiversity - an Overview

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Agro-ecological 75% expectancy value of 75% expectancy value of dryness Major Soil Groups Terrain

region & symbol annual rainfall (ins.) for particular months

Jan Feb Mar May Jun J ul Aug Sep Red-Yellow Podzolic soils and Mountain Mountainous, steeply

WU1 >125 J1/2

F • • • • • • Regosols dissected hilly and

roll ing

WU2 >75 J1/2

F 1/2M • • • • • Red-Yellow Podzolic soils and Mountain Mountainous, steeply

Regosols dissected hilly and

roll ing

WU3 >55 J1/2

F 1/2M • • • • • Red-Yellow Podzolic soils with dark B R ol l i ng

horizon; and Red-Yellow Podzolic soils with

prominent A1 horizon

WM1 >125 J1/2

F • • • • • • Red-Yellow Podzolic soils; Red-Yellow Steeply dissected

Podzolic soils with semi-prominent h i l ly and r ol l ing

A1 horizon

WM2 >55 J1/2

F • • • • • • Reddish Brown Latosolic soils, Immature Steeply dissected

Brown Loams; and Red-Yellow Podzolic soils h i l ly, r ol l ing and

undulating

WL1 >100 J1/2

F • • • • • • Red-Yellow Podzolic soils; Red-Yellow Rolling and undulating

Podzolic soils with semi-prominent

A1 horizon

WL2 >75 J1/2

F • • • • • • Red-Yellow Podzolic soils; Red-Yellow Podzolic Rolling and undulating

soils with strongly mottled sub-soil;

and low Humic Gley soils

WL3&4 >60 J1/2

F 1/2M • • • Aug • WL3-Red-Yellow Podzolic soils with soft and WL3 - Rolling and

hard Laterite undulating

WL4-Red-Yellow Podzolic soils with soft WL4 - Undulating

and hard Laterite; and Bog and half Bog soils a nd f lat

1U1 >85 • • 1/2M • • Jul 1/

2Aug 1/

2Sep Red-Yellow Podzolic soils and Mountain Mountainous, steeply


roll ing

IU2 >55 • F1/2

1/2M My1/

2Jun Jul Aug Sept Red-Yellow Podzolic soils and Mountain Mountainous, steeply


roll ing

IU3 >45 • F 1/2M • Jun Jul Aug 1/

2Sept Red-Yellow Podzolic soils Steeply dissected

hi l ly and r ol l ing

IM1 >55 • • M My1/2

Jun Jul Aug 1/2Sept Reddish Brown Earths and Immature Brown R ol l ing h i l l y and

Loams steep

IM2 >45 J 1/2

F • • Jun Jul Aug Sept Reddish Brown Earths and Immature Brown R ol l ing h i l l y and

Loams steep

IM3 >35 • F M My1/2

Jun Jul Aug Sept Immature Brown Loams, Reddish Brown Steeply dissected,

Latosolic soils; and Reddish Brown Earths h i l ly and r ol l ing

IL1 >40 J F 1/2M • • Jul Aug 1/

2Sept Red-Yellow Podzolic soils with strongly Rolling undulating

mottled subsoil, low Humic Gley soils, a nd f lat

Red-Yellow Podzolic soils with soft and

hard Laterite; and Regosols on red and yellow

sands

IL2 >45 • F1/2

M My1/2

Jun Jul Aug 1/2Sept Reddish Brown Earths and Immature Brown R ol l ing h i l l y and

Loams and low Humic Gley soils undulating

IL3 >35 J F 1/2M My1/

2Jun Jul Aug 1/

2Sept Reddish Brown Earths and Immature Brown Undulating

Soils and low Humic Gley soils

DL1 >30 J1/2

F 1/2M My1/

2Jun Jul Aug 1/

2Sept Reddish Brown Earths and low Humic Undulating

Gley s oi l s

DL2 >35 • F1/2

M My Jun Jul Aug Sept Non-Calcic Brown soils, Reddish Brown Earths Undulating and flat

soils on old alluviu, Solodized, Solonetz,

low Humic Gley soils and Regosols

DL3&4 >23 J1/2

F M My Jun Jul Aug 1/2Sept DL3- Red-Yellow Latosols and Regosols D L3-flat t o s l ightly

DL4 - Solodized, Solonetz, Solonchaks and undulating

Grumusols DL4-flat

DL5 >20 J1/2

F M My Jun Jul Aug 1/2Sept Reddish Brown Earths with high amount Undulating and flat

of gravel in subsoil, low Humic Gley soils

and Solodized, Solonetz

DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS

Figure 2.1 Agro-Ecological Regions in Sri Lanka (Contd.)

J1/2 = denotes 2nd half of January

* = denotes wetness for the month Similarly for other months1/

2M = denotes 1st half of March

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Figure 2.2 Soil Map of Sri Lanka

Source: Irrigation Department (1988)

Reddish Brown Earths

Noncalcic Brown Soils, Low Humic GleyNoncalcic Brown Soils, Soils on old alluvium &Solodized SolonetzRed - Yellow Latosols

Calcic Red-Yellow Latosols

Solodized Solonetz and Solonchaks

Grumusols

Soils on recent marine Calcareous sediments

Alluvial Soils of variable drainage and texture

Regosols on Recent beach and dune sands

Red-Yellow Podzolic soils

Red-Yellow Podzolic soils withsemi-prominent At horizonReddish Brown Latosolic soils

Immature Brown Loams

Bog and Half-bog soilsLatosols and Regosols on old red and yellow sands

Tank / Reservoir

Miscellaneous land units comprising of Rock KnobPlains, Erosional remnants with eroded andshallow soils

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establishment of plantations. These activities markedthe beginning of environmental problems and largescale biodiversity erosion in the country. Aftergaining independence, clearing land for developmentschemes in the dry zone commenced and continuedto gain momentum, causing a further loss ofindigenous biodiversity. Despite these adversetrends, the concepts which underlie conservation ofbiodiversity continue to influence the lives of ruralpeople, particularly those of the older generation.Even today, certain species of trees are protectedby religious beliefs. Ficus religiosa is consideredsacred by Buddhists as the tree or 'bhodhi' underwhich the Buddha attained enlightenment; Mesuaspp., bamboo groves and Ficus benghalensis aresome species that are held in high esteem byBuddhists; and the neem tree(Azadiracta indica) isrevered by Hindus. Most rural people consider itirreverent to fell large trees, due to their belief thatsuch trees are the abodes of lesser gods. Amongthe fauna, the elephant (Elephas maximus) plays adominant role in the cultural and religious pageantsof the country, especially in the age old annualEsala Perahara (procession) in which about ahundred domesticated elephants participate.

Recent decades have seen a sharp increasein human population, and the overriding need toproduce more food has exerted great pressure onthe forests which were seen as a source of landfor agriculture. There was also a growingtendency towards secularism. These factors, asexpected, led to an undermining of the valueswhich are an integral part of the cultural andreligious heritage of Sri Lanka.

2.3 Population and People

Sri Lanka is one of the most denselypopulated countries of Asia, with 292 inhabitantsper square kilometre. Estimates for 1996 indicate atotal population of 18.3 million. The populationgrowth rate is 1.1 per cent at present and it isprojected that the population will reach the 25million mark by the middle of next century.Although the average per capita GNP is low (US$ 760 in 1996), the human development indicatorsshow values that are exceptionally high for adeveloping country. The life expectancy at birth is

71 years and the adult literacy rate, 88 per cent.Infant mortality is low (24 per 1000 population),and 93 per cent of the population have access toadvanced health care. The Human DevelopmentIndex is 701, approaching the level of developedcountries, demonstrating a high quality of life. SriLanka is a multi-ethnic secular state. The majorethnic groups in the country are Sinhalese (74.0per cent), Tamils (18.2 per cent) and Muslims (7.1per cent). The majority of the population areBuddhists (69.3 per cent), and the other majorreligions are Hinduism (15.5 per cent), Islam (7.6per cent), and Christianity (7.5 per cent).

2.4 Land Ownership and Tenure

In Sri Lanka, 82 per cent of the land areacomes under some form of state control. Thisincludes the land alienated under settlement schemeswhich may be governed by restrictions oninheritance, transfer and subdivision and whichaccounts for 15 per cent of the total land area ofthe country. Over the years, state land has beenalienated under various schemes, such as villageexpansion, regularization of encroachments, specialleases, etc. The Land Reform Law 1972 limitedthe extent of freehold land to a total of 50 acres(subsequently increased to 100 acres) perindividual, and in the case of paddy land to 25acres. Land in excess of these limits was vested inthe Land Reform Commission, and these areasadded up to 6.2 per cent of the total land area ofthe country.

Except for a few catchment areas inprivately owned plantations, and freehold lands insome wildlife sanctuaries, natural forests are underthe jurisdiction of the state. Although the speciesdiversity of agricultural lands does not match thatof natural ecosystems, the plantations, home gardensand agricultural crop holdings contributesignificantly to the in-situ conservation of speciesand genetic diversity.

2.5 Biodiversity - a Broad OverviewConservation of biodiversity is of special

relevance to Sri Lanka. The country, though smallin size, has a varied climate and topography whichhas resulted in a rich biodiversity, distributed withina wide range of ecosystems. An important feature

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of the climate is that there are two basic eco-zones.This is due to the positioning of the centralmountains which intercept the monsoonal winds.This has created an ever-wet region in thesouthwestern quarter of the island and a rain shadowin the remaining area. Since these demarcationsare not sharp, but grade off from one to the other,it is customary to recognize an intermediatetransition zone termed the intermediate zone. Smallsections to the northwest and southeast which escapethe monsoons have a climate which approachesarid conditions. Within this broad differentiationof climate types, there is a multitude of ecosystems.Among the terrestrial ecosystems are forests varyingfrom wet evergreen forest (both lowland andmontane) to dry thorn forests; grasslands; and acomplex network of rivers, wetlands and freshwaterbodies. These, together with the coastal and marineecosystems such as sea-grass beds, coral reefs,estuaries and lagoons, and associated mangrove

swamps, constitute the panorama of naturalecosystems in the country. In addition, there arenumerous man-made ecosystems related toagriculture and irrigation which have a directbearing on the conservation, sustenance and survivalof biological resources. This array of ecosystemsfound in the country can also be grouped into fourbasic habitat classes: forests, inland wetlands,agricultural lands, and coastal and marine systems.

The remaining land is used for living areas,roads, and other infrastructures.

The high diversity of ecosystems hasprovided habitats for rich species diversity andclimatic and edaphic variants of individual species,particularly among the plants. The wet zonerainforests provide habitats for nearly all of thecountry’s woody endemic plants and for aboutthree-quarters of the endemic animals. The inland

Box 2.2

BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY DEFINED

Biological diversity. The Global Biodiversity Strategy and the Convention on Biological Diversity recognizethree functionally related components of biological diversity, or biodiversity :

Genetic diversity within species: Genes are the storehouses of the heritable characteristics of an organism,and form the basis for variation between individuals of a species. The qualitative and quantitativevariation of the genetic material between individuals, and the genetic variation betweenpopulations of the same species, constitute the genetic diversity of a species.

Species diversity: This is the component of biodiversity that is most widely known and often used as asynonym of biodiversity. Species are populations of individuals within which breeding couldtake place to produce fertile offspring. Species diversity refers to variation between species, orto the variety of life forms on earth. To date about 1.7 million species have been described, andit is estimated that the total number of species present on earth may be many times thisnumber. The measurement of species diversity provides an important preliminary assessmentof overall biodiversity.

Ecosystem diversity: This refers to the variation between ecosystems. Different species of animals, plantsand microorganisms interact to form communities. In concert with the processes that maintaintheir lives, and interacting with their non living environment, these communities form functional,dynamic and complex units that are termed ecosystems. Different permutations of species andtheir interrelations, combined with differences in abiotic factors such as climate, soil and water,give rise to different ecosystems.

Conservation of biological diversity covers all human actions ranging from totally preserving any componentof biological diversity to using biological resources within sustainable limits so that there is no erosion ofbiodiversity.

Main source: WCMC (1992)

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waters provide aquatic habitats for a large numberof freshwater species, notably, the fish fauna. Inlandwetlands, both natural and man made, are also thehabitats of many species of birds, mammals andplants. Of these, the Mahaweli Flood Plains in thedry zone is the most important habitat in terms ofanimal biomass in the country.

The many critical marine near-shore

habitats of the coastal areas form the breedinggrounds for a host of marine organisms. Thesehabitats contain 183 species of fish, many of whichbreed in the area. The mangrove areas are relativelysmall and discontinuous, but are important in termsof the species they contain and the socio-economicimportance to local people, and for prevention ofcoastal erosion. The Exclusive Economic Zone,which covers an area up to 200 nautical milesbeyond the coastline, contain the coastal reefs alongmuch of the 1600 km of coastline. The best knowncoral reefs occur off the northwestern andsouthwestern coasts, while rich coral reefs are alsofound in the north and northeast. Sandstone reefsand boulder reefs occur in other parts of thecoastline.

In terms of plant species diversity, thevegetation supports over 3368 species of floweringplants (of which 26 per cent are endemic) and 314species of ferns and fern allies (of which 57 areendemic). Species diversity is also high amongmosses (575), liverworts (190), algae (896) andfungi (1920).

Similarly, the country supports a highfaunal diversity due to the varied climatic andtopographic conditions prevailing in the island.

Box 2.3

ECOSYSTEM DIVERSITY OF SRI LANKA

Forest and related ecosystems- Tropical wet evergreen forest (lowland rain

forest)- Tropical moist evergreen forest- Tropical dry mixed evergreen forest- Tropical thorn forest- Savannah- Riverine forest- Tropical sub montane forest- Tropical montane forest- Dry montane grasslands dry patanas

Inland wetland ecosystems- Flood plains- Swamps- Streams and rivers- Reservoirs and ponds- Wet Villu grasslands- Wet montane grasslands wet patanas

Coastal and marine ecosystems- Mangroves- Salt marshes- Sand dunes and beaches- Mudflats- Seagrass beds- Lagoons and estuaries- Coral reefs- Coastal seas

Agricultural ecosystems- Paddy lands- Horticultural farms- Small crop holdings or other field crops

(pulses, sesame etc)- Crop plantations- Home gardens- Chena lands (slash and burn cultivation)

The inland waters support a rich invertebrate fauna.The following information is based on the availabledata. There are around 140 species of Rotifera.Among the Crustacea are 68 species of Cladocera,27 species of Copepoda (none endemic), 31 speciesof Ostracoda (11 endemic) in 19 genera, and over60 species of decapods (prawns and crabs). Thereare 31 species of freshwater molluscs, of which 12are endemic and restricted in distribution. Themayflies are incompletely documented, but 18species are known to be endemic. The marine

The colourful flower of the endemic Gordonia speciosa(S. Balasubramaniam)

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invertebrate fauna are even more diverse; examplesare the presence of over 180 species of coralsbelonging to 68 genera, and over 200 species ofcrabs.

Among the indigenous terrestrialinvertebrates there are over 400 species of arachnids(spiders) in 236 genera, over 242 species ofbutterflies of which 14 are endemic, 139 species ofmosquitos, 525 species of carabidbeetles from 140 genera, and 266species of land snails. Ten generaand 127 species of carabid beetlesare endemic, as are 201 speciesof land snails.

Among the vertebrates,there are 65 species of freshwaterfishes indigenous to Sri Lanka,of which about a half are endemic.Many of these species are riverineor marsh dwelling and occurmainly in the wet zone streams.In addition, there are 22 speciesof introduced fish which areconsumed for food. There are alsoabout 350 species of marine fishwhich include ornamental fishesand food species such as seer,tuna and skipjack.

The amphibian fauna number 53 speciesfrom 16 genera. Of these, the genus Nannophrys,with three species, is endemic, as are 27 otherspecies including three species of limblessamphibians. A majority of the amphibian specieshave very restricted geographic ranges and arefound mainly in specific ecological niches of wetzone forests.

The reptilian fauna of Sri Lanka showconsiderable diversity, with two species ofcrocodiles, five species of marine turtles, threespecies of tortoises, 92 species of snakes (of whichapproximately half are endemic), 21 species ofgeckoes (of which six are endemic), 14 species ofagamid lizards (of which ten are endemic), twospecies of monitor lizards, and 21 species of skinks(all rare, and 17 endemic).

The rich avifauna of the country is reflectedby the presence of 435 species of birds whichinclude about 113 migrants. The 23 species endemicto this country are found mainly in the wet zoneforests.

The species richness of the terrestrialmammalian fauna in the island is high, comparedwith other islands of similar size. In this categoryare 86 indigenous and ten introduced species. Theindigenous species comprise 30 species of bats,23 rodents, 14 carnivores inclusive of the leopardand sloth bear, seven artiodactyls (among whichare four species of deer), six shrews, four primates

and one species each of elephant and pangolin.The 12 species of endemic mammals include twospecies of primates and one carnivore. It isnoteworthy that several of the species showprominent sub-specific variation indicative of highintra-specific genetic variability. Within theterritorial waters of the island there are 38 speciesof marine mammals, including the sperm whale,the blue whale and a rare species of dugong.

Sri Lanka is also a valuable repository ofcrop germplasm, especially of rice. There arevarieties of rice which are resistant to pests andadverse climatic and soil conditions, exhibitvariations in grain size and quality, and showdifferences in rate of maturing. There is alsosignificant crop genetic diversity among spices ofcommercial importance. Among these are 500selections of pepper and about seven wild species,10 wild races of cardamom, and several indigenousvarieties of betel and chilli. Grain legumes androot and tuber crops also show a rich geneticvariability, as do fruit crops such as banana, mangoand citrus. Similarly, there are many varieties of

A herd of spotted deer at the Yala National Park (H.I.E. Katugaha)

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vegetables such as cucurbits, tomato and eggplant.Out of 170 plant species of ornamental value, 74are endemic, and many species of orchids andfoliage plants of commercial importance occurnaturally in forests.

Among domesticated animals of economicvalue are wild species of buffalo, cattle and fowl.The local cattle show high resistance to diseaseand tolerance of internal parasites. Likewise, thelocal breeds of poultry are resistant to tropicaldiseases.

A significant milestone in the study of theterrestrial species diversity of Sri Lanka is theNational Conservation Review (NCR) carried outby the Forest Department with technical assistancefrom IUCN - The World Conservation Union. Thiswas a sample survey of all the natural forests ofthe country, barring some areas in the north andeast which were inaccessible due to the prevailingcivil disturbances. This survey enumerated all the

woody plants, vertebrates, and selected invertebratetaxa (molluscs and butterflies) present alonggradient directed transects. The NCR data revealedthat, among the wet zone forests, Sinharaja,Knuckles, Gilimale-Eratne, and the Kanneliya-Dediyagala-Nakiyadeniya (KDN) complex areforemost in terms of woody species diversity.Knuckles, Gilimale-Eratne, Horton Plains,Mulatiyana and Sinharaja were found to be themost important wet zone forests for faunal diversity.The Ruhuna National Park is important in termsof biodiversity in the dry zone, especially for thelarge herbivores and carnivores.

For the development of conservationstrategies for faunal species, an impediment hasbeen the paucity of data on population status anddistribution, especially of vertebrates. In thiscontext, it is important to note that the governmenthas initiated action to set up a national zoologicalsurvey, a long-felt need.

Box 2.4

BIODIVERSTIY CONSERVATION - THE GLOBAL PICTURE

The earth’s biodiversity is the result of nearly four billion years of evolution. Current estimates ofthe number of existing species range from 2 100 million, while only about 1.7 million have beendocumented. Distributed throughout the world’s biota are about a billion different genes. This biodiversityis found within an array of ecosystems, both natural and man made. Today, much of this biodiversity isbeing lost on a global scale at an unprecedented rate as a result of human activity. In the ast 200 years,over six million km 2 of forests have been decimated. About 40 % of the entire photosyntheticproductivity on earth is now being used or destroyed. If these current trends continue, a quarter of allextant species on arth will perish or be reduced to unsustainable levels by the mid 21st century.

The consequences of biodiversity erosion of this magnitude are profound. Most significant is thedestruction of species and ecosystems that are vital for the functioning of global life support systems.Others are loss of wild relatives of crop plants and domesticated animals that serve as ‘gene banks’ wheneconomically valuable breeds have to combat disease or adapt to climate change. Many species withpotential medicinal or economic value may also become extinct before they are discovered. Developingcountries, which are the main repositories of global biodiversity, do not have the financial and technicalresources to manage and conserve their indigenous biological resources, and this exacerbates biodiversityloss. Developed countries contribute to biodiversity loss by providing lucrative markets for timber fromtropical forests, ornamental fish and other endangered species. While the ultimate prerogative forconservation and management of a country’s biodiversity lies with its national government, the globalimplications of continued biodiversity loss has resulted in increased international cooperation to strengthennational efforts. International efforts comprise bilateral and multi lateral financial assistance for biodiversityconservation, international treaties and conventions such as the Convention on International Trade inEndangered Species (CITES), the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (RAMSARConvention) and, most significantly, the Convention on Biological Diversity.

Sources: IUCN (1994a); WCMC (1992); Beazley, M (1993)

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Assessments of coral reefs and associatedfauna are being carried out by the National AquaticResources Research and Development Agency(NARA), from Tangalle to Kandekuliya. Studieson wetland biodiversity have been carried out bythe Wetland Conservation Project of the CentralEnvironmental Authority and have resulted in 23site reports to date, with another three pending.

2.6 The Need to ConserveSri Lanka’s high population density, high

levels of poverty and unemployment, andwidespread dependence on subsistence agriculturehave exerted considerable pressure on thebiodiversity of the country. Extensive deforestationand land degradation and the unregulatedexploitation of natural resources (e.g. mining forcoral lime, sand and gemstones) are some of themanifestations of the social problems the countryfaces causing destruction of natural ecosystemsand the species they contain.

The conservation of biological diversity isof special significance to Sri Lanka in the contextof its predominantly agriculture-based economy andthe high dependence on many plant species forfood, medicines and domestic products. Over athird of the plant species in the country are usedin indigenous medical practice, and many of thesespecies are growing scarce due to habitatdestruction and over-collection. The rich anddiverse ecosystems of the country harbour manywild relatives of cultivated species, and the genepools represented by these wild plants are aresource of considerable potential value that could

be used for the genetic improvement of cultivatedplants. Another valuable genetic resource is thewide range of varieties and ecotypes of cultivatedspecies found in the country. For example, in thecase of rice, there are over 2500 accessions ofindigenous varieties. These have not been fullycharacterized, and allowing for the presence ofduplicates it would appear that these accessionsrepresent about 1000 distinct cultivars. Plantproducts such as fruits, fibre, spices, kitul sap,bamboo and rattan are used as raw material formany small scale industries which provide financialsecurity to rural populations. The biologicalresources of coastal and marine ecosystems providenearly 70 per cent of the protein requirements ofthe country and generates employment for about500,000 people. Biodiversity also contributesdirectly to the national economy in the form ofrevenue from National Parks and other wildlifereserves, while its potential to promote eco-tourismcould be a significant income generator in the future.

The forests of southwest Sri Lanka (wetevergreen forests) are particularly rich inbiodiversity and endemic species, and they arefragmented and under severe threat. On account ofthis, southwest Sri Lanka has been named as oneof the 18 biodiversity hotspots in the world (i.e. anarea with high species diversity and high levels ofendemism and where species are subject toexceptional levels of threat). Conservation of SriLanka’s biodiversity, therefore, transcends nationalinterests it is of global relevance.

Appendix 2 gives provisional lists ofspecies of flora and fauna considered to bethreatened in Sri Lanka.

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Biodiversity Conservation in Sri LankaBiodiversity Conservation Action Plan

The Major Ecosystems

3.1 Forests

Sri Lanka has a long history of protection of wildlifeand sustainable use of forests, fostered by Buddhistphilosophy that respects all forms of life. One ofthe world's earliest wildlife sanctuaries wasestablished by King Devanampiyatissa in 246 BC,along with the advent of Buddhism to Sri Lanka.Succeeding kings upheld these traditions, and kelekoralas (forest officers) were appointed to preventpoaching and to protect trees belonging to theCrown. In the twelfth century AD, King KeerthiNissanka Malla proclaimed that no animal shouldbe killed within a radius of seven 'Gau' (equivalentto 35.7 km) of the sacred city of Anuradhapura.

These noble traditions and attitudes changedwith the onset of the colonial era, when the rulerswere more bent on exploiting rather than conservingthe natural resources. This is evident from some ofthe earlier government ordinances under foreignrule. For instance, the Timber Ordinance (of 1848)created forest reserves for the purpose of timbersupply. The Wastelands Ordinance of 1840 vestedall lands that were unoccupied and uncultivated(including forests), and previously held by royalty,temples, local communities and individuals, in theBritish Crown. This effectively paved the way forthe clearing of wet zone forests at mid and highelevations for the establishment of tea and rubberplantations, while the wet lowland forests in thecoastal areas were cleared for coconut andcinnamon plantations. Similarly, declaration ofgame reserves in the dry zone, following theenactment of the Fauna and Flora ProtectionOrdinance of 1937 during British rule, was forprotection of game for hunting. During this period,populations of species considered big game,particularly the elephant, declined considerably asa result of hunting for sport, and in some cases,for meat. The destruction of forests during colonialrule contributed largely to the decline of wildlifeas well.

A redeeming feature of the colonial periodwas the scientific contributions of the eminentBritish botanists Hooker, Thwaites, Alston and

The view through the mist at Horton Plains (S. Balasubramaniam)

Trimen who were responsible for documenting theflora of Sri Lanka. Their influence on governmentpolicy led to attention being focused on forestconservation and the inclusion of this concept intopolicy and legal instruments. Despite these policyinitiatives, however, exploitation of forests bylogging, quarrying, collecting forest produce,pasturing cattle, and clearing for shifting cultivation(chena) continued. In the colonial period much ofthe deforestation occurred in the wet zone. In thepost-independence period (after 1948), forestclearing took place at an accelerated pace forshifting cultivation, land settlement, and expansionof irrigation agriculture, and this was mainly in thedry zone.

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The latest forest survey (in 1992) shows that"dense" natural forests (i.e. with over 75 per centcanopy cover) occupy 23.88 per cent of the totalland area. To this may be added the "sparse forests",consisting mainly of scrub vegetation, which cover7.01 per cent of the land area. The rate ofdeforestation can be gauged by the fact that 40years ago the forest cover was nearly double whatit is today (Figure 3.1).

Sri Lanka has a striking variety of foresttypes brought about by spatial variations in rainfall,altitude and soil. The forests have been categorisedbroadly as tropical wet lowland evergreen forests(at elevations between 0-1000 m); wet sub-montaneforests (at elevations between1000-1500 m in the wet zone);wet montane forests (at elevationsof 1500-2500m); tropical drymixed evergreen forests in the drylowlands, with riverine vegetationalong river banks; tropical moistevergreen forest in theintermediate zone; thorny scrubin the arid areas; and mangroveswamps in the coastal areas,fringing the lagoons and at theriver mouths. In addition,different types of grasslandsoccur in the wet and dry areas,in the lowlands as well as in thehills. As the wet lowland foreststransform into sub-montane andmontane forests, there is aprogressive decline in canopyheight, and at the highestelevations above 2000 m, uniquepygmy forests may occur. Themost extensive forest type, thetropical dry mixed evergreenforest, is characterized by acanopy that is relatively open andseldom exceeds 20 meters inheight. A survey based onLandsat imagery carried out in1992 gave the areas of the main types of naturalforest in the country as shown in Table 3.1.

The fragmented wet lowland forests of thecountry are of particular importance as theyconstitute the last remnants of the once widespreadmid-miocene tropical rain forests of Sri Lanka. Inthe lower slopes and valleys, these forests arecharacterised by a dense canopy of tree species

reaching 30-40 m in height, with emergents risingto about 45 m, and woody lianas that form anintricate network. Due to the height of the canopytrees and straightness of their boles, wet lowlandforests are considered to be very productive in termsof timber. As a result, many of the lowlanddipterocarp-dominated forests have been selectivelylogged in the past.

Wet zone rainforests are exceptionally richin biodiversity and high in endemism, especiallyamong the dipterocarps which constitute thecharacteristic tree flora of both wet lowland andhill forests and dominate the structural and floristiccomposition of these ecosystems. All endemic

genera and over 90 percent of the woodyendemic species occurin these forests, as wellas about 75 per centof the endemicanimals.

The southernlowland hills andplains extending fromthe east of Kalutara tothe southeast areexceptionally rich inplant diversity, and thisarea is believed to be,floristically, the richestin South Asia. Anotherinteresting feature isthat many endemics arerestricted to a singleforest or a singlecluster of forest blocks.For instance, theforests in the valleys ofthe foothills of Adam'sPeak andAmbagamuwa containmany highly localized

plant species. Stemenoporus moonii, a member ofan Lendemic genus, is restricted to the Waturanaforest, and Stemonoporus affinis, another very rarespecies, is confined to a small area within theKnuckles forest. Other species of Stemonoporusand species of another endemic genus Glenniea arefound in Warukandeniya, but not in Sinhagala andWaturawa, although all three sites are located within

A giant tree (a dipterocarp) in the Sinharaja Forest(S. Balasubramaniam)

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Figure 3.1 Sri Lanka Forest Cover in 1956 and 1992

Source: Adapted from Wijesinghe et.al., (1993)

FOREST COVER - 1956

FOREST COVER - 1992

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threatened species that it contains. In this forest,species endemism in some plant families (e.g.Dipterocarpaceae) exceeds 90 per cent.

Detailed studies of the floristic compositionof the forest demonstrate that no single part of it isrepresentative of the whole, due to microclimaticdifferences.

The Knuckles forest is important in terms ofrare species of woody plants and animals, some ofwhich are unique to this site. In addition, this forestcontains 14 of the 23 species of endemic birds;more than 50 per cent of the endemic fish, of whichnine are threatened and three are restricted to theforest; and a large number of butterflies andreptiles.

The Peak Wilderness Sanctuary is uniqueamong Sri Lanka's forests in having a range ofaltitudinally graded, structurally andphysiognomically distinct, and biologically diverseforest formations that include tropical lowland, sub-montane and upper-montane rain forests, andnatural grasslands. This forest is also floristicallyimportant in terms of the large number of rareendemics it contains.

It is unique in having the endemicStemonoporus spp. growing at high elevations, andShorea gardneri consociations occurring at altitudesof over 1800 m.

Due to historical factors, the dry zone forestsare secondary and seral, although climax vegetationcan be found in isolated hills such as Ritigala.Tropical dry mixed evergreen forests are thecharacteristic vegetation of the dry zone, and

the Sinharaja forest complex. Many species ofendemic fauna are also highly localised;examples are the endemic lizards Cophotisceylanica, found only in montane and cloudforest above 1300m, and Ceratophora tennenti,found only at elevations above 800 m in theKnuckles forest.

Some of the most important wet zoneforests in terms of biodiversity are the PeakWilderness Sanctuary (22,379 ha), theKanneliya-Dediyagala-Nakiyadeniya (KDN)Reserve (10,139 ha), the Sinharaja Forest(11,280 ha ), the Knuckles Range of Forests(21,650 ha) and the Horton Plains National Park(3159 ha). These forests are also importanthydrologically as they protect the headwaters ofall of Sri Lanka's main rivers.

The Kanneliya forest is notable for havingthe highest percentage of endemic woody species(60 per cent) of any single wet zone forest. Thestreams of this forest contain many species ofendemic fish, including several threatened species.Associated with these waterways are a number ofrare endemic amphibians such as Nannophrysguentheri, Ramanella palmata and Icthyophisglutinosus. The Sinharaja forest complex is also ofspecial importance because of its high speciesdiversity and the large number of unique and

Polypedates cruciger - the endemic common hour-glasstree frog (Ranil Perera)

A view of Peak Wilderness from Horton Plains(D. B. Sumithraarachichi)

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tropical moist evergreen forestsconstitute a distinct group in thelowland intermediate zone. Thenorthwestern and southeast cornersof the island constitute the arid zonein which the characteristicvegetation is thorny scrub.

Among the dry zone forests,Ruhuna National Park (blocks 1-4) is outstanding in terms of woodyspecies and faunal diversity. It isalso very rich in the number of rarespecies it contains. Overall, dryzone forests have a low level ofspecies endemism ranging from 10-16 per cent. In comparison, thelevels of endemism are high in wetzone forests, and range from 37-64per cent for woody plants and 14-52 per cent for animals. Dry zoneforests, though less diverse than wetzone forests floristically, are more

Elephants at the Ruhunu National Park (H.I.E. Katugaha)

Table 3.1: Areas of natural forest remaining in 1992, by forest type

Forest type Total forest area (ha) % of total land area

Montane forest 3,108 0.05

Sub montane forest 68,616 1.04

Lowland wet evergreen forest 141,506 2.14

Moist evergreen forest 243,886 3.69

Dry mixed evergreen 1,090,981 16.49

Riverine forest 22,435 0.43

Mangrove forest 8,688* 0.13

Total extent of "closed canopy"forest: 1,579,220 23.88

Open canopy:sparse forest 464,076 7.01

Total forest cover in the country: 2,043,296 30.89

The total area of mangrove habitats is around 12,500 ha (Source: Legg and Jewell, 1994) of Sri Lanka's mainrivers.

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extensive spatially, and they are important ashabitats for large mammals like the elephant.Notably, faunal groups such as carnivores,ungulates and primates show their highest speciesdiversity in the dry zone. The wet villu grasslandsin the flood plains of rivers of the dry zone areparticularly rich in biodiversity, especially amongthe large grazing and browsing herbivores. For this

reason, the dry zone forests merit specialconsideration for conservation planning.

Considering the protected areas in Sri Lanka,it is encouraging that nearly 14 per cent of thecountry falls into this category. The major part ofthe protected area system is under the control ofthe Department of Wildlife Conservation. However,

Box 3.1

What the NCR Reveals

The National Conservation Review (NCR) of Sri Lanka was carried out by the Forest Departmentwith technical assistance from IUCN The World Conservation Union. This unique exercise constituted asystematic assessment of biodiversity in the natural forests of the country. Its overriding objective was todefine a national system of protected areas in which watersheds important for soil conservation andhydrology are protected and forest biodiversity is fully represented, while meeting the cultural, economicand social needs of the country.

The review covered all natural forests in the country of 200 ha or more, except those in sectionsof the north and east which were inaccessible due to political unrest. Between April 1991 and September1996, 204 forests were subject to biodiversity assessment by sampling 1,725 plots of 100 m x 5 malong 310 gradient directed transects (gradsects). An important feature of the methodology used is thatgradsect sampling optimises the sampling of species in relation to time and effort. Although the biodiversityassessment was restricted to woody plants, vertebrates, molluscs and butterflies, the NCR is hailed asone of the most detailed, comprehensive and innovative evaluations of its kind carried out on a countrywide scale to date. The study has yielded 69,400 records of 1,153 woody plant species and 24,000records of 410 faunal species. A total of 281 forests were also evaluated for their importance in soil andwater conservation.

The NCR reveals that, although Sri Lanka has an extensive protected area network coveringalmost 14% of its land area, critical gaps exist in the context of biodiversity and hydrology conservation.The present protected area network does not adequately represent some floristic regions of the country,including areas that occur within the biodiversity rich wet zone. In addition, about 15% of indigenousterrestrial species diversity is not found within the established protected areas.

The NCR identifies the wet zone forests as the most important in terms of soil and waterconservation. As regards biodiversity, the survey has revealed that 79% of the woody plant diversity,88% of endemic woody plant diversity, 83% of faunal diversity, and 85% of endemic faunal diversityare represented in just eight units of contiguous forests: Bambarabotuwa, forests of the central highlands,Gilimale Eratne, KDN, Sinharaja and Pedro (all in the wet zone); Knuckles/Wasgomuwa (in theintermediate zone); and Ruhuna/Yala (in the dry zone). The comprehensive picture of natural terrestrialbiodiversity that has emerged through the NCR will provide valuable information for planning anoptimal network of protected areas.

The study has also provided dividends in other ways. Field trips during the survey have served tobring about new discoveries of plants and animals. In 1993 Rock Balsam Impatiens repens an endemicherb not seen for 136 years, was rediscovered. Another "lost and found" plant is Semecarpuspseudomarginata an endemic belonging to the mango family. A new species of lizard, and a new speciesof ebony are just a few among the 'new' species that were found during this unique survey.

Sources: Green and Jayasuriya (1996); Green (1997)

29


within the one million hectares of state forests underthe jurisdiction of the Forest Department, there aresome important protected areas. These include twointernational Biosphere Reserves (Hurulu andSinharaja) and many recently designatedconservation forests (31 forests so designated upto now). The protected areas under the ForestDepartment include theSinharaja, Knuckles, and KDNrainforests which are noted fortheir high levels of biodiversityand endemism. The Sinharajaforest has been statutorilydeclared a National HeritageWilderness Area. It is also aWorld Heritage (natural) Site,the only one so declared up tonow in Sri Lanka. (See Figure3.2 for protected areas). Untilrecently, despite the fact thatthe total area under protectionhad been large, many wet zoneforests that are criticallyimportant from the point ofview of biodiversityconservation were not withinthe protected area network.This is being remedied by theForest Department by thecreation of conservation forests.

As regards forest plantations, the ForestDepartment data indicate that the total area of forestplantations raised up to 1991 was 175,443 ha.Recent surveys using aerial photographs, where onlythe well-stocked plantations were covered, give thearea as 117,424 ha. Forest plantations of teak,eucalyptus and pine (none of which are indigenousto Sri Lanka) add up to nearly 90,000 ha. TheEucalyptus species most widely planted were E.grandis, E. microcorys and E. robusta. The pineis mainly Pinus caribaea. Other exotic specieshave also been used for forest plantations, but on alower scale. These include Swietenia macrophylla(broad leaf mahogany), Acacia spp. and Cedrelasp.

In the sphere of policy, there have beenseveral positive and encouraging developments inrecent years. There are well articulated forestryand wildlife policies declared by the government,which place special emphasis on the conservation

of biological diversity. In policy implementation,the Forest Department has assumed a greatlyenhanced role in conserving the nation's biodiversity.This is evident in many of the department's recentinitiatives, some of which are the creation of anenvironmental management division within thedepartment, the setting up of a database on forest

biodiversity, the creation of a new category ofprotected areas - conservation forests - throughamending legislation and the inclusion of many wetzone forests in this category, and the move towardslinking the management of the conservation forestswith development activities in the buffer zone. Inwildlife conservation, the current project supportedby the Global Environmental Facility offers muchscope for building capacity and strengtheningmanagement. This project has so far not realizedits full potential, but much could be done duringthe remaining period in the life of the project.

The Forestry Sector Master Plan of 1996, insharp contrast to the earlier Master Plan of 1986,places special emphasis on the conservation ofbiodiversity both in the forest and wildlife subsectors. It also advocates a reorientation of thetraditional approaches of both the Forest andWildlife Departments, to permit the involvement ofthe community in protected area management. Infact, in the management of the conservation forests,the Forest Department envisages an active

Wetland blooms (S. Balasubramaniam)

30

participatory role for the communities throughcommunity based organizations.

3.2 WetlandsWetlands, both natural and man-made, were

the centres of Sri Lanka's ancient hydrauliccivilization which thrived in the island for over athousand years and formed the hub of its cultural,economic and social evolution. Due to the systemof land use adopted in ancient times, catchmentareas and other importantwetlands in the uplandswere preserved underforest cover, while the dryzone lowlands wereirrigated using water fromthousands of rainfed tanksdotted throughout thisregion. This system of landuse served to conserve thebiodiversity of naturalwetlands. There is alsoevidence that theconservation ofbiodiversity in man-madetanks was givenconsideration in RoyalDecrees as early as thetwelfth century AD. Many of the wetland sites inSri Lanka are today being recognized as important,both regionally and globally; and one (Bundala)has been recognized internationally as a Ramsarsite.

The Convention on Wetlands of InternationalImportance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (alsocalled the RAMSAR Convention) defines wetlandsas "areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whethernatural or temporary, with water that is static,flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas ofmarine water, the depth of which at low tide doesnot exceed 6 m." Both natural and man-madewetlands occur throughout Sri Lanka, and compriseabout 15 per cent of the land area. Rivers andstreams, riverine floodplains, small isolatedfreshwater bodies, freshwater springs, seasonalponds, and fresh water marshes comprise naturalinland wetlands. Coastal wetlands include estuariesand lagoons with associated mangrove swamps,saline marshes, mudflats, and coastal seagrass beds.

The man-made wetlands are the rice paddies,irrigation tanks, large reservoirs, canals, andaquaculture ponds. They together make up abouttwo-thirds of the total area of all wetlands. Thissection deals mainly with the inland freshwaterwetlands.

Sri Lanka's river system (Figure 3.3),comprising 103 rivers flowing from the centralhighlands and making up a total collective lengthof about 4560 km, plays a dominant role in shapingthe wetland landscape. At the coast, where they

enter the sea, these riversform lagoons andestuaries. In the dryzone, the rivers and theirtributaries supply waterto the floodplains and toirrigation reservoirs.There are extensivemarshes and swampsassociated with therivers, which areimportant in terms ofFig. 3.2 biodiversity. Inassociation with theMahaweli Ganga and itstributaries alone, thereare about 10,000 ha offreshwater riverinemarshes which are very

rich in biodiversity and are highly productive.Riverine floodplains contain saucer-like depressions(villus) that become inundated with the overflowfrom rivers during the rainy seasons and contractduring drought conditions. The cyclic variation inhabitat conditions due to fluctuations in salinityand the depth of water is an important ecologicalfeature that fashions the biodiversity andproductivity of villus.

Although Sri Lanka does not have largenatural lakes, the total area covered by man-madewater bodies exceeds 170,000 ha. There are atpresent about 10,000 tanks which irrigate over500,000 ha of land for agriculture. Tanks range insize from 6500 ha down to about one hectare. Thevast majority are small; there are less than 100which exceed 300 ha in size. The tanks wereoriginally constructed many centuries ago. Theysubsequently fell into disuse and the forest reclaimedthe land. Many of the tanks in use today are theseold constructions which have been restored. The

Riverine vegetation (S. Balasubramaniam)

31


Figure 3.2 Protected Areas under the Department of Wildlife Conservation and ForestDepartment according to available records

Protected Areas under Department of Wildlife

INTERMEDIATEKURUNEGALA

WET ZONE

NUWARA ELIYA

ZONE

BADULLA

GALLE

MATARA

HAMBANTOTA

BATTICALOA

TRINCOMALEE

KANDY

10 0 10 20 30Km

COLOMBO

Protected Areas under Forest Department

International Biosphere Reserve

National Heritage Wilderness Area and InternationalBiosphere Reserve

Conservation Forests

Climatic Boundaries

Locations of smaller Sanctuaries

Larger Sanctuaries

Jungle Corridor

Nature Reserve

National Park

Strict Natural Reserve1234567123456712345671234567

JAFFNA

DRY ZONE

ANURADHAPURA

The Major Eco-systems

32

ecological conditions of these tanks vary in termsof depth; degree of siltation; pH; and the calcium,nitrate and phosphate levels of the water. Atpresent, the irrigation reservoirs and their associatedcanal network add up to about 2400 km2 . Therice paddies, both irrigated and rainfed, compriseabout 780,000 ha and are spread throughout thecountry.

Wetlands are valuable in terms of hydrology,plant and animal productivity, and biodiversity;and they carry out important functions in terms ofsustaining hydrological and chemical cycles.Swamps and marshes function as ground wateraquifers and are of indirect use in protecting theshoreline by regulating water flow. Wetlands arealso important as gene pools for wild varieties ofcrop species, such as wild rice.

In the uplands where the rivers originate,there is fast-flowing water. These streams andrivulets contain simple aquatic plant communitiesand species that are segregated based on theirdegree of tolerance of the speed of water flow.Species such as Dicraea elongata and Podostemumsubulatus are found in flowing water. In the lowlandstreams and rivers, and shallow tanks and ponds,there are various rooted aquatics with floating orsubmerged leaves such as Nymphaea spp.Nymphoides spp Nelumbo nucifera, Cabomba,Ceratophyllum, Ipomoea aquatica, Asteracanthalongifolia, Aponogeton crispum and Monochoriaspp. as well as submergent macrophytes such as

Jussiaea peruviana, and species of Potamogeton,Chara, Utricularia, Lemna and Najas. The deeperreservoirs contain floating plants such as Neptuniaoleracea, Azolla pinnata, Wolffia arrhiza, Pistiastratiotes and Hydrilla verticillata; fresh wateralgae, including unicellular and colonial chlorophytaand some filamentous forms; and several speciesof diatoms. When there is high eutrophication dueto pollution, fresh water bodies are dominated bythe exotic water weed Eichhornia crassipes and aheavy growth of Cyanophyta (blue-greens). Theintroduced water weed Salvinia molesta was aserious problem in the past, but has beensuccessfully eradicated from most water bodies dueto biological control measures. The shallow villagetanks often support a rich phytoplankton amongwhich are Oscillatoria, Microcystis, Hyella andCoelosphaerium. Grasses and sedges occur in theshallow submerged areas, with other herbaceousspecies such as Monochoria and Jussiaea. At thetank margins are sedges such as Cyperus andFimbristylis spp., rushes such as Typha spp. andemergent vegetation such as Ipomoea aquatica.Shrubs (e.g. Hibiscus tiliaceus) and small treesoccur in the adjacent high ground. River bankssupport gallery forests with tree species such asTerminalia arjuna Mitragyna parviflora, Madhucalongifolia, Polyalthia longifolia and Diospyrosmalabarica. Further away from the water, thevegetation merges into the natural forest typical ofthe area.

Faunistically, inland water bodiesare important in terms of zooplanktonand invertebrates. Diversity is especiallyhigh among the Rotifera. There are alsoseveral species of Cladocera, Copepoda,Monogenea and Hirudinea, andnumerous freshwater crustaceans.Inland wetlands are also home to over30 species of fresh water molluscs.

Freshwater aquatic systems are amongSri Lanka's most valuable habitats interms of macrofauna. The structuraldiversity of vegetation and theavailability of water and open spaceshas created an ideal habitat for wildlife,especially the larger grazing mammalssuch as deer, buffalo and elephant.Foremost among such habitats are theflood plains in the dry zone. Of all

Painted stork at Bundala- the only Ramsar Site in Sri Lanka (H.I.E. Katugaha)

33


Figure 3.3 Sri Lanka's River System

Source: Adapted from NARESA (1991)

River

34

wildlife habitats in the country, the Mahaweli floodplains are believed to support the highest animalbiomass, especially of large mammals. Wetlandscontain numerous species of reptiles, including twospecies of crocodiles, hard and soft shelledterrapins, the water monitor, and water snakes.The wetlands support almost all of the indigenousamphibian species. They also provide habitats forrare endemic species. Interestingly, the smallWaturana swamp forest in the wet zone is the onlysite in the world where the rare endemic treesStemenoporus moonii and Mesua stylosa occurand is also the habitat of one of the rarest ofendemic fishes, Lepidocephalicthys jonklaasi.Inland wetlands offer food, water and cover to arich diversity of avifauna, including many migratoryspecies. Wetland fauna also includes a number ofendemic reptiles, many of which are known to bethreatened - both nationally and internationally.

The species composition and biodiversity ofa wetland depends on the climatic zone in which itis located and on whether it is at the coast orinland. The rivers and streams that originate in therain forests of the wet zone constitute the mainhabitats for indigenous freshwater fish, includingalmost all the endemic species. The wet patanas inthe montane region (typically at Horton Plains) areunique in their characteristic wetland flora,including the patana grasses, reed bamboo, fernsand flowering herbs, as well as the stream fauna,such as the naturalized rainbow trout. TheAnuradhapura tanks, in the dry zone, are the homeof some species of fish (e.g. Puntius ticto andLabeo porcellus) that are limited to the dry zone.Coastal wetlands such as Bundala, the only Ramsarsite in Sri Lanka, host a large number of migrantbird species that winter in this country from Augustto April annually. Freshwater marshes, such as theBellanwila-Attidiya sanctuary, provide a habitatfor over 150 species of birds. Due to its urbanlocation and ease of access, this site is of greatvalue for conservation education, scientific researchand recreation. The Kalametiya sanctuary is ofspecial importance because of its avifauna, whichnumber over 150 species including water birds suchas pelicans, cormorants, herons, storks, egrets,ibises, migrant ducks and some rare species suchas the Black Capped Kingfisher and the IndianReef Heron.

Many components of wetland biodiversityare currently or potentially of economic value. They

carry out ecological functions that contribute,directly or indirectly, to the well being anddevelopment of communities. For instance, theyserve to prevent or mitigate floods following heavyrain. Coastal wetlands such as mangroves stabilizethe shoreline and prevent coastal erosion, andprovide important sites for aquaculture. Due to theirkey role in the cycling of nutrients, wetlands supporta high biomass and provide local people with wood,food, pasture and manure. They often serve as sinksfor urban wastes and a medium for transportation,and are of high aesthetic, recreational and scientificvalue.

Today, wetlands play a significant role inthe economy of Sri Lanka. Several of the largerreservoirs provide hydropower that constitutes alarge component of the national electricity supply.In addition, the inland fishery in tanks and reservoirsaccount for about 15 per cent of Sri Lanka's totalfish production and provides food and income forthe rural population. The importance andproductivity of the inland fishery increased withthe introduction of fingerlings of many exoticspecies, such as tilapia and gourami. However, theimportance of the inland fishery declined in 1990due to the withdrawal of state support at that time,but this has subsequently changed.

In the 1960s the environmental value ofwetlands began to be recognized in Sri Lanka, atfirst mainly as a habitat for waterfowl. Since then,there has been a growing interest in conservingwetlands and halting their destruction. A significantstep was taken in 1971 when Sri Lanka ratified theRamsar Convention through which the conservationof global wetlands is secured and governments arecommitted to conserve and manage their importantwetland sites.

In the late 1980s, the Sri Lanka LandReclamation and Development Corporation carriedout a feasibility study on the areas needed to be setapart for flood control in and around Colombo. Aninitiative to develop the Muthurajawela marshthrough a marine and sand fill operation alsoresulted in a comprehensive study of this marshand its environs, leading to the preparation of anenvironmental profile and master plan for this area.However, significant measures for the conservation-management of wetlands were taken only after thecommencement of the Wetland Conservation Projectby the CEA in 1991. This project spanned a period

35


of over six years and was instrumental inprioritizing wetlands for conservation-management,and preparing site reports for 23 wetlands andmanagement plans for ten of these areas. Threeother site reports are in preparation. The plansenvisage a sustained yield of multiple benefits witha minimum of resource use conflicts and within aframework of preserving the ecological, culturaland social values of the wetlands.

Most wetlands occur on state lands, but someare either wholly or partly under private ownership(e.g. Walauwawatte-Waturana swamp forest;Bellanwila-Attidiya Sanctuary). Some of the mostimportant wetlands occur within protected areasmanaged by the Department of WildlifeConservation. These include wetlands in theMahaweli flood plains, Maduru Oya, Yala East,Ruhuna, Bundala, Horton Plains and Wilpattu, andin the Kalametiya Sanctuary and the Bellanwila-Attidiya Sanctuary. The Muthurajawela marsh isalso under the Department of Wildlife Conservation.The Urban Development Authority; the

Departments of Forestry, Agriculture, Irrigation,and Fisheries; the Land Reclamation andDevelopment Board; and local government bodiesare involved to varying degrees with the use orconservation of wetlands outside the protected areanetwork. The Central Environmental Authoritydeals with the setting of environmental standardsand controls for these areas. The ProvincialCouncils and the Ministry of Fisheries and AquaticResources deal with the fisheries aspects of inlandwetlands.

Currently, a National Wetlands Policy isbeing formulated based on the recommendationsof the Strategy for Wetland Conservation in SriLanka prepared (in 1994) through the WetlandConservation Project of the Central EnvironmentalAuthority. A draft policy has been prepared withinthe framework of the conservation and sustainableuse of wetland resources. Recognizing themultifaceted and inter-sectoral issues that affectwetland biodiversity, the proposed interventionscover irrigation and drainage, aquaculture, fisheries,clearing of mangrove vegetation, landfills, sandmining, sea shell mining, coral mining, saltproduction, siltation, livestock grazing, use of minorproducts, and pollution.

3.3 Coastal and Marine Systems

In ancient times, Sri Lanka was at the hubof several important trade routes from differentparts of the world. Some of the most developedcities in the kingdoms of Maya rata and Ruhunurata - two ancient sub-divisions of the island -were also located along the coastal belt. Since the

The highly produtive mangrove ecosystem plays a vitalrole in the ecology and economy of coastal and marine

systems (S. Balasubramaniam)

The beauty of fire coral: Dendronephthya sp.(Arjan Rajasuriya - NARA)

36

sixteenth century, due to colonial rule, the coastalareas in the west and southwest coasts were subjectto extensive changes in terms of biodiversity, humanpopulation density, as well as cultural and socio-economic features.

Sri Lanka's coastal zone is defined by statuteas a two km wide band of ocean, and an adjoiningstrip of land extending 300 m inland; except thatwhere a water body connected to the sea occurs,the zone extends two kilometres inwards from themouth of the water body. The area defined formanagement purposes as the coastal regioncomprises all of the 67 administrative divisionswith a coastal boundary. This area extends about50 km inland from the coast and covers 24 percent of the land area. It contains 32 per cent of thetotal population (including 65 per cent of the totalurban population), about 90 per cent of theindustrial units and over 80 per cent of the touristinfrastructure, but these are concentrated only incertain parts of the region. Much of the coastalregion is sparsely populated, and many sectionsare at present not freely accessible due to conditionsof civil unrest.

The continental shelf around the island is 20

km in most parts. The Exclusive Economic Zone(EEZ) extends 200 nautical miles from the shoreand is almost four times the country's land area.Coastal waters extend from the shore to the edgeof the continental shelf, while the offshore watersof the country extend from the continental shelf tothe outer limits of the EEZ. The coastline which isabout 1585 km in length supports highly productivemarine ecosystems such as fringing coral reefs and

shallow beds of coastal and estuarine seagrasses.Other coastal habitats comprise an extensive systemof estuaries and lagoons (158,017 ha) (Figure 3.4),mangroves (12,500 ha), salt marshes (23,819 ha),sand dunes (7606 ha), beaches (11,788 ha), coastalmarshy wetlands (9,754 ha), and other water bodies(18,839 ha).

Marine fishery is the foremost economicactivity in the coastal zone and provides full orpart employment for about 100,000 people. Coastaland marine fisheries contribute 85 per cent of allfish production in the island, and provides about65 per cent of animal protein and 13 per cent ofthe total protein consumed nationally. Agriculturewithin the coastal zone is of secondary importance,but the much larger coastal region contains about21 percent of all paddy lands in the country andthe large bulk of the coconut land.

Coral reefs are rich in biodiversity and areimportant as habitats for flora and fauna, forcontaining coastal erosion, and for sustaining thecoastal fishery. Sri Lanka has well developed reefs,but the majority are of sandstone and rock, andboulder reefs are common along the southern andeastern coasts. In contrast, the extent of true coralreefs is limited: only about two per cent of thecoastline has fringing coral reefs (mostly alongthe southwestern, southern and eastern coasts) butoff-shore patch reefs are more extensive. Thereare also some well-developed off-shore coral reefs,especially in the Gulf of Mannar and west of theKalpitiya Peninsula. Coral reefs around the JaffnaPeninsula are less well developed, and generallyoccur around the coastal islands. A total of 68indigenous coral genera and 183 species have beenrecorded to date. The common coral genera areAcropora, Echinopora, Montipora, Porites, Favia,Favites, Pocillopora, Goniastrea, Platygyra andLeptoria. Invertebrates that occur among reefsconsist mainly of molluscs, sea anemones and seacucumbers. Marine algae, including Halimeda spp.,are found on sandy patches and coral rubblebetween live coral. Coral reefs may also supportaround 350 species of reef fishes, such as groupers,snappers, sweetlips, emperor fish, parrot fish,rabbit fish, surgeon fish, butterfly fish, and damselfish. Several species are harvested in the ornamentalfishery, and some, such as Chaetodon bennetti,Chaetodon unimaculatus and Balistoidesconspicellum, have small populations thoughwidely distributed.

The globally threatened hawksbill turtle ( Eretmochelysimbricata ) nests in Sri Lanka (Anuok Illangakoon)

37


Figure 3.4 Distribution of Basin Estuaries and Lagoons

Source: CCD (1996)

Thondaimannar Lagoon

Nanthi Kadal

Nayaru Lagoon

Kokkilai Lagoon

Kuchchaveli

PeriyakarachchiSinnakarachchi

UppuveliKoddiyar BayThambalagam

Bay

Ilakkantai

Uppur Lagoon

Vendeloos Bay

Batticaloa Lagoon

Periya Lagoon

Thandiodi LagoonKomari LagoonArugam Bay

Okandawara Bay

Palatupana SalternBundala SalternEmbitikala SalternMalala SalternKoholankola SalternMaha Saltern

Karagan SalternLunama LagoonKalametiya LagoonKahanda Lagoon

Mawella LagoonRekawa Lagoon

JaffnaLagoon

Puttalam Lagoon

Mundal Lake

Chilaw Lagoon

NegomboLagoon

Lunawa Lagoon

Bolgoda Lake

KalutaraLagoon

DedduwaLake

(Bentota)Madampe Lake

Ratgama Lake

Koggala LakeWeligama BayDondra Lagoon

38

Offshore fish species include large predatoryfish such as the black-tip reef shark and the white-tip reef shark, and food fish such as tuna, seerand skipjack. These waters also contain about 37species of cetaceans, including 20 species ofdolphins and the sperm - and blue-whales. Thedugong is also present in Sri Lankan waters, butis considered rare, and sightings have been mademainly off the Kalpitiya coast.

The shoreline and near-shore areas containa variety of marine habitats, including seagrassbeds. Among the invertebrate fauna are 201species of crabs. There are five species of turtlesthat come ashore for nesting on Sri Lankanbeaches. The fauna of the lagoons and estuariesare economically important. They include aboutfive annelids, 28 molluscs and 25 arthropods, noneof which is endemic. Sri Lanka has also beenknown over the years for its pearls from the pearloyster beds located in the northwestern coast of theisland, but these are now much reduced due toover-harvesting and siltation. The mangrove areasare discontinuous, but are important breedinggrounds for marine organisms. The flora found herecomprise both true mangroves and mangroveassociates, and some are limited in distribution tospecific parts of the coastline. Sri Lankan beachesvary in size and type. Many are wide and sandyand have high potential for tourism. They alsosupport a distinct littoral sandy shore faunaand flora.

First efforts at systematic coastalresource management in Sri Lankacommenced in the early 1980s with the settingup of the Coast Conservation Department(CCD). The Coast Conservation Act of 1981identified the CCD as the prime agency forcoastal issues and gave it the mandate tosurvey and inventory the coastal resources,issue permits for developmental activities inthe coastal zone, and prepare managementplans. The department is responsible for theconservation of natural coastal habitats andareas of cultural and recreational value andhas been successful in attracting funding forits work. Programmes carried out so farinclude mitigating coastal erosion, policydevelopment and coastal resources management.The CCD is expected to coordinate all sectoralactivities in the coastal zone, including the activities

of other state departments in the fisheries, shippingand tourism sectors, the Department of WildlifeConservation, the Forest Department, the UrbanDevelopment Authority, the Irrigation Departmentand the Central Environmental Authority.

The prime national institution for researchin the coastal and marine sector is the NationalAquatic Resources Research and DevelopmentAgency (NARA). Reef research in Sri Lanka isbeing carried out mainly by NARA. This institutionhas also initiated research on the ex situ

conservation of a few species of the fauna andflora which are becoming rare in their naturalhabitats. These include the sea cucumber

Ornamental fish associated with the productive and complex coralreef ecosystems (Arjan Rajasuriya - NARA)

Paddy fields are an integral component of the Sri Lankan landscape(Channa Bambaradeniya)

39


TABLE 3.2: EXTENT OF LAND UNDER

DIFFERENT AGRICULTURAL USES IN SRI

LANKA (1995)

Land Use Area

Paddy 780,000ha

Vegetables (including root and

tuber crops 110,000ha

Fruits 97,000ha

Other field crops 128,00ha

Plantation crops 772,000ha

Holothuria spinifera, two species of brackish waterornamental fish Scatophagus argus andMonodactylus argentius, and two species ofmangrove plants Heritiera littoralis andXylocarpus granatum.

A landmark event in coast conservationplanning was the preparation of the first nationalCoastal Zone Management Plan (CZMP) in 1990.It dealt mainly with the problem of coastal erosionand the degradation and loss of critical habitatsand sites of historic, cultural, scenic or recreationalvalue within the coastal zone. Subsequently,"Coastal 2000: Recommendations for a ResourceManagement Strategy for Sri Lanka's CoastalRegion", was produced in 1992 and endorsed bythe Cabinet of Ministers in 1994. This documentaddresses coastal zone management moreholistically than in the 1990 plan, and takes intoaccount social and economic factors in identifyingmeasures to conserve unique natural coastalresources with the long term goal of sustainableuse. A deficiency in the plan of 1990 was its failureto recognize the importance of giving aparticipatory role to local stakeholders in themanagement of coastal resources. This shortcomingis rectified in the strategy of 1996 which promotesthe formulation and implementation of Special AreaManagement (SAM) Plans for selected coastal sites.At present SAM Plans have been prepared forHikkaduwa and Rekawa, and implementation of

areas. These are: the Marine Pollution PreventionAct (1981) that provides for prevention, reductionand control of pollution in Sri Lankan waters andhas provision for penal action for any form ofmarine pollution or damage to live marine resourcesand wildlife; the Fisheries and Aquatic ResourcesAct (revised in 1996) that provides for the integratedmanagement, regulation, conservation anddevelopment of fisheries and aquatic resources inSri Lanka, and the declaration of fisheries reserves;the Fauna and Flora Protection Ordinance (revisedin 1993) that provides protection to specifiedthreatened species of corals, fish and turtles andall marine mammals in Sri Lankan waters; theNational Environmental Act (amended in 1988) thatforbids pollution of marine waters; the Crown LandsOrdinance of 1929 that bans the removal of corals;and the Forest Ordinance which can be used fortaking action against those responsible for the illicitcutting of mangroves or encroaching on such land.Notwithstanding the multiplicity of statutes thatare expected to act as deterrents, degradation ofcoastal and marine habitats continues to take placedue to deficiencies in the laws and law enforcementand the failure to recognize the social dimensionsof the problem when attempting to take remedialaction.

Several marine areas have been identified asdeserving protection, but currently there are onlytwo areas that have been declared as marinesanctuaries. The Bar Reef, located west of theKalpitiya peninsula in the vicinity of Puttalamlagoon, was declared a marine sanctuary in 1992.The total area of the sanctuary is 306.7 km2. Thecore zone, with an area of 70km2, supports truecoral reefs. Around 300 species of reef associatedfish have been recorded in the Bar Reef, and some(e.g. Chaetodon semeion) are restricted to thissite. The Hikkaduwa marine sanctuary is locatedin the southern province of Sri Lanka. It is 45 hain extent, with about 25 ha of corals within andabutting the sanctuary. This area is endowed witha near-shore coral reef with about 60 coral speciesand 168 reef fish species. The sanctuary is also thecentre of lucrative tourist based activities.

3.4 Agricultural SystemsSri Lanka has been an agrarian-based society

for more than 2500 years. At present agriculturecontributes 20 per cent to the country's GNP, secondonly to the manufacturing sector. Currently, an

some of the proposed activities has commenced.

There are several statutes, in addition to theCoast Conservation Act, that can influence theconservation of biodiversity in coastal and marine

40

estimated 1.8 million families are engaged infarming, and nearly 75 per cent of the country'slabour force is dependent upon the agriculturalsector (including plantations) for its income andsustenance. The Sri Lankan agricultural scene isdominated by small-holders, and over 64 per centof farming families in the country cultivate smallholdings of less than 0.8 ha.

The agricultural landscape of the countryconsists mainly of rice paddies, covering 780,000ha of cultivated land, and the plantation sectoramounting to about 772,000 ha. The plantationcrops are tea, rubber, coconut and sugarcane, and,on a smaller scale, coffee, cocoa, cinnamon, pepper,clove and other spices.

Paddy cultivation receives the highestattention in the agricultural sector. Rice constitutesthe staple food of the population and is thebackbone of Sri Lanka's agriculture and its ancientculture. Other crops in this sector include over100 species used as items of food. Many of these,such as onion, potato and vegetables, remain asmall farmer activity, and most fruit species aregrown in home gardens. A few crops, such aschilli and cashew, are grown on a semi-commercialscale. A good many field crops also continue to beharvested from chena plots in the dry zone. Thismethod of agriculture, involving the "slash andburn" of forest vegetation, has caused widespreadforest destruction in the dry zone where it ispractised, and adversely affected biodiversity.

Table 3.2 gives the areas of land underagriculture in Sri Lanka.

Over the years there has been an expansionof agriculture resulting in an increase in thecultivated land area from around 1.35 millionhectares in 1956 to around 2.02 million hectaresin 1995. Home gardens also make a substantialcontribution to agricultural production, and it isestimated that there are now a total of around 1.33million home gardens in Sri Lanka, accounting forabout 367,800 ha of cultivated land. Home gardensconstitute a traditional system of perennial croppingfor a wide range of valuable crops and areconsidered important sites for in-situ conservationof crop germplasm. Today, however, only thosecategorized as Forest Gardens or the typicalKandyan home gardens in the districts of Kandy,Matale, Kegalle and Kurunegala are worthy of

being recognized as such, and even these are nowknown to be dwindling due to land fragmentationcaused by the rapidly changing socio-economicconditions in these areas.

Sri Lanka's farming systems which haveevolved over thousands of years include a richarray of cultivated plants including grains,vegetables, fruits and spices, and livestock. Addingto this, numerous new local cultivars have beendeveloped in the plantation sector during thiscentury.

In terms of crop biodiversity, the long historyof rice cultivation and the wide range of eco-edaphicconditions present in the country have resulted inSri Lanka having a wide varietal diversity of Oryzasativa. Indigenous rice varieties show adaptabilityto various adverse climatic conditions. For instance,traditional upland varieties are well known for theirdrought tolerance; varieties grown in the coastalareas and floodplains of rivers possess toleranceof submergence and flash floods; the few ricevarieties cultivated at higher elevations (over 1000m) can grow at low temperatures; and severalvarieties show broad-based resistance to seriouspests and to high salinity and other adverse soilconditions.

Sri Lanka also has considerable biodiversityin terms of other cereals such as millet, sorghumand maize. Finger millet is the staple food of thedry zone chena cultivator, and is grown in almostall the chena holdings. Maize is also widelycultivated in the dry zone for human consumptionand animal feed. In contrast, the cultivation ofsorghum is very limited in extent and is restrictedto the drier parts of the country. Unlike rice, mostother cereals have undergone little selection byfarmers.

Grain legumes, such as cow pea, green gram,black gram, winged bean, and soya bean constitutean important source of protein for most SriLankans, particularly in rural areas, and areincreasingly used for crop diversification. Wingedbean, in particular, shows much genetic variabilityas is evident in the seed colour, pod size and flowercolour.

Sri Lanka has been world-renowned for itsspices for centuries. There are at least eightindigenous species of Cinnamomum, of which thewild species are restricted to the natural forests of

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the wet zone. Cultivation of cinnamon forcommercial purposes has also been widespread inthe south-western coastal areas since the midfifteenth century. Another important local spice cropis Elettaria cardamomum. Cardamom cultivationand the cultural practices associated with it in theKnuckles forest, where conditions are ideal for thegrowth of this species, has had very adverse effectson forest biodiversity and the regeneration of canopyspecies. The spice plant Piper nigrum (pepper)and the betel leaf plant Piper betle are both widelycultivated in the lowland wet and intermediate zonesof Sri Lanka. The latter is sometimes grown inforest deniya lands, causing the destruction ofwetlands in the forest. Syzygium aromaticum(clove) is cultivated in home gardens of the Kandyanand Matale districts, and Areca catechu (arecanutor betelnut) is a common home garden species inthe wet zone. A wild relative of arecanut, A.concinna, is considered endangered in the wild.Among other spice crops found in Sri Lanka arethree species of nutmeg (Myristica), two species ofchilli, (Capsicum annum and C. frutescens) andone species each of ginger (Zingiber officinale) andturmeric (Curcuma longa).

Among the horticultural crops grown in SriLanka, there are several cultivars of banana (Musaspp.) cultivated in the different agro-ecologicalregions of the country. Interestingly, M. acuminataand M. balbisiana, the parent species of thecultivated banana are both present in Sri Lanka.There is also considerable genetic variation amonga wide range of fruit crops, such as citrus, mango,avacado and jak, that are grown mainly in homegardens. Other fruit crops such as durian,pomegranate, rambutan, guava and papaw havealso been in cultivation for a long time and exhibita wide range of genetic diversity. Fruit crops suchas wood apple and velvet tamarind are a source ofincome for the dry zone farmers, and are harvestedfrom forests for sale. Of concern is the fact thatharvesting of the latter species from forests isdestructive as it involves chopping down of largefruit bearing branches to facilitate collection.

Sri Lanka has a large number of vegetables,including both temperate and tropical species,cultivated throughout the country. Among these,cucurbits, tomato and eggplant exhibit high geneticdiversity. There is also a fair number of root andtuber crops, of which cassava, dioscorea and innala

show considerable genetic variation. Sweet potato,although introduced to this country, is naturalizedand has high genetic variability.

With regard to the ex situ conservation ofagricultural germplasm, this activity was placedon a sound scientific footing by the setting up ofthe Plant Genetic Resources Centre for the cryopreservation of plant germplasm. (See Table 3.3).Other institutions carrying out ex situ conservationof food crops, but only as field gene banks, arethe Horticultural Crops Research and DevelopmentInstitute (for fruit and vegetable species, root andtuber crops), the Rice Research and DevelopmentInstitute (for rice genes), and the Field CropResearch and Development Institute (coarse grains,grain legumes and condiments). These institutesare under the Department of Agriculture. TheDepartment of Export Agriculture maintains germplasm of coffee, cocoa, cardamom and clove. Thereis an inadequacy of field gene banks for traditionalspecies of fruits (e.g. madan, atamba, divul,himbutu), grain legumes, and medicinal plants.

The economy of Sri Lanka has been longdominated by plantation crops, mainly tea, rubberand coconut. Tea germplasm, originally introducedfrom Assam in 1839, has undergone selectionthrough breeding programmes, and the selectedgenotypes are being conserved in numerousbreeding stations and tea estates in the country.Selection and vegetative propagation have resultedin a series of high-yielding tea clones that areresistant to pests, diseases and drought, and havehigh rates of fermentation. The rubber plantationsin Sri Lanka were initially derived from a highlyinbred selection of lines derived from SouthAmerican seedlings introduced to the country in1876. Clonal propagation of these lines for selectedcharacters narrowed down this genetic base until,in the early 1980s, 6000 new accessions wereintroduced from Malaysia from a special collectionof wild Hevea germplasm brought in by theInternational Rubber Research and DevelopmentBoard from Brazil. With regard to coconut, anumber of new varieties and hybrids have beendeveloped in Sri Lanka, and much of this workhas been carried out by the Coconut ResearchInstitute. The three crop plantation researchinstitutes and the Sugar Research Institute conservetheir respective germplasms as live genebanks attheir field stations.

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TABLE 3.3 GERMPLASM COLLECTION STATUS BY CROP GROUP AT THE PGRC

Rice 2 3809 34.0Other cereals 9 785 7.0Grain legumes 14 1907 17.0Vegetables 52 2927 26.1Spices & condiments 9 500 4.5Fruits 16 363 3.2Root & tubers 7 309 2.8Oil seeds 3 180 1.6Medicinal plants 12 21 0.2Wild relatives of crop species 26 308 2.7Other - 96 0.9

Total 150 11205 100

Crop Group Number of PercentageCollectionSpecies Accessions

Sri Lanka also has about 170 species ofplants of ornamental value, of which about 74species are endemic. Notably, the natural habitatsfor several Dendrobium and Vanda species andmany foliage plants of commercial value are thewet zone forests of the country.

In the livestock industry, the animalscommonly reared comprise neat cattle (1,644,000),buffalo (760,900), goats (535,200), sheep (11,400),pigs (84,800) and poultry (9,136,600). Theindigenous cattle have a very low genetic potentialfor milk production, but are resistant to diseasesand have the ability to feed on coarse grasses.Several foreign breeds of cattle have been introducedto the country over the last four decades in aneffort to boost milk production.

With regard to the local breed of buffalo,there is as yet some uncertainty about its origins.Although it has been stated that it is not indigenousand the wild form is feral, recent evidence fromfossil discoveries indicates the existence at sometime in the past of an indigenous species of buffaloidentified as a swamp type. It is believed that over

95 per cent of the buffaloes in the country are theindigenous "Lanka Buffalo", while the rest are offoreign origin and belong to the river type. Theexotic breeds are the Murah and Surti from Indiaand the Nili-Ravi breed from Pakistan. Little isknown about the indigenous varieties of goats, sheepand pigs, and there have been only little efforts toidentify and conserve genepools of these breeds.

The local backyard breed of scavengingpoultry that are resistant to tropical diseases andwere commonly found in many village householdsprior to 1960s are fast disappearing due to thestrong preference for imported germplasm.

Efforts have been made by the Departmentof Animal Production and Health and theVeterinary Research Institute (VRI) to conservethe indigenous animal species of economic value,but they are constrained by insufficiency of fundsand infrastructure. The private sector plays animportant role in the maintenance of germplasm oflivestock, particularly of poultry, and it regularlyimports exotic germplasm.

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Bio-regions

Sri Lanka’s landscape presents a rich mosaic offorests, wetlands, agricultural land, and coastal andmarine systems whose character and distributionare conditioned by the wide range of climate,topography, and soil types found in the island. Theclimatic and geomorphological variations in thecountry have resulted in a clear demarcation intobroad climatic, floristic and faunal zones, and thisinformation was used for identifying bioregions.The biodiversity rich ecosystems in the island, suchas the lowland rainforest and the coral reefs, areconfined spatially to specific geographic areas.These areas often present special problems forbiodiversity conservation. One example is thebiodiversity rich wet zone forests that are underthreat due to the high population density in thesurrounding areas and the acute shortage of land.Another example is the threat to the coastal andmarine habitats in the west and southwest causedby overharvesting of marine resources. Theseproblems have to be addressed through location-specific conservation action.

In recent times there has been an increasingcommitment by the government to decentralize thestate administration to the provincial and districtlevels. Devolution would mean that biodiversityconservation would have to become an integral partof the regional planning and development process.In this context, and also because much of the actionrecommended for the conservation of biodiversityfocuses on the conservation of species in situ andof habitats, the identification of biodiversity regionsfor priority action will help the regionaladministrators and planners to recognize and includein their programmes the areas needing urgent actionfor biodiversity conservation action. It would alsoenable national level state institutions directlyconcerned with biodiversity conservation to identifyareas for priority action in terms of implementingthe recommendations in the BCAP. Thusbiodiversity regions were identified primarily tofacilitate the identification of spatially defined areasfor conservation action.

The identification of bio-regions for SriLanka is a new concept, and the demarcation intobio-regions as proposed in this Plan should betreated as provisional. A careful analysis of current

climatic and geo-physical classifications, the faunaland floral distribution patterns, and the biodiversityrichness of different parts of the country led to theidentification of the terrestrialbio-regions. The coastal and marine biodiversityregions were defined within a belt extending 300m inland from the level of high tide through to22.2 km (12 nautical miles) into the ocean. Thebio-regions within this area were demarcatedaccording to the presence of characteristicbiological resources (e.g. coral reefs) and their uses,the presence of special habitats, and threats tobiodiversity due to human activity. A total of 15bio-regions was recognized (Table 4.1, Figure4.1).

In order to assess the relative importanceof these bio-regions for biodiversity conservation,different parameters were used based on theavailable data. In respect of each parameter, priorityratings were assigned to each bio-region. For theterrestrial bio-regions, the criteria used are givenbelow.

• Degree of threat, based on

❏ population density

❏ development pressure, indicated by

❍ percentage of urban population bydistrict

❍ number of schools per 30 km2 bydistrict

• Biodiversity, based on

❏ available data, including preliminaryresults of the National ConservationReview

• Economic potential, based on

❏ number of traders by district

• Access, based on

❏ road network, length per 100 km2,by district

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• Forest coverage

• Watershed value

An additional criterion, security risk, wasalso used since this is important in the currentcontext. A subjective judgement was made inrelation to the different districts where civiladministration was weak due to disturbances. It isclear that a re-evaluation would have to be madeonce normalcy is restored in these areas. Highratings for threats, economic potential, access, andspecies and ecosystem richness contributedpositively towards priority rating, while a high forest

cover and security risk contributed negatively.

A different set of criteria was used forpriority ranking of the coastal and marine bio-regions. The geomorphology of the coastal areas,and marine resources, their uses and threats, werethe criteria used.

On the basis of the ranking, the regionsidentified for priority action for biodiversityconservation were terrestrial regions 4,5, and 6,and coastal and marine regions 11, 13 and 14.These bio-regions are described briefly below.

Bio-region 4 (wet lowlands)

This covers the districts of Colombo,Gampaha, Kalutara, Galle and Matara, and partsof the Ratnapura, Kandy and Kegalle districts. Theregion receives about 2500 mm to 5000 mm ofrainfall, with no drought months. The altitudeextends from sea level to about 1000 m. The meanannual temperature is 27°C at sea level. The soiltype in this region is basically red-yellow podzolicsoils with soft and hard laterite in the lowerelevations. The terrain ranges from flat to rollingand undulating.

The tropical lowland wet evergreen forestbest represents the climax vegetation of this bio-region. The remaining forests are concentratedmainly in the Galle and Matara districts. They arehighly fragmented and many of them are smallblocks of a few hundred hectares each. Thesouthwestern section of this region is floristicallythe richest in Sri Lanka, with the highest percentageof endemic species among both the fauna and flora;it has been rated (by Ashton and Gunatilleke) as,floristically, the richest region in South Asia. Theclimax forests of this bio-region are dominated byDipterocarp species, among which endemismreaches 90 percent, and some species are very rareand heavily localised. These forests also showconsiderable micro-climatic differences within arelatively small spatial area. At present, 93 percent of endemics in the rain forests of this bio-region are either Endangered, Vulnerable or Rareaccording to the IUCN Red Data Book criteria.This is mainly due to the high human populationpressure on the limited land resources of this regionand consequent loss of forest habitats, and over-exploitation of forest resources. The SinharajaWorld Heritage Site and the KDN forest reserve(one of the richest in terms of biodiversity andendemism) are located in this bio-region.

Bio-region 5 (wet midlands)

This bio-region occurs mainly in theRatnapura district and some parts of the Kegalledistrict. This region corresponds to the wet sub-

An inside view of the Sinharaja forest (Vimukthi Weeratunga)

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TABLE 4.1 THE BIO-REGIONS - BASIC INFORMATION

Bio- Identification of regions Key climatic and biologicalregion features

1 Arid zone Tropical thorn scrub with isolated trees. Altitude 0 100 m. Annual rainfallless than 1250 mm (mainly from Oct. Jan.). More than 5 dry months(month with less than 50 mm rainfall).

2 Dry zone Dry mixed ever green forest. Altitude 0 500 m. Annual rainfall 1250 - 1900mm (mainly from Oct.- Jan.). 4-5 dry months.

3 Intermediate zone Moist evergreen forest. Altitude 0 -1000 m. Annual rainfall 1900 - 2500mm. Less than 3 dry months.

4 Lowland wet zone Tropical (lowland) wet evergreen forest. Altitude 0 - 1000 m. Annual rainfall2500 - 5000 mm. No dry months.

5 Sub-montane wetlands Sub-montane evergreen forest. Altitude 1000 - 1500 m. Annual rainfall2500 - 5000 mm. No dry months.

6 Wet highlands Montane evergreen forest. Altitude 1500 - 2500 m. Annual rainfall 2500 -5000 mm. No dry months.

7 Intermediate highlands Dry patanas. Altitude 1000 - 1500 m. Annual rainfall 1900 - 2500 mm.Less than 3 dry months.

8 Kathiraveli to Mullaitivu Coral reefs and rocky habitats (comparable to bio-region 9), mangrove(mineral sands) habitats, lagoons and estuarine systems (Trincomalee), and mineral sands

(Mullaitivu area). Large marine mammals (whales) present. Important forfisheries.

9 Panama to Kathiraveli Near-shore coral reefs (relatively extensive but less than in bio-region(eastern lagoon systems) 14). The Great and Little Basses reefs, mangrove habitats associated with

lagoon systems, multiple lagoons and estuarine systems (Batticaloa). Importantfor fisheries and has minimal human interference (Panama to Kalmunai).

10 Tangalle to Panama Rocky and sandstone habitats, shield lagoons and estuarine deltas (Tangalle(wildlife habitats) to Ambalantota), extensive sand dunes (Ambalantota to Dorawa Point), and

large lakes and lagoons (lewayas). Conservation areas including nationalparks and turtle nesting sites. Coastal wetlands include a RAMSAR site,and salt production in lewayas.

11 Hikkaduwa to Tangalle Rocky and near shore coral reefs and pockets of mangrove habitats(near-shore coral beds) (Koggala, Polwattu modhara in Weligama). Important for fisheries and

tourism. Coral beds over-exploited for the lime industry, coastal erosion.

12 Chilaw to Hikkaduwa Coastal marshes and lagoon systems. (Chilaw to Peliyagoda), pocketedmangrove habitats (Chilaw, Bolgoda, Panadura, Kalutara, Bentota), andsandstone rocky habitats and sandstone reefs (Galle Face to Mt. Lavinia).Beach seine fishery, tourism associated with sandy beaches, and high humanpopulation density.

13 Kandakuliya to Chilaw Coral reefs, sandstone reef habitats, swamp marshes, lagoons and associated(western marshes) mangrove ecosystems (Puttalam), important for fisheries and prawn farming.

14 Mannar to Kandakuliya Extensive coral reefs, sandstone reef habitats, sand dunes, mud flats, salt(large off-shore coral beds) marshes (Kalpitiya), and limestone rich soil. Dugong sightings.

15 Mullativu to Mannar Coral reefs lie off-shore (north of Jaffna Peninsula). Sandstone reef(limestone beds) habitats, limestone rich soil, shallow-wide continental shelf, salt marshes,

lagoon systems, associated mangrove habitats (Jaffna), and sand dunes. Fishresources unexploited for the past decade.

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ranges from about 1500 m to 2500 m, in the wetzone. The rainfall regime is broadly similar to thatin the low and mid country wet zone, but thetemperature is appreciably lower. At highelevations, on a few days in the year, thetemperature drops to below zero Celcius at nightand there is the occurrence of ground frost. Thisregion contains the higher elevations of the PeakWilderness Sanctuary and the Horton PlainsNational Park and parts of the KnucklesConservation Forest. The soils in this regions arered-yellow podzolic soils with mountain regosolsin the higher elevations. The topography is steeplydissected and rugged in the upper reaches of thehills. The vegetation characteristic of this regionis montane evergreen forest. They are important incontaining dipterocarps at higher elevations thanelsewhere in the world. The forests at the highestelevations in this region are also characterised byunique pygmy forests. Wet patanas or wet montanegrasslands containing sub-alpine flora also occurin this region.

The forests of this region are threatenedby encroachments for tea planting and vegetable

Foothills of the Adam's Peak Range (S. Balasubramaniam) The characteristic gnarled trees at Horton Plains(S. Balasubramaniam)

montane area of the country. At around 1000 maltitude in the wet zone, there is a clear transitionof the natural vegetation into hill forest or sub-montane evergreen forest, and this forest type isfound up to about 1500 m. The rainfall regime isbroadly similar to that in the low country wet zone,but the temperature is a few degrees lower. Theterrain is steeply dissected, hilly and rolling in themid elevations. The forests occur on the foothillsof the Adam’s Peak range around Hatton, Kotagalaand Dambakelle, and on the upper slopes ofSinharaja. Some forests of this region areexceptionally rich in heavily localised and rareendemic tree flora. These submontane forests arealso important catchment areas for several rivers.Forests of this region have been impoverished dueto selective logging. The Eratna-Gilimale ProposedForest Reserve and the Bambarabotuwa ForestReserve are located in this area.

Bio-region 6 (wet highlands)

This bio-region covers the Nuwara Eliyadistrict and a part of the Badulla district. Its altitude

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Figure 4.1 Bioregions of Sri Lanka

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gardening. Although village settlements are situatedsomewhat away from these forests, there is a distinctthreat from collection of firewood by villagers.

Bio-region 11 (near shore coral beds)

This bio region covers a 22.2 km (12nautical miles) wide marine area and a 300 mcoastal belt from Hikkaduwa to Tangalle in thedistricts of Galle and Matara. This region covers abelt of coral reefs which, though relatively narrow,is important due to its proximity to the coast andthe richness of its fauna and flora. These reefs areof importance in the tourist industry, and becauseof easy access they have been well studied. Thedominant species of coral found in this area belongto the families Acroporidae, Faviidae, Poritidae,Mussidae, and Pocilloporidae. Most shallow water,near shore reefs are dominated by Acropora sp.,Montipora sp., Porites sp., Favia sp., Favitessp., Echinopora lamellosa and species ofPocillopora, Platygyra and Goniastrea. A typicalnear-shore reef in this area supports 40 to 50species of coral. The marine plants in the coastalwaters of this region include many species of algaefound on sandstone, coral reef or rock formations.There is large scale destruction of the coral reefsfor the lime industry, and several tons of live coralare collected annually from this area. This regionis also famous for the beach seine fishery andthe characteristic wide sandy beaches which are apopular tourist attraction. The Hikkaduwa marinesanctuary is situated in this region.

Bio-region 13 (western marshes)

This bio-region covers a 300 m wide inlandstrip and extends 22.2 km offshore, stretching fromKandakuliya to Chilaw, in the district of Puttalam.It includes mangroves, mud flats, sand dunes and asystem of lagoons.

This area is important in terms of thelagoon ecosystems, in which the faunal biodiversity

is not high, but is of considerable economicimportance. This region is critical because of itseconomic significance in aquaculture development,which has led to the extensive exploitation of coastalwetland habitats for the establishment of prawnfarms.

Bio-region 14 (large off-shore coral reefs)

This covers a 22.2 km wide marine areaand a 300 m coastal belt from Mannar toKandekuliya in the districts of Mannar andPuttalam. It has some of the largest and welldeveloped offshore coral reefs of this country,including the Bar Reef marine sanctuary whichcontains intact coral reefs and sandstone habitats,and harbours dolphins and turtles. Off-shore coralpatches in this region may extend 100 m or moreacross and are usually found beyond a distance oftwo kilometres from the shore-line. Although muchof the larger coral reefs in this region are spared ofexcessive destruction, some are severely degradeddue to adverse fishing methods and feeding by theCrown of Thorns starfish. This region is alsoimportant due to its fringing mangrove vegetationand an extensive shallow lagoon system includingPortugal Bay, Dutch Bay and the coastal areas ofthe Wilpattu National Park. Sea turtles are caughtregularly in this area. It is also important due toits abundant fish stock and habitats for diversefauna. The fauna include juvenile and adult fishand many species of commercially importantinvertebrates including the spiny lobster and crabs.This region also contains extensive sea grass bedsthat are the habitat of the endangered dugong.

There is an urgent need for management ofactivities connected with fishing practices by bothnational and foreign trawling vessels, and forstringent measures to conserve the valuable coralreefs of this region.

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Principles, Goal and Broad Objectives

5.1 Biodiversity ManagementPrinciples

The success of biodiversity conservation will dependon how well the overall landscape is managed tominimize loss. The needs of the people and theiractivities must be reconciled with the maintenanceof biodiversity. Protected areas must be integratedinto natural and modified surroundings. Themanagement of farms, forests, grasslands andwetlands should be on the same planning frameworkas development activities like village settlement,irrigation, land restoration, etc. There are no simpleprescriptions on how this could be done.

The principles that are likely to provideguidance in biodiversity conservation managementare as follows.

• Every form of life is unique; each plays adistinctive role in the web of life and warrantsrespect and consideration by mankind.

• Conservation of biodiversity is a commonconcern of all citizens, and the country has astake in, and the sovereign right to use, itsbiological resources for its own benefit.

• Biodiversity conservation is an investmentthat yields substantial benefits to its trustees;ensuring a larger market share of benefits tolocal communities will foster sustainable use.

• Costs and benefits of biodiversityconservation should be shared equitably;corrections in imbalances in the control ofland and resources can reduce biodiversitylosses.

• The best long-term economic use ofbiodiversity is that which will maintain theecological and cultural values of ecosystems.

• Recognition that both in situ conservationand ex-situ preservation of biodiversity arekey tools in management of biodiversityconservation.

• All sectors that influence biodiversity shouldhelp plan its conservation.

• Living resources cannot be sustainablymanaged exclusively by communities orgovernments. The government mustrecognize the interests and rights ofcommunities, while the community mustrecognize that such management is part of alarger political and economic framework.

• Recycling and conservation can directlyreduce demand for biological resources andcan reduce the pressure on natural habitats.

• Biodiversity conservation can be sustainedif public awareness and concern aresubstantially increased, and if policy-makershave access to reliable information uponwhich to base policy options.

• Revising public policies that result in thewasteful use of biodiversity or in irreversibleloss of biodiversity should facilitateconservation management.

The many principles that set a frameworkfor conservation management lead inevitably to anintegrative approach. It involves a variety of interestgroups, communities and state agencies on the onehand and a range of natural and modified habitatson the other. These principles have guided thepreparation of this framework plan of action forthe conservation of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity.

5.2 The Goal of BiodiversityConservation

The recognition of the intrinsic value ofbiological diversity, and of the ecological, genetic,social, economic, scientific, educational, cultural,recreational and aesthetic values of biologicalsystems and their components for the well beingand survival of all living beings, was the primarymotive force for the development of a globalstrategy for the conservation and sustainable useof biological diversity. The global communityrecognizes that:

(a) biodiversity is important for evolution andfor maintaining life sustaining systems ofthe biosphere,

(b) conservation of biological diversity is acommon concern of humankind,

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(c) biological diversity is being significantlyreduced by certain human activities, and thatit is vital to anticipate, prevent and attackthe causes of significant reduction or loss ofbiological diversity at source,

(d) where there is a threat of significant reductionor loss of biological diversity, lack of fullscientific certainty should not be used as areason for postponing measures to avoid orminimize such a threat, and

(e) all countries have sovereign rights over theirown biological resources, and are responsiblefor conserving their biological diversity, andfor using their biological resources in asustainable manner.

Sri Lanka has endorsed the global concern,and resolved to set its goal and objectives and todeploy the resources at its disposal to evolve itsown strategic plan of activities for containing theerosion of biological diversity and ensuring itssustenance for the benefit of present and futuregenerations.

The overall national goal of biodiversityconservation is, therefore, to conserve thebiological diversity of Sri Lanka, while fosteringits sustainable use for the benefit of the presentand future generations.

5.3 The Broad ObjectivesIn order to achieve the goal in the long

term, the following broad objectives are set out.

1. To build capacities and develop programmesfor gaining a better understanding of thedifferent components of the country’sindigenous biological diversity and theprocesses that govern their functioning.

2. To identify adverse impacts (includingpotential impacts) on the differentcomponents of biodiversity; to take action tomitigate such impacts and to avert potentialadverse impacts.

3. To build capacities and develop programmesto enhance the populations of species thatare in demand and are under threat due toexcessive collection.

4. To manage bioresources so as to conservebiodiversity while enabling the use of theresources within sustainable limits.

5. To enhance public awareness on biodiversityand encourage public participation in itsconservation.

The chapter that follows will identify theissues, set the specific objectives, and propose theaction to be taken in respect of the different activityareas for conserving the nation’s biodiversity.

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Biodiversity Conservation Proposals for Action

reptiles, such as burrowing skinks, that live inthe leaf litter of tropical forests. Similarly,amphibians are very sensitive to changes intemperature and humidity in their forestenvironments. Of the endemic fish, about 50per cent live in the wet zone forests, andtheir distribution is affected by changes inwater quality caused by siltation and pollution.Eighty per cent of the endemic birds of SriLanka are forest species, and they are usuallyunable to colonize non-forested areassuccessfully.

The biodiversity in the wet zone islargely confined to the fragmented blocks offorests which are surrounded by encroachinghuman settlements and agricultural holdings oftea, rubber and paddy. To compound the problem,many of these forest blocks are already too smallto maintain functional ecosystems or to sustaineffectively viable populations of animals. Habitatdisturbance has also several other implications,as it brings in its wake restricted dispersal ofspecies and pocketing of populations that couldlead to genetic erosion, especially among thelarger vertebrate fauna. Among the flora, thedipterocarps that comprise the dominantvegetation of wet zone forests are poordispersers, and their regeneration is threatenedwhen there is excessive disturbance of crowncover. A study by Gunatilleke and Gunatilleke(1991) revealed that, of 184 woody endemicsrecorded in five rainforests, 93 per cent werejudged to be Endangered, Vulnerable or Rareaccording to the then prevailing IUCN criteria.Wet zone forests also play a crucial role inwatershed protection, and deforestation couldlead to serious problems in watershedmanagement and river flow.

In the dry zone, the forest areas beinglarger and the level of biodiversity andendemism substantially lower than in the wetzone, the adverse impacts of forest loss onbiodiversity are not as severe, except for theeffects on large mammals like the leopard,elephant and primate species. For these speciesthe loss of forests due to expansion of

6.1 ForestsIdentifying the issues:

From the 1940s, the wet zone forests beganto be recognized as a rich timber resource, andwith the continuing depletion of supplies fromthe dry zone, exploitation of the wet zone forestsgained momentum. This went on unabated until1989 when a moratorium was placed on allfelling in the natural forests of the wet zone inan effort to save this valuable resource for theconservation of biodiversity and hydrology.Based on the ongoing assessment of biodiversityand hydrology, many wet zone forests arebeing designated as "conservation forests" whereno commercial logging will be allowed in thefuture.

Besides logging, another serious threatto the biodiversity-rich wet zone forests hasbeen encroachment by communities living inthe peripheral areas. To arrest this problemthe Forest Department is moving towardsadopting a participatory form of forest managementinvolving the local communities. With technicalsupport from the IUCN, the Department hasprepared management plans for several of theconservation forests. The plans provide foractivities in the buffer zones of the forestsdesigned to benefit the communities living in theseareas.

The consequences of deforestation inthe wet zone are many, of which the depletionof the timber resource is just one. Moreimportant is the loss of species and geneticdiversity. Wet zone forests harbour most of theendemic reptiles and amphibians, and the naturalpatchiness of distribution of these species isaggravated as a result of habitat fragmentation.Most endemic amphibians and reptiles aretypically forest species and are unable toestablish viable populations in disturbedecosystems. For example, the ground-dwellingagamid lizards Otocryptis wiegmanni andCeratophora aspera are confined to shady areaswithin undisturbed forest patches, and changesin soil quality due to deforestation affect fossorial

52

settlements, irrigated agriculture and chena havecaused a reduction of contiguous geographicranges. Whether in the dry zone or wet, itmust be noted that when dealing with theconservation of some faunal species, largemammals for example, it is necessary to takeinto account their particular characteristics inrelation to social organization and rangerequirements.

Besides deforestation, excessiveexploitation for timber has had severe adverseeffects, so that even the forests that remainare heavily depleted in terms of biodiversity.The dry zone forests have been logged formany decades, and mature trees of prizedtimber species like satin wood (Chloroxylonswietenia), halmilla (Berrya cordifolia) and ebony(Diospyros ebenum) are now very rare. Naturalregeneration of these species is observed buttheir establishment is poor. Some species likewewarana (Alseodaphne semecarpifolia) andpanakka (Pleurostylia opposita) are so scarcethat they could be considered as threatened. Inthe wet zone, there is now a moratorium onfelling, but exploitation had been severe priorto 1989. Although there is no firm evidenceof species loss, the fauna and flora of theseforests have become markedly depauperate interms of size and distribution of speciespopulations. For example, nine of 23 speciesof timber value have become very rare in thepast 40 years. One of these is the highlyprized calamander (Diospyros quaesita). There isa clear need for a strong research programmeon the silvics of selected forestry species.

The National Conservation Reviewcovered 204 forests, and a total of 1153species of woody plants and 410 species ofanimals (vertebrates, molluscs and butterflies)were recorded. In the case of the woodyplants, it was found that 108 forests arerequired to conserve all 1153 species. Toconserve all 410 species of animals, 72forests are required, and all but 25 of theseare included among the 108 required for thewoody plants. Hence a total of 133 forestsare required to conserve all the species ofplants and animals recorded during the survey.If the endemic species only are considered, 49forests are necessary for all of the 455species of plants recorded to be included, and35 forests for all of the 138 species of

Human encroachments into the Sinharaja Forest - teaand rubber plantations (S. Balasubramaniam)

animals recorded to be included. For both theendemic woody plants and animals to beincluded a total of 71 of the 204 forests arerequired. Based on these data, it is to beexpected that the Forest Department woulddeclare more of the wet zone forests asconservation forests.

Among the major activities that continueto threaten biodiversity in forests is the use offorest land for agriculture, particularly shiftingcultivation or chena. Although it is carried outillegally, chena cultivation continues to supplya significant quantity of traditional vegetables,cereals and pulses to the urban markets.While traditional chena cultivation is now limitedalmost entirely to the dry zone, forestencroachment is continuing in the wet zone forexpansion of plantation crops such as tea,rubber and cinnamon, and this has become avery lucrative occupation for small holdersliving adjacent to forests, particularly whenthe market prices rise for these commodities.On an average, the size of a forest

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Box 6.1

CONSERVATION OF MAMMALS - ACTION SHOULD TARGET THREATENED

SPECIES

Sri Lanka has one of the highest levels of biodiversity among mammals in terms of unit area inthe Asian region. Many of these species are considered threatened. Up to now, the conservationaction for mammalian fauna has been largely empirical - by protecting what is considered to besufficiently large areas of natural habitat, it is expected that the species would be conserved. Thisapproach to conservation is far from adequate, particularly when there is a growing pressure toconvert natural forests to other uses. This applies specially to mammalian macro fauna such as theelephant, the ungulates, carnivores and primates. For these species, it is vital that populationstatus, behaviour, range patterns and habitat requirements are known in order to formulatemeaningful conservation action.

Trachypithecus vetulus, or the purple-faced monkey, is an endemic primate which is consideredthreatened and is among the species that are given legal protection under the Fauna and FloraProtection Ordinance. Among the Sri Lankan macro-fauna, this species is unusual in showing clearmorphological differences in different parts of its geographic range. Naturalists, in the early partof this century, stated that it is almost impossible to give a short characterization of the purple-faced monkey, due to the wide range of genetic variation between the sub-species that inhabitdifferent climatic zones of the country. In fact, an inhabitant of India, previously believed to bea sub-species, has now been recognized as a distinct species and is known as Trachypithecusjohnii. Sub-specific variations occur mostly in body size, coat colour and length of fur. There arealso variations in food habit - some populations are highly folivorous, while others depend heavilyon fruits. It is suspected that social behaviour, which influences population status in this species,may also differ in different environments.

While Trachypithecus vetulus is listed as highly vulnerable in the 1996 IUCN Red List of GloballyThreatened Animals, little has been done to investigate or address most of its conservationrequirements. The 1987-1991 Primate Action Plan for Asia states that to prevent this species fromentering the endangered category by 2000 AD, specific conservation action is needed. It isnecessary to determine its abundance, habitat requirements, and the adequacy of the protected areasystem in the country vis a vis the status of the different sub-species. Populations of the speciesare fragmented, and this is so to a marked degree in the wet zone which is home to three ofthe five recognized sub-species. It is therefore vital that populations are monitored in the longterm with census work, especially where natural habitats are being converted to other land uses.

These problems and conservation requirements are common to most other large mammals in thecountry. When addressing issues on in situ conservation of large mammals in particular, it isnecessary to determine their distribution and habitat requirements in relation to the size anddistribution of the protected areas and to extend conservation measures to areas outside theprotected area network wherever necessary. In the case of some species such as the elephant, itmay be necessary to prepare management plans for their conservation. It is also vital that, wherethere are particular threats to the survival of these species, including conflicts with human needs,these should be identified and addressed. In view of the individual conservation needs of some ofthe large mammalian fauna, it is necessary that species-specific conservation measures are builtinto the protected area management plans. It is also necessary that conservation initiatives arebacked up with education and awareness programmes, specially targeting the local communities.

Source: Dela (1997)

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encroachment by a household in the wet zoneis about 0.5 ha. These forest encroachmentsare established permanently, and this processleads to a significant loss of forest cover andbiodiversity over time. Deniya cultivation ofwetlands within forests with paddy or betel isalso a destructive practice as it involves lossof forest species localized in wetland sites andresults in the addition of chemical fertilizerand pesticides to the forest environment.

One of the problems encountered inpreventing forest encroachment is the lack ofclear and well-defined boundaries. It is necessarythat the forests are surveyed, particularly thoserequiring special protection, and theirboundaries established using permanentboundary markers.

The depletion of forest resources isalso linked closely in some areas to thedemand for forest products such as timber,posts, poles and fuelwood. Fuelwood collectionfrom forests is prevalent in all climatic zones,but is least evident in the wet zone where agood part of the requirement comes from cropplantations. It is estimated that the need forbiomass fuel will increase in the future.Besides fuel, certain other wood products likecane and bamboo are collected on a semi-commercial scale, with the highest collectionof rattan occurring in wet zone forestsfor a lucrative rattan based cottage industry.

Forests also provide a multitude ofnon-wood products such as gums, resins,

Box 6.2

SINHARAJA - A HAVEN OF BIODIVERSITY AND ENDEMISM

The Sinharaja forest is an International Biosphere Reserve (one of two in Sri Lanka); it has beendeclared a National Heritage Wilderness Area (the only one so far); and it is Sri Lanka’s onlyNatural World Heritage Site. What is so special about Sinharaja?

The Sinharaja rainforest covers an area of 11,000ha, and most of it is in its primeval condition,representing a biome that dates back in its evolutionary history to the Deccan Plate, a sectionof the ancient continent of Gondwanaland. It contains lowland, mid-elevational and montane rainforest, and the lowland element is the only primeval (unlogged) ecosystem of its kind in thecountry. Endemism among the flora of Sinharaja is particularly high; 86% of the individual treeswere found to belong to endemic species. Of the herbs and treelets, a survey revealed that therewere 259 species, and 156 of these were endemic. Of the 217 endemic tree species and woodylianes in the island, 125 have been recorded at Sinharaja. Not surprisingly, most of the canopydominants are endemics. The dipterocarps are mainly represented by species of Shorea andStemonoporus. Among the endemic genera are Schumacharia and Hortonia two ancient gondwanicrelicts.

Biodiversity and endemism among the fauna match that of the flora. The number of endemics ofthe different taxa in Sinharaja, and the percentage compared to the number of endemics in thewhole island (given in parenthesis) are: Fishes - 7 (41%); amphibians - 8 (42%); snakes - 14 (36%);tetrapod reptiles - 8 (21%); birds -19 (95%); mammals - 7 (58%). The endemic mammals atSinharaja are the musk shrew, long-tailed shrew, purple-faced leaf monkey, toque monkey, spinyrat, bicoloured rat, and the golden palmed civet. Among the invertebrate fauna, the endemicity ofbutterflies is remarkable - of Sri Lanka’s 41 endemic species and subspecies 21 are found inSinharaja. Sinharaja is an important habitat for many of Sri Lanka’s swallow-tailed butterflies,and these include the rare endemic Ceylon Rose (Atrophaneura japhon) which is confined to theSinharaja and adjacent rain forest blocks.

The Forest Department is endeavouring to preserve this forest and to promote research on itsbiodiversity. Its efforts deserve all support and encouragement.

Sources: various, cited by Wijesinghe (1995)

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Box 6.3

MEDICINAL PLANTS - SRI LANKA ’S PRIZED BIODIVERSITY

Historical perspective: Plants and their products have been systematically used in Sri Lanka fortreating illnesses for over two thousand years, and a total of 1,414 plant species arelisted for their traditional medicinal use. These include several endemic species whichare becoming increasingly rare and under threat of extinction. Approximately 200species of medicinal plants are in common use, and of these, 50 are heavily usedin ayurvedic medicinal preparations. In total, 79 species are now consideredthreatened.

As local supplies can no longer meet the demand for medicinal plants, approximately60% of Sri Lanka’s requirements are now imported, at considerable cost. Dwindlingsupplies are exacerbated by the rapid depletion of natural habitats, the increasedexport of a selected number of plant species, and unsustainable exploitation. Equallythreatened is the knowledge base on which the traditional medicinal system is based,as only a small portion of the traditional knowledge is documented: the majorityremains recorded in ancient, obscure manuscripts scattered around the country or inthe memory of elderly practitioners.

Action to Conserve: The Ministry in charge of indigenous medicine, with support from otherministries and technical assistance from IUCN - The World Conservation Union, aimsto address these problems through a project for the conservation of medicinal plants.The project will focus on three major areas, namely: increasing populations ofmedicinal plants in their natural habitat; cultivating and propagating medicinal plantsin sites outside their strict natural habitat; and strengthening the knowledge basewhilst promoting education and awareness.

The principal activities will include: the establishment of five medicinal plant reservessupported by community based management structures and facilities such as herbalgardens, nurseries, dispensaries, and information centres; formulation of standardproducts and ayurvedic drugs; training staff; ethnobotanical studies in the villages nearthe reserves; and introducing regulations necessary for medicinal plant cultivation andconservation, harvesting, marketing and export.

The project will operate for five years and strengthen the capacities of theDepartment of Ayurveda and the Bandaranaike Memorial Ayurvedic ResearchInstitute.

medicinal plants, bee honey, kitul treacle,jaggery and fermented products and, to alesser extent, certain materials of plant andanimal origin used for socio-cultural practices.A national survey of the traditional uses offorests carried out by the Forest Departmentand IUCN indicates that kitul tapping is not aharmful activity, provided the processing ofthe sap is done outside the forest. Collectionof food items from forests is also sustainableexcept when particularly adverse practices,such as cutting down branches to collectfruit, are carried out. Collection of plant

material for use in ayurvedic medicine takesplace from primary and secondary forestsand, on an intensive scale, from the savannahlands of the dry zone. Many species ofmedicinal plants have become scarce as aresult of habitat loss and over-collection.

Complete restriction of the use of forestresources by local people (except in biologicalsensitive areas) is not only unrealistic butalso counter-productive. It is increasinglyrecognized that there should be an attempt tomove towards a participatory managementapproach which permits local communities to

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assume a stakeholder role of conserving andmanaging forests as a resource useful to themand their children. This has to be promotedthrough education and awareness creation, andby way of equitable sharing of benefits fromthe forest. Even under such schemes, themanagement strategy could break down withthe increase of population pressure. Acomplementary strategy of providing alternativeemployment opportunities is, therefore, necessaryto wean away households dependent on forestresources for their living.

The policy framework in the form ofthe Forestry Sector Master Plan of 1996 andthe current plans and programmes of theForest Department should provide the base formoving into an active phase of biodiversityconservation in forestry. What is required isfor the Department to strengthen its capacityin the scientific and management aspects ofbiodiversity conservation and sustainable useand in community mobilization, and to securethe necessary resources for implementation. Asfor wildlife conservation, the Departmentconcerned has in the past focused its attentionon regulation and law enforcement, and achange in approach is needed here. In thesphere of medicinal plants, urgent action isrequired to arrest the decline in populations ofmany medicinal plant species and to documentand preserve the vast store of knowledge onmedicinal plants and their uses that is now inthe memory of old medical practitioners andin ancient ola manuscripts. The proposedproject on medicinal plants is expected toaddress these issues.

Objectives:

1. To ensure that threatened forestecosystems and species are given adequateprotection.

2. To put in place a system for monitoringforest biodiversity and taking correctiveaction when necessary.

3. To promote conservation of indigenousforest species both within and outsideprotected areas.

4. To involve communities living on thefringes of forests in participatory activitiesfor the conservation and sustainable useof biodiversity.

5. To promote mixed cropping withindigenous species in private lands andstate lands leased for agroforestry.

6. To increase timber supplies through forestplantations, which will have the effectof reducing the pressure on naturalforests for producing timber.

7. To promote public awareness of theenvironmental benefits of conserving forestbiodiversity.

Recommended action:

1. Develop a system for the regularmonitoring of forest biodiversity, andtake remedial action to rectify anynegative trends as and when necessary,including threats from invasive species.

2. Take effective action to stop furtherencroachments on the wet zone forests(bioregions 4,5 and 6).

3. Take action to prevent the use of high-forest areas and fragile ecosystems forchena cultivation.

4. Complete the preparation of managementplans (including surveying and boundarymarking) for all protected areas; ensurethat such plans continue to recognize theparticipatory role of communities livingin proximity to the areas under protectionand adequately address the conservationand sustainable use of biodiversity.

5. Actively implement the conservation-management plans of protected areas,giving due attention to buffer zoneactivities involving the peripheralcommunities.

6. The Forest Department and Departmentof Wildlife Conservation to collaborate tostrengthen their capabilities in protectedarea management.

7. Enhance field staff capability in pestmanagement, protection against unlawfulactivities, and fire protection.

8. Define, demarcate and establish an optimalprotected area system network utilizingscientific and distributional data availablefrom the NCR, paying special attention

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to the conservation of endemic speciesof plants and animals.

9. Ensure that activities in forests outsideprotected areas are governed bymanagement plans that pay adequateattention to the conservation ofbiodiversity.

10. Both within and outside protected areas,promote in situ conservation activitiesthat specially target threatened species.

11. Establish a mechanism to continuallyexpand and update the ForestDepartment’s database on faunal andfloral species in forests and other naturalhabitats.

12. Strengthen research capacity and pursueresearch on the silvics of selected forestspecies, with a view to promoting naturalregeneration of, or actively propagating,these species.

13. Review the issue of deniya permits forcultivation in forests in relation to theimpact of this practice on biodiversity.

14. Strengthen research capacity and pursueresearch to determine sustainable usethresholds for selected forest species.

15. In forest extension work, promote theuse of selected indigenous species of timber,medicinal plants, and food and fibreproducing plants, targeting home gardens,private woodlots, etc.

16. Promote the conservation and propagationof indigenous medicinal plants.

17. Establish a suitable mechanism forensuring co-ordination in the managementof protected areas and the conservationof biodiversity between the ForestDepartment and the Department ofWildlife Conservation.

18. Expand programmes for afforestation,reforestation and forest rehabilitation,paying attention to the use of indigenousspecies as far as possible.

19. Promote the improved utilization of timber

and the use of alternative materials in placeof timber.

20. Organize skills enhancement andawareness programmes on biodiversityconservation for operational staff, NGOparticipants, CBO personnel and ruralcommunities.

21. Establish forest plantations on currentlynon-productive land as entrepreneurialventures in collaboration with the privatesector to cater to the timber andfuelwood demand.

22. Review legal instruments relating to thecollection of forest plants and animals,including regulations relating to export,and amend in order to eliminateanomalies and strengthen the law, so asto afford protection to threatened speciesof indigenous plants and animals.

23. Strictly enforce the laws relating tocollection, possession, sale, and exportof plants and animals protected by law.

24. Expand and maintain the programme ofsetting up urban forests, and developeducational and awareness programmes inrelation to these forests.

Main state institutions involved inimplementing:

FD, DWLC, Survey Department, Departmentof Ayurveda, Mahaweli Authority, MFE,Ministry in charge of plantations and provincialadministration, law enforcement agencies (Police,Customs, Attorney General).

6.2 WetlandsIdentifying the issues:

There is an overall lack of awarenessamong the general public of the importance ofwetlands, and these areas are often consideredas wastelands to be cleared and filled forother land uses or to be used as wastedumps. Large sections of these habitats havebeen lost due to landfill for housing andcommercial and industrial development andconversion to agricultural land for growingpaddy, vegetables, betel, etc.

There are numerous factors, all of

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Box 6.4

MUTHURAJAWELA MARSH - AN URBAN PROTECTED AREA

The Muthurajawela Marsh covers about 3000 ha and is part of a larger complex that stretchesup to and includes the Negombo lagoon. It is an important wetland located in the westerncoast of Sri Lanka that has retained its natural values despite centuries of human activity in theregion. It is noted for its biological and ecological diversity, scenic beauty, history and scientificpotential, particularly because of its location in a highly urbanised and industrialized area. Inrecognition of its ecological value, a Master Plan for the marsh-lagoon complex and surroundswas completed In 1991. Proceeding from this, a Conservation Management Plan, directedtowards sustainable use of resources in different zones within the complex, was formulated in1994. The management plan is implemented by DWLC. A participatory approach involving localcommunities is adopted in the management of the Conservation Zone. This is proving to besuccessful in effectively harmonising environmental management with economic development.

The Muthurajawela Marsh Conservation Zone was proclaimed a Sanctuary under the Fauna andFlora Protection Ordinance in 1996. It is an important habitat for plant and animal life, and alarge number of the animal species found here are endemic, many of which are rare orthreatened. Mammals such as the fruit bat, slender loris, otter, fishing cat, and mouse deer arefound in this wetland. Among the numerous birds - of which 85 species are residents and 40species are migrants - one can frequently see cormorants, storks, bee-eaters and kingfishers. Of thereptiles, the saltwater crocodile is seen occasionally while the large monitor lizard and serpentsare plentiful. The rich vegetation found in this area includes mangroves, ferns, grasses andsedges. At least 129 plant species were recorded recently, including 44 species with medicinalvalue.

The marsh is also home to a human population of more than 4000, many from a long line ofmarsh dwellers who belong to the lowest income category. Since the unsustainable use ofresources in the Conservation Zone by local people is directly linked to poverty andunemployment, special emphasis is placed on community development. About 280 encroacherfamilies have been given permanent housing combined with opportunities for improving theirliving conditions and earning capacity. These communities have also taken an active part in thepreparation and implementation of the Master Plan and are highly supportive of managing themarsh as an urban protected area.

for the aquarium trade. One of these isCryptocoryne thwaitesii, an endemic aroid,considered to be under threat. Although it isillegal to do so, fishermen continue to usebeach seines to catch fish in some of thelarger reservoirs. Exotic species of fish wereintroduced, without adequate research, fordeveloping inland fisheries, and the prolificmultiplication of these species can pose athreat to the indigenous biodiversity in inlandaquatic systems.

Today, the state has acknowledged thevalue of wetlands and the scenario forconservation of wetlands is encouraging. Site

them the result of human activities, that posea threat to the biodiversity of wetlands.Siltation, and pollution resulting ineutrophication and the prolific growth of waterhyacinth and other aquatic weeds, have erodedthe species diversity of wetlands. For example,it is believed that the snake head (Channamarulius) has become rare due to the influxof agrochemicals into its habitat. Over-fishingand poaching (mainly of birds) and theuncontrolled collection of ornamental freshwaterfish for export have placed several endemicspecies under threat. In addition to the fish,water plants are collected and exported in bulk

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reports and management plans have been preparedfor many wetlands under the WetlandConservation Project of the CEA. Several othersites have been identified for conservation, anda total of 41 wetland sites in Sri Lanka arelisted in the Directory of Asian Wetlands asbeing of critical importance, ecologically. TheForest Department is preparing conservation-management plans for several selected mangrovesites. As for implementation, only themanagement of Muthurajawela marsh is beingfully implemented. Some management activities

are being carried out in the Bundala, Minneriya,and Bellanwila-Attidiya wetlands, but only ona marginal scale. The challenge is to moveinto a full scale implementation of themanagement plans. An important pre-requisitefor the effective management of the wetlandsis their surveying and mapping on a suitablescale.

There have been some studies ofwetlands by NGOs. The Ceylon Bird Clubcarries out counts of water birds annually. Afew other NGOs have also been active in

Box 6.5

THREAT TO SRI LANKA ’S ENDEMIC ORNAMENTAL FRESHWATER FISH

SPECIES

Over exploitation and improper management in the ornamental freshwater fish export trade are havingsevere repercussions on the icthyofauna of Sri Lanka. About 75% of indigenous freshwater fish speciesincluding 21 endemic species, are utilised in the ornamental fish trade, and the fishes are mainlycollected from the wild. Among the endemic species, 19 are listed as nationally threatened, and theseinclude two critically threatened species and one endangered species. Endemic species, which arehighly prized in the export industry, are the ones most at risk from over exploitation. Many of thesehave a critical threshold limit to their population, below which the ability to maintain the populationis lost even when breeding occurs as usual. This has been observed in several endemics e.g. Puntiusnigrofasciatus, P. cumingi, and Rasbora vaterifloris. The survival of ornamental fish is further endangeredby the rapid deterioration of their habitats, mostly wet zone streams.

Many of the indigenous fish are exported at very low prices, and the foreign exchange earnings havebeen negligible. As such, the full potential of the ornamental fish trade as a foreign exchangegenerator has not been realized. Lack of proper management of the industry contributes to this. Basicrequirements of collected fishes, such as adequate space, clean water and oxygen are sadlyneglected, resulting in high death rates. In order to compensate for the high death rate duringtransportation, sensitive and delicate endemics such as Rasbora vaterifloris and Puntius titteya are beingexported in huge quantities.

Although the export of live fish is governed by the provisions of the Fauna and Flora Protection Actand the Fisheries Ordinance, it is believed that many protected species continue to be exported byusing various ruses to circumvent the provisions of the law. And such operations are not entirelycovert, as is evidenced by the fact that a newly found rare endemic which is legally protected,Rasbora wilpita, has been listed (along with its price) in a UK ornamental fish catalogue.

The high demand for Sri Lankan ornamental freshwater fish is mainly due to the development of theaquarium trade, setting up of fishery gene banks, and laboratory experimentation on fresh water fishin developed countries. Today, Sri Lanka’s indigenous freshwater fish are exported to over 25countries, with USA, Japan, Holland, Germany, UK, Singapore and Hongkong accounting for 60% ofthe trade. Fish exports to Europe has been growing at an annual rate of 10% during the past fiveyears.

Clearly, the trade in Sri Lanka’s ornamental fishes, as it now occurs, is a threat to an importantcomponent of the country’s biodiversity and it has to be addressed as a matter of urgency.

Source: Gunasekera (1996); Gunawardena (1994)

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carrying out observations and educationalprojects on wetland avifauna (e.g. the FieldOrnithology Group). Some aspects of fisheriesand limnological research in freshwater bodieshave been carried out, mainly by theuniversities and the National Aquatic ResourcesResearch and Development Agency. In thewetlands associated with the Puttalam lagoonand the southern lagoon systems, efforts areunderway by the Ministry of Fisheries (underthe Bay of Bengal Fisheries Programme) toculture sea weeds, molluscs, milk fish, etc. Ina few wetlands such as Mi Oya, Tabbowaand Bundala, there have been studies on thehuman-elephant interactions. There is also acommunity-based research and managementproject by an NGO at the Nachchaduwawetland site. These activities signify only anawakening of interest in the conservation ofwetlands and the sustainable use of their richresources. It is time to establish a system tocoordinate these efforts, to identify the areaswhere investments have to be made, and tomount a robust programme for conserving thebiodiversity of wetlands.

An area that requires urgent attentionis the development of scientific methods forbreeding of ornamental fish in captivity, whichis vital for sustaining the freshwater ornamentalfish industry while ensuring the survival ofrare species in inland waters. At present,some freshwater ornamental fish species arereared by a few private groups engaged in theaquarium trade, but this needs to bescientifically monitored and expanded.

Foremost among the scientific initiativesso far taken in connection with safeguardingthe country’s wetlands is the assessment ofthe hydrological value of all the naturalforests in the country through the NationalConservation Review carried out under theForestry Sector Development Project of theForest Department, with technical assistanceby IUCN - The World Conservation Union. Interms of soil conservation and hydrology, thisstudy identified a total of 104 forests whichare critical to the protection and sustenance ofthe downstream wetlands.

An impediment to wetland conservationand management is that some wetlands which

are important in terms of biodiversity areeither wholly or partly under private ownership.With regard to wetlands under state ownershipwhich includes the large bulk of the wetlands,there are no special laws governing wetlandsas such in Sri Lanka. Wetlands coming understate ownership are generally governed by theFauna and Flora Ordinance and the ForestOrdinance. The Urban Development AuthorityAct, the Land Reclamation Ordinance and theAgrarian Services Act also touch on someaspects of wetland conservation. As regardsthe agencies in charge of wetlands, many ofthe natural habitats occur within protectedareas managed by the Department of WildlifeConservation. The Forest Department controlsthe wetlands falling within the forest areasunder its purview. The Forest Department hasalso taken the responsibility for managingmany ecologically sensitive mangrove sites. Theprotection of wetland wildlife in terms of theircollection, sale and export is the responsibilityof DWLC. It is important to note that withthe devolution of power the provincialadministration shares responsibility with otherstate agencies for the protection of wetlandsand their biodiversity.

Due to the complex nature of theecology and use of wetlands, as well as theirsituation, the need for collaborative programmesto manage wetland sites is widely recognized.The implementation of management plans forwetlands should take into account the need forinter-agency coordination to minimiseenvironmental impacts and resource use conflicts.Wetlands are often connected to rivers andstreams that flow across administrativeboundaries and this needs to be recognized indecentralized regional administrative planning.

As it was felt that the absence ofspecific legislation or of a single responsibleagency has been a setback for the propermanagement of wetland ecosystems in Sri Lanka,the Government, in 1990, granted approval forthe establishment of a National WetlandsSteering Committee (NWSC) within the CentralEnvironmental Authority. Because of its functionas the central coordinating arm between thedifferent line ministries and other agencieswithin whose jurisdiction wetlands occur, theNWSC was subsequently re-constituted to

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function under the relevant ministry - theMinistry of Transport, Environment andWomen’s Affairs (now the Ministry ofForestry and Environment) - to ensure that itwill function more effectively.

In view of the importance of thewetlands in terms of productivity and themultiple benefits they provide, the NWSC hasformulated a National Wetland Policy for theconservation and sustainable use of wetlands.This Policy which is still in the draft stage isexpected to complement the goals and objectivesof the National Conservation Strategy (of1988), the National Wildlife Policy (of 1990),the National Forestry Policy (of 1995), andother sectoral policies, including those offisheries, irrigation, and agriculture. It willalso identify action necessary to halt thedeterioration of wetland ecosystems and ensuresustained conservation of wetlands throughproper management. It will also coverprioritization of major wetlands for conservation,and, where necessary, restoration; developmentand implementation of an effective researchprogramme to ensure the conservation ofwetlands; and the development andimplementation of a public awarenessprogramme on wetlands. The overall policyneeds to spell out a general strategy for eachof the major activity areas identified andrequire that all interventions undergo themandatory EIA process.

Objectives:

1. To ensure that both natural and man-made wetlands are properly managed andto conserve and sustainably use wetlandbiodiversity.

2. To promote the restoration of ecologicallyimportant degraded wetlands.

3. To build public awareness of theimportance of wetlands and the need fortheir conservation.

Recommended action:

1. Continue to develop strategies and plansfor the management of wetlands.

2. Strengthen and enhance current efforts toidentify critically important wetlands in

terms of biodiversity, and prepare sitereports and management plans wherenecessary.

3. Prepare suitable maps and implement themanagement plans for wetlands, takinginto account the need for collaborationbetween the several state institutionsconcerned, including the provincialadministration, and based on participatorymanagement principles.

4. Increase public awareness of theimportance of wetlands and their benefitsto local communities through the printand electronic media (governmentdepartments in collaboration with theprivate sector, media and NGOs).

5. By prohibiting or strictly regulatingcollection from the wild and adoptingactive measures, promote the conservationof aquatic fauna and flora species underthreat.

6. Carry out a comprehensive awarenessprogramme to combat disposal ofhousehold and industrial refuse intowetlands and enhance capability for lawenforcement.

7. Increase the use of wetlands for educationand eco-tourism.

8. Strengthen the capability of NARA andother relevant state institutions for regularmonitoring of freshwater aquatic-biodiversity, in collaboration withuniversities and NGOs, and provideguidelines where necessary.

9. Carry out studies on the impact ofintroduced exotic species of fish, andmeasures for their control if found to beharmful to indigenous wetland biodiversity.

10. Undertake research programmes to culturethreatened freshwater flora and faunawith emphasis on economically importantspecies including those that are commonlyexported.

11. Assist those in the aquarium trade toculture organisms for export with stringentmonitoring and control by the statesector through a licensing scheme.

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12. Increase national funding for wetlandassociated research, with special emphasison the ecology and culture of endangeredand economically important freshwaterspecies.

13. Ensure that the forests identified asimportant hydrologically through the NCRstudy are brought within the protectedarea system and given strict protection.

14. Enforce the legal provisions for protectingriver and stream reservations.

15. Review the legal framework that relatesto the conservation of wetlands, identifygaps and rectify as necessary eitherthrough strengthening existing laws orenactment of new laws pertaining towetlands.

16. Examine government policies that maypromote adverse activities concerningwetlands (e.g. reclamation of wetlandsfor urban development), and recommendremedial measures thorough the NationalWetlands Steering Committee.


NARA, CEA, FD, DWLC, MFE, UDA, theprovincial administration, universities

6.3 Coastal and Marine SystemsIdentifying the issues:

Fisheries is a major activity affectingmarine biodiversity in the coastal waters ofSri Lanka. Fish supply is important in termsof food and income, and it has continued toincrease in recent years. As a result, manynearshore waters are now over-fished or attheir maximum levels of exploitation. Anotherdevelopment is the increased mechanization andmodernization of the fishing industry. Thecapture techniques adopted include the use oftrammel nets and purse seines. There is alsothe use of explosives to catch fish, and thisdestroys biodiversity. Bottom-set nets used tocatch reef fish destroy the habitat, and nylongill nets used to catch food fish are deathtraps to turtles and small marine mammals.Blast fishing in particular affects coral reefs.

With the use of large multi-day motorizedcrafts with insulated fish hold facilities, thecatches are much larger than in the past, andthere is a much increased catch of marinemammals encountered in the deeper waters. Asa result, some species of dolphins are nowconsidered threatened in Sri Lankan waters.Fishing by local and foreign trawlers that usebottom-set nets and long drift nets may alsoaffect biodiversity.

The traditional fishery which uses non-motorized craft such as dugout canoes andcatamarans and relatively non-destructive fishingtechniques such as angling, gill netting (usingnatural fibre nets), and beach seining isadversely affected due to the depletion of thenearshore fish resources and the competitionfrom mechanised crafts. Other factors, such asrestrictions imposed by hotels on access tosections of the beach, may contribute to adecline in the traditional beach seine fishery,particularly on the southwestern coast.

The lobster resource in the southerncoast has been depleted due to indiscriminateharvesting of gravid females and juveniles.While laws are present to prevent suchactivities, their enforcement has to bestrengthened. A study is currently in progressto assess the gravity of this problem so thatremedial measures may be taken. At presentthe export trade in ornamental fish ranks nextto that of prawns and lobsters in terms ofvalue, and the current levels of ornamentalfish collection for sale and export is widelyconsidered to be unsustainable. Clearly, thereis need for more data. The selective harvestingof rare species has caused their depletion, andthe high intensity of collection disturbs theequilibrium of the reef ecosystem. The coralsthemselves are damaged due to the use ofmoxy-nets for collection of reef fish for theaquarium trade.

Naturally occurring prawn resources inthe lagoons of the northwest coast are depleteddue to siltation from soil disturbed byagricultural and construction practices anddeforestation inland. Silt smothers coral reefs,causes a reduction in the depth of waterbodies and has a destructive effect on bottomdwelling species. For example, the pearl oysterbeds that supported a lucrative trade up tothe 1920s have probably been adversely affectedby the silt carried down from rivers. Siltation

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can also be detrimental to fishery that isdependent on clear water. Pollution fromunregulated discharge of sewage, untreatedwater from industries, wastes from ships, andcoconut husk retting at some sites along thecoast also cause destruction of coastalbiodiversity.

Sri Lankan waters have seven speciesof edible Holothuria (sea cucumber) out of 20edible species found in the Indian Ocean.While the traditional harvesting of sea cucumberwas limited to estuarine environments, thedemand for this commodity for export hasresulted in large numbers being collected,especially in the Kalpitiya and Batticaloa

areas. It is possible that collection may proveto be unsustainable, especially when collectionis selective. This is an area where studies areneeded.

The fisheries sector has traditionallysought to increase productivity without payingadequate attention to conservation andsustainable use of aquatic resources. However,due to the recent heavy decline of near-shorefish yields, there is now greater awareness ofthe need to conserve these resources. This hasresulted in the new Fisheries and AquaticResources Act of 1996 addressing measuresfor "protection of fish and other aquaticresources" and for increased concern about the

Box 6.6

DEALING WITH THE BURGEONING TRADE IN MARINE ORNAMENTAL FISH

The marine ornamental fish industry in Sri Lanka has expanded rapidly over the last 20 yearsor so. There are between 200 - 300 marine species of fish and invertebrates that are beingexported in the aquarium trade today. There is, however, no monitoring or management of thetrade at present, and reports of over-exploitation and habitat destruction are common.

The Sri Lanka Marine Ornamental Fishery Project, carried out by the National AquaticResources Development Agency (NARA) in collaboration with the Marine Conservation Society(UK), aims to ensure that, in the long term, the marine ornamental fishery is sustainable andthat the conservation of marine biodiversity is promoted. The project, which is scheduled to runfrom 1995 - 1998, includes the following activities:

• surveys of coral reef fish and invertebrate populations to obtain information on abundance,recruitment and distribution patterns. The conditions of the reefs and associated marinehabitats will also be noted.

• a socio-economic survey of the user communities.

• preparation of illustrated manuals on important ornamental species to assist divers, fisheryfield officers and custom officers to identify these species.

• training courses and workshops for those involved in the trade.

• fishery survey and community involvement to increase management options and ensure theconservation of marine biodiversity in the long term.

The project has been progressing quite smoothly, and, up to June 1997, dive surveys of near-shore and off-shore reefs had been carried out at approximately 30 sites along the south andwest coasts of Sri Lanka and information gathered on different species in the trade. The socio-economic survey is currently underway and a large number of collectors/divers have beenregistered with NARA. A handbook on protected marine species in Sri Lanka has beenpublished and two workshops held for those in the ornamental fish trade.

Source: MCS/NARA (1996a,b)

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sustainable use of aquatic biodiversity in thefishery sector. A sign of the current interestin active management for conservation andsustainable use is the identification of fisheriesmanagement areas (e.g. the Negombo lagoon),and the selection of lobster management areasin the southwest followed by the preparationof management plans.

To remedy the paucity of data on off-shore fisheries resources, NARA is currentlyconducting a Fisheries Resources Survey.NARA has also taken action to promote thesurvival of lobsters by providing new habitats.A survey of some species of coastal fish isalso currently being undertaken by NARA todetermine the status of species harvested forthe aquarium trade.

For centuries the coastal reefs havebeen a valuable resource for the people of SriLanka, in particular for the coastalcommunities. More recently, the export ofcoral reef organisms has contributedsubstantially to the economy. These reefs arenow severely degraded, especially in thesouthern region, due mainly to coral miningfor production of lime. Annually, over 7000

tons of coral and coral debris are removedfrom a 60 km stretch along the south-westcoast, and both coral and shells are collectedfor the tourist industry. Although the removal,possession and processing of coral is illegal,the destruction of reefs has continued due topoor law enforcement and the profitability ofthe lime industry. Attempts have been made toprovide alternative employment to thoseinvolved, but without much success.Conservation and management of coral reefsis also impeded because some of the largestand species rich reefs occur offshore, beyondthe coastal zone, and are outside the jurisdictionof the Coast Conservation Department. Coralreefs are also damaged by natural factorssuch as the proliferation of the coral predatorthe Crown of Thorns Starfish (Acanthaster planci)and the effect of high wave action. Unlessstringent conservation action is taken, it isbelieved that by the 21st century most near-shorereefs would be adversely affected, and only thereefs in protected areas may survive to providehabitats for important and threatened speciesof fauna and to check coastal erosion (seeFigure 6.1).

Reef destruction is very evident in themarine sanctuary at Hikkaduwa where many

Box 6.7

CORAL MINING

Coral mining has been a traditional occupation for coastal people for generations, mainly alongthe south and southwestern coastline of Sri Lanka. Corals are extracted mainly for the productionof lime for building purposes, through a conversion process of heating fragments of thecalcareous corals to produce quicklime and mortar in lime kilns. Corals are mined from inlandfossil resources and from coral rubble on the beach, but the additional and illegal extraction ofsea coral has been a major threat to the reefs of Sri Lanka. The demand and economic incentivefor mining corals is high, and corals supply approximately 90 % of the lime produced. This hascreated difficulties in attempting to combat the problem, and reef mining continues to causecoastal erosion and the loss of habitat and biodiversity. The Coast Conservation Department hasplayed an important role in addressing this problem through a multitude of strategies coveringlegislation to prohibit mining, collecting, processing, storing, burning and transporting corals in thecoastal zone; education programmes for coral miners; and schemes to provide alternativelivelihoods to those dependent on coral mining. These efforts have reduced the sea coralextraction from 7,659 tonnes in 1984 to 4,020 tonnes in 1994, and there was a correspondingincrease in the inland extraction during the same period from 10,400 tonnes to 15,800 tonnes.However, reef mining is still a serious problem, and there is need for a vigorous and sustainedcampaign to eliminate it.

Source: CCD (1996)

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coral reefs are dead or dying. Even afterreceiving Protected Area status, reef degradationcontinues due to damage caused by heavilyloaded glass bottom boats, pollution fromhotels, oil pollution, sedimentation, tramplingby divers and collectors of reef organisms,and anchoring of boats.

The action taken hitherto to managemarine biodiversity, establish marine ProtectedAreas, and prepare management plans forimportant near-shore and off-shore coral reefsis far from adequate. Some proposals forenvironmental management and planning ofcoastal and marine zones in Sri Lanka havebeen made by UNEP, CCD, the Departmentof Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (DFAR),and CEA but there has been no implementation.The Inter-Ministerial Committee on MarineParks and Sanctuaries set up by NARA in1982 had identified more than 20 coastal sitesto be declared as marine parks and sanctuaries,but only two have so far been declared asProtected Areas by statute, and managementplans have been prepared for only one.

There are a number of governmentorganizations that should play a role in theconservation and management of coral reefsand the implementation of laws that governuse of marine resources. These include NARA,CCD, CEA, DWLC, and DFAR. Whileconservation and management of coral reefs isconsidered an urgent issue, implementationefforts are impaired due to inadequacies asregards institutional cooperation, politicalcommitment and awareness among the publicof the importance of this resource.

Most coastal habitats in Sri Lanka arelimited in extent and vulnerable to degradation.These habitats include biologically productivemangrove systems, estuaries, lagoons andseagrass beds. Resources within lagoons andestuaries have been over-used for fishery andshrimp culture. There is also uncontrolled useof these sites for anchorages of boats. Sandmining, siltation, as well as dumping urbanwastes and chemical pollutants from agriculturalfarms and industries in estuaries are othermajor problems. Seagrass beds, which supporta rich flora and fauna and are breedinggrounds for marine fish, have been damageddue to destructive fish harvesting techniques.

The increased allocation of coastal zonelands, especially in the south and southwestcoast, for hotels is also a serious problem.There is also a proliferation of slums andshanties in certain sections of the coast. Withthe projected increase of urban populations bythe 21st century, it is evident that mostshorelands of the country will be converted toother uses. Much of the biologically diverseshorelands are state owned, but inadequaciesin the law and poor enforcement contribute tohabitat loss. Effluents discharged from urbanindustries near natural water bodies also destroybiodiversity.

Brackish water shrimp culture is anindustry that earns over a billion rupees inforeign exchange annually. It has, however,caused considerable loss of coastal wetlandssince 1980 due to encroachment and pollutionby the establishment of mariculture pondscovering an area of over 2000 ha. Otheradverse effects are disruption of nutrient chainsand increased salinity of waterways, resultingin biodiversity loss. Abandoned shrimp farmsin the form of barren land with no topsoil arean eyesore and may become breeding groundsfor disease vectors.

Mangroves are destroyed for expansionof human settlements (much of it asencroachments) and for expansion ofaquaculture. Poles and fuelwood for domesticuse and twigs for brushpile fishery are alsoextracted from the mangroves. The mangroveswamps are, therefore, fragmented, heavilyexploited by local people, and degraded bywater pollution and siltation. It is estimatedthat the current mangrove habitat will bereduced to half by the year 2001. Despite theefforts taken by NGOs to re-establish mangrovehabitats and to create awareness about thisresource, little progress was made in the past toconserve mangroves.

Recently, the Forest Department hasassumed control of several mangrove areasidentified for protection, and management plansare being prepared for them. The managementproposals take into consideration socio-economicfactors, and, in-keeping with other policyinitiatives for coastal resources, promote aparticipatory approach.

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Figure 6.1 Distribution and Condition of Coral Reefs between Tangalle and Kalpitiya

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Some of the picturesque sandy beaches ofSri Lanka, with their littoral and sandy shorebiodiversity, are being degraded or lost due toextensive coastal erosion which is aggravated bycoral mining; non-scientifically erectedembankments, rivets and groins; and sandmining along the seashore and in rivers.Although direct removal of sand from the beacheshas been curbed by the CCD, sand mining inrivers continues.

Ecotourism has much potential in thecoastal areas. Beaches and areas with fringingreefs are favoured sites for tourism. Snorkelling,scuba diving and viewing corals are popularamong tourists. The Ceylon Tourist Board hasprepared a Master Plan for development oftourism and there are guidelines for hoteldevelopers regarding pollution control.Nevertheless, some of the most uniquely diversebiological habitats in the southern and westerncoasts have been damaged due to constructionof "beach hotels" that do not conform toregulations regarding waste disposal,environmental safeguards, and land use planningto protect vulnerable ecosystems. Tourism isan important economic activity in the countryand it is in the interest of the tourist trade topreserve the coastal environment and itsbiodiversity.

There is also a proliferation of privateturtle hatcheries along the southwest coast, somein collaboration with foreign groups. Althoughthe claim is that these hatcheries are set up forconservation purposes, investigations by NARAshow that most are profit-motivated and touristoriented, and that the practices adopted by thehatcheries may be detrimental to the survivalof the young.

Several incentives available for economicactivities in the coastal and marine region tendto adversely affect biodiversity due toinadequate attention being paid to environmentalconservation. These activities include: expansionof shrimp farming, export of marine faunaand flora, environmentally detrimental fishingpractices, ad hoc land reclamation, the puttingup of unauthorized constructions and otherinfrastructures, and the proliferation of industriesthat release effluents.

The ineffectiveness of law enforcement

alone as the means of curbing adverse activitiesin coastal areas has amply demonstrated theneed for adopting a participatory approachinvolving the local communities. The need isalso felt for coastal management to proceedsimultaneously at the national, provincial,district and local levels, with the collaborationof several state agencies, local entrepreneurs,NGOs and communities. At present, activitiesat the national level are guided by the CCDwith the support of other relevant stateagencies. In the future, resource managementefforts for coast conservation need to focuson issues within the jurisdiction of theprovinces. This will need considerablestrengthening of the capacities of provincialand local institutions and the preparation ofprovincial CZM Plans in consultation withrelevant state agencies. The national CZMPlan has not yet been translated into provincialactions, although activities at local level willbe the ultimate determinants of the sustainabilityof coastal resources.

Current policies also require thatwork by national and provincial agencies atthe local level in the coastal zone be plannedand managed within geographically distinctsites, through the formulation andimplementation of Special Area Management(SAM) Plans. These will make it possible forproblems and opportunities to be examinedand assessed in a site-specific context. SAMplans focus on effective devolution of resourcemanagement to local stakeholders through aparticipatory process by creating community-based management groups. SAM Plans havealready been prepared for Rekawa andHikkaduwa and implementation has commenced.Twenty other coastal sites have been identifiedfor similar planning and management.

With the multiplicity of organizationsinvolved in different activities within the coastalzone, a strong co-ordinating mechanismbecomes necessary. Co-ordination is noteffective at present, and there is a clear needfor a review of this function which atpresents rests with the CCD.

Objectives:

1. To promote the conservation of coastaland marine habitats of the country such

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Box 6.8

SAM: SPECIAL AREA MANAGEMENT IN SRI LANKA

Special Area Management can be defined as a collaborative, adaptive and flexible approach toplanning resource management within a defined geographic area. It assumes that residents of alocal community and the local government have both the incentives and the knowledge of theresources and resource-use problems to act collectively in ways that ensure that resources areused sustainably. A key aspect of the SAM approach is that even during planning,implementation of small projects can proceed.

Two areas have since 1991 been pilot testing sites for SAM planning: Rekawa and Hikkaduwa.The Coastal Resources Management Project (CRMP) has been acting as facilitator in theprocesses, through emphasis on data collection and analysis and education and organisation of thelocal communities. The two pilot areas are characterised by a varied set of management issues.

Rekawa is a lagoon area with a low income community, in which 80 percent have earningsbelow the poverty line (Rs 1,500 per month). The use of natural resources for the livelihood ofthe local community has surpassed sustainable limits and caused environmental degradation. TheRekawa Special Area Management Coordinating Committee, composed of central and localgovernment officials and also representatives of key community groups, has with the participationof the general Rekawa community defined a set of objectives and developed strategies and actionplans with the overall goal of protecting and managing the coastal resources. Some of the mostcritical issues of concern identified during the management process is the reduced flow of bothfreshwater and seawater into the Rekawa lagoon, increased sedimentation, unsustainable fishingmethods, coral mining, sea turtle egg poaching, and the poverty of the people.

Hikkaduwa and its Marine Sanctuary is the most popular beach resort area in the country. Asa consequence of overuse of the coastal resources in the area, resources are degrading rapidly.The community with the assistance of CRMP has established the Hikkaduwa Special AreaManagement/Marine Sanctuary Coordinating Committee, which coordinates the development andimplementation of the SAM plan. Some important management issues are the degradation of thecoral reef ecosystem, deterioration of the coastal water quality, lack of alternative forms ofincome generation for the local people, increasing traffic congestion and noise, and conflictsbetween economic interests, especially tourism and fisheries.

The SAM concept is strongly advocated in the revised Coastal Zone Management Plan (1996).Five potential sites for future SAM planning have been identified as having high priority:Arugam Bay; Bar Reef; Beruwela/Bentota; Negombo Lagoon and Unawatuna Bay. These newsites have been rated through a set of criteria, covering severity of issues, biodiversity, andeconomic significance.

Source: CCD (1996); CCD, NARA & MTEWA (1996a,b)

as the coral reefs, sea grass beds,mangroves, lagoons, estuaries, saltmarshes.

2. To promote the conservation of threatenedmarine species (e.g. marine mammals) aswell as other species which are subjectto exploitation for food, for the aquariumtrade, etc.

3. To promote sustainability in the use of

coastal and marine bioresources in thefisheries and tourist industries.

4. To strengthen current governmentinitiatives to increase stakeholderparticipation in the conservation of coastaland marine resources.

5. To increase collaborative participationamong stakeholders with regard to policiesand programmes that affect coastal and

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marine biodiversity and initiatives thatsupport conservation, such as research.

Recommended action:

1. Strengthen and enhance current effortsto conduct a comprehensive fish resourceassessment in Sri Lankan marine watersand an assessment of sustainable levelsof harvesting for the food fishery.

2. Promote the preparation of managementplans for the sustainable use of thefisheries resource, taking into considerationthe establishmen of fisheries reserves wherenecessary and regeneration of thenearshore fishery resource.

3. Promote research programmes to determinethe sustainable levels of fish catches.

4. Monitor the extent and sustainability ofharvesting coastal resources such asornamental fish, sea-cucumber, molluscs,sponges, beche-de-mer, and other specieswith a market demand.

5. Initiate and strengthen research for exsitu cultivation of economically importantcoastal and marine species and identifyalternatives to selectively exploited specieswhere possible; disseminate results tothe industrial sector through seminars,workshops and training programmes.

6. Initiate a comprehensive programme tostudy wild stocks of marine mammals inSri Lankan waters, the catch estimatesand the feasibility of alternative incomegeneration through eco-tourism, andcarry out an islandwide awarenesscampaign to stop the killing and saleof flesh of these species.

7. Preserve seagrass beds and encouragesustainable use of resources via properin situ culture and harvest practicesamong local communities andentrepreneurs.

8. Strengthen and enhance current effortsto map the biological resources, includingcorals, seagrass beds etc. in the coastalwaters of Sri Lanka based onGeographical Information Systems.

9. Carry out scientific biodiversityassessment of coral reefs and other

important marine systems to identify aminimum network of marine reserves toconserve the totality of marinebiodiversity based on principles similar tothe National Conservation Review offorests.

10. In collaboration with relevant stateagencies, user groups and communities,prepare management plans for identifiedmarine protected areas to conservebiodiversity, and strengthen capabilitiesfor management.

11. Prepare and implement management plansand strengthen capability amongstakeholders for conservation andmanagement of mangrove areas using aparticipatory approach.

12. Examine and monitor effects of fishingmethods that may have adverse effectson biodiversity, and take appropriateaction.

13. Enforce, strictly, the current laws againstthe use of explosives, illegal types offishing gear and harvesting of juvenileand gravid lobsters in the sea.

14. Strengthen capabilities to enforce existingregulations against the slaughter of smallcetaceans and turtles (includingharvesting of their eggs), and providebetter protection for feeding, breedingand nesting grounds of marine species,including licensing and state monitoringof turtle hatcheries.

15. Control the expansion of prawn farmsinto mangrove areas and salt marshes toprevent excessive biodiversity loss, andpreserve all biodiversity rich areas ashabitats for aquatic fauna and flora.

16. By prohibition or strict regulation ofcollection from the wild and other activemeasures, promote the conservation ofcoastal and marine species of fauna andflora of species under threat.

17. Increase institutional capability for strictenforcement of laws against sand andcoral mining.

18. Promote policy incentives for the use(including the import) of substitutes forcoral based lime in the building industry.

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19. Carry out research in collaboration withuniversities and the private sector toproduce alternative materials to replacemarine coral-based lime for the buildingindustry and to promote designing thatobviates the use of lime plaster.

20. Develop capacity among entrepreneursand guidelines for aquaculture that takeinto account preservation of the naturalenvironment.

21. Initiate and promote research programmesto determine the effects of sea level riseon marine and coastal habitats.

22. Establish a strong and effective co-ordinating mechanism to secure thecollaboration of all the concernedinstitutions in the effective managementof the coastal zone.

23. Initiate action in collaboration withagricultural and irrigation authorities andprovincial/regional bodies to preventsiltation of lagoons, estuaries andmarine ecosystems due to soil erosioninland.

24. Develop capacity for eco-tourism inselected coastal areas, with theparticipation of communities and localentrepreneurs, for viewing coral life,watching marine mammals, etc.

25. Enlist support of NGOs and ruralcommunities to establish woodlots insand dunes adjoining mangroves, withfast growing fuelwood trees such asCasuarina, to ameliorate pressure onmangrove vegetation.

26. Develop and apply feasible methods forwaste disposal from industries, touristhotels and households in the coastalzone, through surveys, research andcommunity projects.

27. Commence awareness programmes fordifferent target groups to mitigate adverseeffects of pollution, coral reef damageand over-harvesting of species fromcoastal and marine ecosystems.

28. Strengthen and expedite the preparationand implementation of the special areamanagement programmes identified in

"Coastal 2000" and the CZM Plan of1996, and extend the programmes toother coastal sites as necessary.


CCD, NARA, DFAR, DWLC, FD, CEANARESA, and the provincial administration

6.4 Agriculture SystemsIdentifying the issues:

Much of the agricultural land in thecountry, mainly the rice paddies, home gardensand some crop plantations, is privately owned.State land has also been given to farmers forcultivation on permits or grants under theLand Development Ordinance.

An aspect of agricultural land use thathas a direct bearing on the status ofbiodiversity, particularly in the non-plantationsector, is that the cultivator is often not theowner or permit holder or grant holder of theland he cultivates. In many such cases, thetenant farmers use the land for one or fewseasons on his agreeing to pay a rental in theform of a share of the produce. As a result,the farmer has no long-term interest in theland and will not be encouraged to adoptmulti-cropping or to invest in land managementpractices to ensure sustained productivity.

The Paddy Lands Act of 1958 andthe Agrarian Services Law of 1979 wereintroduced with a view to rectifying thisshortcoming by restricting the rights of thelandlord to evict tenant farmers, fixing thecrop share to be paid by the tenant, andpermitting more flexibility for tenants to transferuser rights. These regulations, however, havenot had the desired effect of increasing cropproductivity. Even today, as much as 11 percent of farmers are landless and 38.5 percent possess only home gardens of which theaverage size is around 0.4 ha. Thus abouthalf the farming community is not in controlof sufficient land to produce a marketablesurplus, let alone engage in multi-cropping toenhance biodiversity. In would be difficult,

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therefore, to induce these resource-poor farmersto adopt sustainable agricultural practices toprotect ecosystems and biodiversity.

A positive factor is that about five percent of the holdings are around 2.8 ha each.These holdings total 283,000 ha. Increasingthe biodiversity of such farms throughmulticropping may be feasible. On the otherhand, in the plantation sector where tea,rubber, coconut and sugarcane are grown,mono-cropping is the accepted practice, andthis does not promote the maintenance ofbiodiversity. However, it is encouraging tonote that some plantations have recently turnedto multi-cropping.

With the Land Reform Law setting aceiling on the size of an individual’s landholding, the Land Reform Commission acquiredover 400,000 ha or nearly 30 per cent of thearable land in the country. This brought in itswake several problems such as reduction insoil fertility through neglect and fragmentationof agricultural land for other uses. A commonproblem in the agriculture sector is theoccurrence of disputes over inheritance ofprivate land among small holders, particularlyin the wet zone. As a result, a high proportionof land in these areas remains uncultivated orneglected.

The area under plantation crops hasgradually declined during the last decadeprimarily due to the use of agricultural landsfor settlements and infrastructural development.The current policies and trends, however,favour increased production, both throughincreasing productivity and by increasing thearea under cultivation. The incentives forexpanding the tea areas in the low countrywould certainly result in a move to convertforest land in the southwest to tea, and thiswould exert pressure on the already vulnerablewet zone forests.

Inadequate management of tea landsand vegetable gardens in the hill country hasalso brought in its wake soil erosion and landdegradation. The loss of top soil and theabsence of organic matter coupled withexcessive use of agro-chemicals have made

some of the tea soils almost barren of soilfauna, resulting in an imbalance in the faunaldiversity in those areas. By and large, theadoption of resource conservation practices inthe plantation sector has been neglected in thepast due to fluctuating commodity prices andlow profitability, particularly in tea and rubber.

The agriculture sector is largelyserviced by the Department of Agriculture(DOA). This department was established in1912 primarily to develop peasant agriculture,but it has focused its attention on domesticfood production since 1940. The broadobjectives of the DOA today are to increaseagricultural productivity and farming incomes,to generate employment and to promote theconservation of the resource base.

To date, considerable work has beencarried out on varietal improvement of rice.As a result, the national average yields haveincreased five-fold from 0.65 tonnes per hectarein the 1940s when only the traditional varietieswere grown to 3.5 tonnes in the 1980s dueto the use of new improved varieties. Sincethen rice yields have remained virtually staticdespite the release of more versatile breeds ofrice. As a result of the switch over to highyielding varieties, there has been a sharp dropin the cultivation of traditional varieties.

Indigenous varieties exhibit a widerange of genetic characteristics among whichare resistance or tolerance to biotic andabiotic stresses and to varying agro-ecologicalconditions. While strengthening efforts toconserve this germplasm, the farmers must beinformed of how they could access the seedmaterial for cultivation.

The traditional homegardens have beenthe repository of germplasm of numerousspecies used as food items, spices andmedicinal plants over the ages. In recentyears, the homegarden system suffered a setback due to land fragmentation and populationincrease. These gardens play a vital role inthe in situ conservation of germplasm selectedby farmers over generations, and every effortmust be made to encourage and sustain themulti-cropping practices in homegardens.

Research in the agricultural sector isfunded mainly through individual departmental

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budgets. Some funding is also provided throughthe Council for Agricultural Research Policyand the Natural Resources, Energy and ScienceAuthority. Notable deficiencies in the researchsector are inadequacy of research on captivebreeding of important domesticated animals, exsitu conservation of traditional cultivars ofcrops, and mixed cropping.

The application of plant tissue culturefor the conservation and improvement ofgermplasm of tea, rubber, coconut and sugarcane is being carried out by the respectiveresearch institutes. However, theseprogrammes are constrained by limitations offunds and facilities, and they warrant supportand strengthening.

The agricultural sector is alsoresponsible for another important aspect ofbiodiversity conservation, namely, the preventionof the entry of alien species to the country.The Plant Protection Ordinance makes provisionfor preventing the introduction of weeds, pestsand diseases which would pose a threat toplants in Sri Lanka, particularly the cropspecies. All imported plants and animals, ortheir parts, have to be declared at the pointof entry to the country and be subject toquarantine regulations. Imported seed has tobe certified by the Seed Certification andQuarantine Division prior to release or usewithin the country. The Plant ProtectionOrdinance does not specifically cover theimport of living modified organisms (LMOs),and the law has to be amended to remedythis. The Animal Diseases Act and theFauna and Flora Ordinance should alsobe reviewed in the context of the importof LMOs.

During recent years, the government’spolicies, for good reasons, have been directedtowards increasing exports which includetraditional agricultural exports as well asnewly developed agriculture based products.Export-oriented enterprises involving live plantsand animals include the export of ornamentalplants and fish. This is an aspect requiringvery close scrutiny and stringent controls asthere is a direct threat to biodiversity throughthe unchecked collection of organisms fromtheir natural habitats. Such activities wouldundoubtedly endanger the survival of wildstocks.

Objectives:

1. To adopt policies and programmes forthe conservation of Sri Lanka’sagricultural biodiversity.

2. To adopt agricultural and crop plantationpractices that will enhance theconservation of biodiversity.

3. To promote among farmers and otherland owners practices for the conservationof biodiversity.

Recommended action:

1. Promote the leasing of suitable stateland for agroforestry and mixed croppingon the traditional home garden pattern.

2. Improve co-ordination and provision ofinstitutional support for home-gardens,which would include credit and technicalassistance.

3. Facilitate access (by farmers) to seedmaterial of indigenous varieties.

4. Secure ownership of the land for farmersand leaseholders who demonstrate theircommitment to conservation of biodiversityin their landholdings.

5. Provide economic incentives for thepopularization of conservation farming;these could include fiscal measures,provision of services, improvements inland and tree tenure, training andawareness creation, etc.

6. Provide incentives and technical and otherassistance for integrated farming incoconut, and support research on suchactivities under rubber and tea.


DOA, DEA, FD, Department of AnimalProduction and Health, Mahaweli Authority,TRI, CRI, RRI, MAL, Tea Small HoldingsDevelopment Authority, Rubber DevelopmentAuthority, Coconut Cultivation Board.

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6.5 Priority Action for SelectedBioregions

Identifying the issues:

Given the situation that the resourcesavailable in Sri Lanka for biodiversityconservation, as for other socio-economicdevelopment activities, will continue to belimited in the foreseeable future, it wasconsidered necessary to develop a scheme thatwill provide a basis for prioritizing action. Aconceptual framework for dividing the country,including its coastal and marine areas, intobioregions and for prioritizing the regions interms of the need to take biodiversityconservation action was developed. Forprioritizing, an integrative approach wasadopted that recognizes both the ecologicalsensitivity of the region and the pressures theyare subject to from human activities. Fifteenbioregions were recognized, and it isrecommended that bioregions 4,5 and 6 inlandand 11, 13 and 14 in the coastal and marineregion be accorded high priority for biodiversityconservation action.

Objective:

To ensure that the bioregions requiringthe most urgent attention for biodiversityconservation are accorded high priority in theconservation programmes.

Recommended action:

1. The National Steering Committee, TaskForces, and the Biodiversity Secretariat(see Chapter 8) to place special emphasison plans and programmes for biodiversityconservation in the high prioritybioregions (4, 5, 6, 11, 13 and 14),and ensure that they are adequatelyresourced.

2. All government organizations to accordhigh priority to biodiversity programmestargeting the conservation and sustainableuse of biodiversity in the high prioritybioregions.


MFE, FD, DWLC, Department of Ayurveda,CEA, CCD, MAL, Mahaweli Authority,provincial administration

6.6 Ex situ ConservationIdentifying the issues:

The conservation of biodiversity has to bedone mainly within natural habitats, i.e. in situ. However, ex situ conservation, or conservationoutside the natural habitat, is also consideredimportant. In today’s context, despite efforts atin situ conservation, species may still belost in the wild, and ex situ collections mayturn out to be the only surviving germplasmof the species. Also, unpredictable eventscould occur resulting in the destruction ofnatural habitats and the extinction of rarespecies. Ex situ conservation, however, shouldnot be considered as a substitute for in situconservation, but as a complementary strategy.

Ex situ conservation is carried outonly in a very limited way in Sri Lanka. ThePlant Genetic Resources Centre at Peradeniyais the only institution with facilities for thecryo-preservation of germplasm, and, as atpresent, only a fraction of the range of theagricultural germplasm found in the country isstored at this center. (See Table 3.3). Thethree botanical gardens at Peradeniya, Hakgalaand Henarathgoda house 4800, 100 and 500species of plants, of which 99, 60 and 38respectively are endemics, 81, 20 and 10 areorchid species, and 300, 40 and 60 aremedicinal plants. The National ZoologicalGarden houses 103 species of mammals ofwhich three species are endemic; 119 speciesof birds of which three are endemic; 37species of reptiles of which three are endemic;34 species of freshwater fish of which 11 areendemic; and ten species of butterflies ofwhich two are endemic.

The Department of Animal Productionand Health and its research arm the VeterinaryResearch Institute, though mandated to improveand ensure the proper utilization of domesticatedanimals such as cattle, pigs and poultry, donot have organized programmes for germplasmconservation.

Through the medicinal plant gardenscoming under its purview, the Department ofAyurveda carries out the ex situ conservationof some species of medicinal plants. SomeProvincial Councils also maintain herb gardensaffiliated to their ayurvedic hospitals. The

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Department of Town and Country Planning,under its Urban Park Development Project,maintains a medicinal plants garden atKataragama, and the NGO Ritigala Community-Based Development and EnvironmentalManagement Foundation, at Ritigala, carriesout the cultivation of medicinal plants.

As regards indigenous wild fauna, therole of the National Zoological Gardens forthe ex situ conservation of germplasm is verylimited. There are no scientifically managedcaptive breeding programmes for threatenedanimals, though captive breeding has beenfound to be successful with certain specieslike the elephant and leopard.

Regarding aquatic biodiversity, theNational Aquatic Resources Research andDevelopment Agency (NARA) has conductedsuccessfully some programmes on the ex situcultivation of corals and the breeding of someindigenous varieties of ornamental fish incaptivity. There have also been a few otherattempts at ex situ conservation of endangeredspecies. Out of some 70 species of Holothuria(sea cucumber) found in the Indian Ocean,about 20 are edible, and out of those, sevenspecies are known to be found in the SriLankan marine waters. The NARA RegionalCenter at Kalpitiya, in its efforts to save thespecies Holothuria spinifera which is selectivelyand intensively harvested in the northwesterncoast, has demonstrated that all seven speciesavailable in these waters are of comparablequality, and that there is no necessity toharvest exclusively only one species.Scathophagus argus and Monodactylus argentiumare two wild species of brackish waterornamental fish, currently in demand for export.The NARA Regional Research Center atKadolkele, Negombo, has recently commencedscientific research on captive breeding of thesetwo threatened species of brackish water fishin order to ensure their sustenance and survival.These efforts, though commendable, fall farshort of what is required in terms of ex situconservation and sustainable use of Sri Lanka’saquatic fauna.

In discussions held with Departmentsof Agriculture, Export Agriculture, and Animal

Production and Health, and the researchinstitutes dealing with plantation crops, theneed to establish and sustain wide germplasmsof the species they are responsible for wasemphasized. The Department of AnimalProduction and Health was concerned about theabsence of accurate, scientific characterizationof local breeds of domesticated animals. Italso showed its interest in the cryo-preservationof animal germplasm.

Currently, all the research institutesmaintain field collections of the varieties,cultivars and clones that are being used, butstrengthening their capabilities, particularly toapply modern biotechnological methods forgermplasm conservation, is warranted. TheDepartment of Export Agriculture showed aninterest in characterizing its crop species andpreparing plant descriptors under the guidelinesof the International Plant Genetic ResourcesInstitute. With regard to medicinal plants, thecurrent efforts at ex situ conservation are grosslyinadequate in the context of the diminishinghabitats of these species. It is expected thatthe field conservation of germplasm will begreatly expanded once the proposed medicinalplants project is implemented.

The expansion of field gene banks isconstrained by the shortage of personnel andfunds. The maintenance of live gene banks orfield collections of some of these crops(particularly those susceptible to crosspollination) is complicated by the necessity forartificial selfing, emasculation, and othertechniques to prevent cross-breeding which willresult in the dilution and genetic mixing ofpure lines. This warrants the use of trainedfield personnel and the placing of thefield gene banks under the supervision ofmandated, competent institutions.

To alleviate the problem of resourcelimitations, it should be possible to adoptinnovative approaches for ex situ conservation.For example, gardens of chilli plants (whichmay have over 50 cultivars), coconut cultivargardens, or root tuber crop cultivar gardenscan be set up to make them attractive totourists and so bring in revenue. Such gardenswould also serve for education and forstimulating public awareness. NGOs showing

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an interest in such activities could providesupport to the government institutionsconcerned.

A number of animal species indigenousto Sri Lanka, including certain endemic species,are threatened with extinction. The ornamentalfish trade has recently made significant demandson tropical species which are harvested andexported indiscriminately. It has thereforebecome necessary to launch a programme ofex situ conservation, including captive breedingto protect certain species of animals. TheZoological Gardens, though mandated toperform this function, faces several limitationsto implement such a programme. It isrecommended that the Zoological Gardens beprovided with additional personnel, facilitiesand funds to formulate and launch a captivebreeding programme for endangered species ofanimals. In drawing up such a programme,expertise should be obtained from theuniversities, NARA and the Department ofWildlife Conservation, and from competentpersons located in Sri Lanka and abroad. Thefunctions of the Zoological Gardens should beexpanded to act as a repository of geneticmaterial from wild, indigenous species ofanimals.

There is no centralized repository formicrobial germplasm conservation, and a fewresearch groups attached to universities andcertain research institutes maintain their ownculture collections. There is, therefore, anurgent need to have a centralized repositoryfor the vast array of useful microorganismsthat are used in medicine, agriculture, foodprocessing and industry, particularly in viewof their extensive application in modernbiotechnology.

Overall, it is evident that the importantrole that ex situ conservation has to play insafeguarding Sri Lanka’s biodiversity, thoughunderstood by the implementing institutions, isnot recognized adequately at higher policymaking levels. Consequently, except for thesetting up of the Plant Genetic ResourcesCentre (which is the only institution withfacilities for the cryo-preservation of germplasmin Sri Lanka) as a ”one off” exercise, allother measures for ex situ conservation are

left to the institutions to manage as best asthey can with the limited resources at theirdisposal. An umbrella scientific organizationlike NARESA is well placed to take on therole of stimulating interest at the policy levelfor promoting the allocation of resources foraddressing ex situ conservation in ameaningful way.

Objectives:

1. To develop a national policy on ex situgermplasm conservation.

2. To develop and implement programmesfor the ex situ preservation of thegermplasm of indigenous species of usefulplants, animals and microorganisms, andidentified species under severe threat.

Recommended action:

1. Formulate and implement a nationalpolicy for germplasm conservation.

2. Strengthen the capacity and scope of thePlant Genetic Resources Centre as anational centre for germplasmconservation.

3. Strengthen the facilities of the threebotanic gardens to enable them to expandtheir ex situ conservation activities.

4. Improve the facilities available at theNational Zoological Gardens so that itwill serve as a repository of geneticmaterial for all indigenous wild animalspecies.

5. Improve facilities at NARA for the exsitu conservation of indigenous ornamentalfish species.

6. Establish a gene bank for all indigenousdomesticated animal species at theVeterinary Research Institute.

7. Initiate scientifically managed captivebreeding programmes for endemic andthreatened animal species.

8. Survey and collect germplasm of localfruit trees and medicinal plants andestablish arboreta.

9. Compile a directory of all institutionally

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and privately held collections of species.

10. Monitor and support local communityand NGO efforts to establish and maintainseed banks.

11. Monitor and support the efforts of privateestablishments to propagate commerciallyimportant indigenous threatened plantspecies, utilizing biotechnology.

12. Identify suitable centres and provideadequate resources for the conservationof microbial germplasm.

13. Establish urban and rural parks andfield gene banks of selected species and,where possible, develop these as centresfor promoting education and creatingawareness among the public.

Main state institutions involved in implementing:

DOA, DEA, Department of Animal Productionand Health, TRI, RRI, CRI, RRI, VRI,Botanical gardens, Zoological gardens, NARA,NARESA

6.7 ResearchIdentifying the issues:

Most of the government organizationsthat deal with the conservation and use ofbiodiversity have a section within theirinstitutions devoted to research. These includethe Forest Department, Department ofAgriculture, Department of Export Agriculture,Department of Animal Production and Health,Department of Ayurveda, and the NARA.Notably, however, the Department of WildlifeConservation does not have a research section.Some state organizations are exclusively devotedto research activities such as the TRI, CRIand RRI. The universities too play a significantrole in the national research efforts onbiodiversity, and many of their research projectsare being carried out in collaboration withforeign scientific institutions. NARESA supportsresearch on biodiversity by providing grants.

The Forest Department’s researchsection was created over 60 years ago, and inthe early days its activities were focused onsilvicultural and timber utilization research.

From the 1960s, with the department’sreforestation programme expanding sharply, theresources provided for research (trainedmanpower and funds) began to decline. Thelow priority given to research continued untilrecent times. In recent efforts to resuscitatethe research division of the Department, severalmeasures were adopted, among which was thesetting up of a National Forestry ResearchCommittee, with the Conservator of Forests asChairman, and with members from otherorganizations including the universities. Thisinitiative must be accompanied by astrengthening of the research capacity of thedepartment to build within it a core ofresearchers on different aspects of forestscience. Even with the additional strengthening,the department should always recognize, as itdoes now, that a great deal of forestry researchshould continue to be done at the universities,and this must be given every encouragement.

As regards research on biodiversity,the Forest Department has, through its NationalConservation Review, gathered valuable dataon biodiversity in the natural forests of thecountry in relation to plants (woody species)and animals (vertebrates, molluscs andbutterflies). The Department, through its normalresearch programme, is also carrying out someresearch on the regeneration of indigenouswoody species. Research projects on forestbiodiversity have been carried out by somemembers of the teaching staff of the universitiesin areas of particular interest to them, andthese are mostly related to the distribution ofplant species and animal species of selectedtaxa. Subjects such as conservation andreproductive biology, which are important inthe context of sustainable use of biodiversity,are poorly researched. All the current researchon biodiversity does not add up to the levelof research that is necessary to support aneffective programme for the conservation andsustainable use of forest biodiversity and is, atany rate, quite inadequate for a country withsuch a wealth of biodiversity and endemismamong its indigenous fauna and flora. Furtherresearch in biodiversity should therefore bepromoted. Collaboration with centres ofexcellence abroad should be encouraged inorder to strengthen national research capabilities;

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but in so doing adequate safeguards should betaken to ensure that access to Sri Lanka’sgenetic resources and related information isprovided only on binding conditions that willensure that any benefits derived from the useof such resources or information are equitablyshared with this country.

Research on bioactive substancesobtained from diverse bioresources, includingmedicinal plants, is being conducted byresearchers in the universities, the MedicalResearch Institute and the Ceylon Institute ofScientific and Industrial Research. This, togetherwith other areas of biodiversity research, wouldhave to be strengthened in the context of theprovisions of the Convention on BiologicalDiversity regarding access to genetic resources,access to and transfer of technology, andtechnical and scientific cooperation.

On aquatic fauna, research inbiodiversity overall is inadequate. NARA hasbeen carrying out research on some marineand brackish water species, and there havebeen a few research projects carried out byuniversity staff. A great deal more has to bedone to provide the scientific information forthe conservation of aquatic fauna, particularlyof threatened species.

An interesting study was carried outby IUCN Sri Lanka in collaboration withWCMC on Investments on BiodiversityConservation in Sri Lanka in the period 1991to 1994. This study revealed that, forbiodiversity conservation work, over 90 percent of the funds come from external agencies,mainly through bilateral arrangements. Withregard to biodiversity conservation research,many small to medium scale projects wereundertaken by researchers in the universities.The total funds received by the universitiesfor research on biodiversity conservation was,however, less than a tenth of the total fundingreceived for all aspects of biodiversityconservation work in the country from externalas well as from internal sources. The studyalso revealed that, with respect to research,the main focus was on systematics andinventory and on basic studies relating tospecies and ecosystems. Biodiversity research

on flora received much more attention than onfauna, and scant attention was accorded tothe in situ management of threatened faunalspecies. There was no research on captivebreeding with the aim of subsequent re-introduction to the wild.

Objectives:

1. To evolve mechanisms for coordinationand consolidation of research efforts inbiodiversity conservation and itssustainable use.

2. To promote research on subjects relevantto the conservation and sustainable useof indigenous species of fauna andflora, particularly those under threat.

3. To establish and support programmes tocollect, collate and document scientificdata on Sri Lanka’s biodiversity.

Recommended action:

1. Institutionalize and strengthen currentprogrammes of research on biodiversityand document qualitative, quantitative anddistributional data on animals, plantsand microorganisms of Sri Lanka.

2. Review all on-going and past researchon biodiversity conservation andsustainable use, and identify gaps,institutions and scientific resources forfuture research.

3. Provide financial resources for researchon identified high priority areas pertainingto the conservation and sustainable useof components of biodiversity, particularlydigenous species under threat and thoseof potential economic value.

4. Extend the NCR to cover gaps inknowledge on the existence anddistribution of non-vascular plants,invertebrates and microorganisms

5. Mobilize resources and expertise forbiodiversity research in Sri Lanka.

6. Develop and introduce regulations toensure that, if access to Sri Lanka’sgenetic resources and related informationis granted through collaborative researcharrangements to non-national organizationsor individuals, adequate safeguards are

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taken to ensure that any benefits derivedfrom such resources or information areshared equitably with this country.

7. Promote collaborative research aimed atstrengthening Sri Lanka’s researchcapability in biodiversity related work,with adequate safeguards as specifiedunder 6 above.


NARESA, CARP, FD, MFE, NM anduniversities

6.8 Education and AwarenessIdentifying the issues:

In the sphere of education, biodiversityconservation rarely figures as a subject byitself and is often included as a part ofenvironmental curricula. This is not surprisingas, in the current context, concern for theloss of biodiversity is still an emerging issue.In the school curriculum of the nationaleducation system, environmental education isincluded from the primary grades. At secondaryschool level, aspects of environmental educationare included in the subjects science, socialstudies and health studies. At pre-universitylevel, aspects of biodiversity are included inthe subjects botany, zoology and geography.

The National Institute of Education isthe main institution concerned with curriculumdevelopment within the school system. Althoughsound curricula have been developed, thereare, as the Institute itself acknowledges, severaldeficiencies in the imparting of environmentaleducation. This is mainly because the teachers,for the most part, use only conventionalclassroom lectures to teach environmentalsubjects, and they lack the motivation andtechnical capacity for effective teaching of therelevant subject components. Teachers areparticularly weak in promoting environmentalconsciousness among students. While someteachers are decidedly innovative, they form asmall minority. The constraints identified byteachers as barring effective teaching ofenvironmental topics were: lack of access tocurrent literature on topical matters; lack of

training in effective teaching methods; shortageof equipment and teaching aids; socialconstraints to the introduction of practicalaspects of environmental education; theexamination oriented teaching practices expectedof teachers by senior school administrators,students and parents; and the lack of supportfrom school administrators for departing fromthe conventional approach to environmentaleducation.

A few organizations have attempted toaddress the problem of resource constraintsfaced by teachers. March for Conservation(MfC), a national NGO which specializes inenvironmental education, prepared a set ofinnovative environmental education aids foryears six, seven and eight, and tested themamong teachers and students from about 100schools in selected districts. The teachersresponsible for environmental education in theseschools were also trained to supplement theirclass room teaching with these teaching aids,using novel teaching techniques. Several otherNGOs carry out programmes related tostrengthening awareness on biodiversity amongschool children. These include Worldview andthe Wildlife and Nature Protection Society.

NARESA carried out a project incollaboration with MfC to carry out trainingprogrammes for teachers in field sites and toproduce supplementary reading material andposters (tropical rain forests and coral reefs)for secondary schools. It is at present engagedin producing a set of scientific pictorial bookson mammals, birds, the Sinharaja forest,medicinal plants and coastal resources. Postersand other educational material on aspects ofbiodiversity are being produced by othergovernment organizations too, e.g. the ForestDepartment, MFE, Coast ConservationDepartment, CEA, DWLC and NARA, andthese organizations also conduct seminars forschool children and the public. All theseactivities by both the governmental and non-governmental organizations are insufficient bythemselves to make a significant national impacton improving the standard of teaching ofbiodiversity and its conservation at the schoollevel. A concerted national effort is needed to

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give appropriate training to the teachers andto provide the necessary teaching aids.

At the university level, biodiversity iscovered in many undergraduate courses in thebiological sciences, but is absent in theveterinary science degree course. At thepostgraduate level, for masters degrees bycourse work, biodiversity is included in therelevant curricula at the Universities ofColombo, Peradeniya and Sri Jayewardenepura,and at the Open University. A significant gapat the postgraduate level is that only a fewstudents opt to specialize in taxonomy whichis essential for biodiversity survey andassessment.

Many of the activities which deal witheducation and awareness relating to biodiversityconservation are carried out by NGOs.

At present there are over 360 NGOsinvolved in such activities, from the nationallevel right down to the village communitylevel. Many of these activities are beingmanaged on ”shoe string” budgets. The Wildlifeand Nature Protection Society, an NGO ofover 100 years standing, is coordinating andassisting the activities of a network of natureclubs covering 300 schools in the Island.Many other NGOs are spreading the messageof biodiversity conservation through seminars,workshops, and the radio and print media.

Notwithstanding the many activities thatare being carried out to promote awarenessamong school children and the general publicof the importance of conserving biodiversityand using it sustainably, they are slow tomake an impact. One reason is that theseactivities target only small sections of thepopulation. Another is that they are verypoorly funded, which means that they areseverely restricted in term of materials andmanpower.

A serious deficiency in implementingbiodiversity conservation measures is the non-availability of the requisite information neededby professionals. For example, law enforcementagencies like the Customs and the Police donot have access to information on identifyingplant and animal species commonly smuggledout of the country. Indeed, a good general

understanding of biodiversity is required in allsectors of government to ensure that biodiversityconcerns are recognized in the course ofimplementing development projects. NARESAhas initiated a programme to address thisneed; such programmes should be expandedand replicated. In the private sector too aknowledge of biodiversity is necessary in sectorslike trade, commerce and building construction.

A project for enhancing biodiversityskills among professionals in both thegovernmental and non-governmental sectors wasstarted in 1995 by MfC in collaboration withMFE and IUCN Sri Lanka. There is everyreason to justify the continuation of this projectand to upgrade it into a continuing programme.

Objectives:

1. To enhance knowledge, skills, attitudesand values relating to biodiversity andits conservation and sustainable use,through formal and non-formal education.

2. To enhance knowledge on biodiversityand the need to conserve it, amongprofessionals in the governmental andnon-governmental sectors.

3. To increase awareness and concern amongthe public of the need to conserve SriLanka’s biodiversity.

4. To increase resources for education,training and awareness activities in relationto biodiversity.

Recommended action:

1. Improve the quality of school curriculato make the learning and teaching ofbiodiversity more effective.

2. Review, select and make available inadequate numbers supplementaryeducational materials that have alreadybeen developed, for use in primary andsecondary schools.

3. Produce new educational material onbiodiversity issues not adequately coveredat present and, in the nature of casestudies, on new emerging conditionsrelating to biodiversity.

4. Organize training courses for teachers onthe use of practical and field orientedmethods of teaching biodiversity, with an

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emphasis on different location-specificsituations, giving due recognition to theproposals and recommendations made byteachers at various fora.

5. Formulate a scheme for nominatingmotivated school teachers to followoverseas courses in biodiversity teachingmethods and to serve as master teacherson their return.

6. Activate the existing field centres (atHorana, Palabaddala, Kurulukele, etc.)for practical work related to biodiversity,and open more centres where appropriate,ensuring that the bioregions areadequately represented.

7. Introduce aspects of biodiversity intoundergraduate courses in agriculture,veterinary science, engineering,architecture, commerce and the socialsciences.

8. Promote, by offering grants and byother means, postgraduate specializationin biodiversity fields, e.g. taxonomy ofplants and animals.

9. Increase support for NGOs withdemonstrated capability, to carry outawareness programmes on biodiversity.

10. Support the production of biodiversityoriented feature films; such videos couldbe marketed locally and internationally.

11. Formulate a comprehensive countrywideawareness programme through the printand audio-visual media, and seek privatesupport for the programme.

12. Institutionalize the Biodiversity SkillsEnhancement Project, and secure fundingfor its continuation; replicate suchprogrammes.

13. Increase media capability by organizingshort training courses on the productionof audio-visual programmes whichpromote biodiversity conservation(documentaries, discussions, newsclippings, etc.).

14. Mobilize funding for education and

awareness creation activities onbiodiversity conservation.

15. Publish a low-cost newsletter particularlyfor use by teachers and media personnelregarding biodiversity issues of topicalinterest.

16. Promote the publication of biodiversityinformation in established newspapers thattarget the school going population.


NIE, UGC, CEA, FD, CCD, NARESA, MFE,Ministry of Education and Higher Education

6.9 Biodiversity InformationIdentifying the issues:

Although there is a sizeable volume ofinformation on Sri Lanka’s biodiversity - in theform of bibliographic collections, specimenlists, maps, reports, GIS holdings, and digitaldatabases - much of it is scattered ingovernmental, semi-governmental, non-governmental, project, and academic institutions,or is in the custody of individual scientists.Its existence, however, remains largely unknownto would-be users, including policy makers.A good deal of information on Sri Lanka’sspecies is also found in institutions abroadwhere types specimens are lodged and wherethe scientific papers are published. Amonglocal scientists, only a few have the means ofgetting access to this information. A user’sinability to obtain specific information mayeither be due to its non-existence or todifficulties of access, the latter because of thelack of established measures to classify andprovide information to different categories ofusers which is a constraint that is applicablemainly to state institutions.

A national survey of biodiversityinformation was conducted in 1996 as part ofthe BCAP preparation process. The primarypurpose of the survey was to develop a"metadatabase" (defined as data that describeother data) of biodiversity related information.Evidence from the survey suggests thatinformation managers were well trained, butin fields that do not prepare them to takeadvantage of modern technology. For instance,

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about a quarter of the "information managementspecialists" have post graduate training, but veryfew have had any training in computer hardwaremaintenance, analysis of computerized spatialdata, or systems analysis. By contrast, libraryscience is the most common area of trainingwithin this group.

About 80 per cent of biodiversityinformation management institutions regularlyuse Database and Graphics software, but lessthan 15 per cent use GIS software. Stateinstitutions had the best equipment forinformation management, but it was little usedfor this purpose.

Although nearly 50 per cent of informationmanagement institutions have access to e-mail,of these, less than half have access to fullInternet facilities such as the File TransferProtocol, Worldwide Web, Gopher, etc.Academic institutions constitute the group thatis best served with full Internet connections,while government institutions are the least.

Among biodiversity information data-sets, information concerning gene banks onplants, animals and micro-organisms werepoorly represented. While a large number ofdata-sets had information on ecosystems, therewere relatively few on protected areas. Althougha fair number included socio-economicinformation, few had information on legalissues or land tenure and property rights.Nearly all data-sets have English as one oftheir operational languages, but only about aquarter are operational in Sinhala and aboutsix per cent in Tamil.

In the course of BCAP preparation,several working groups were set up to identifythe issues and the actions needed for improvingthe status of biodiversity information in SriLanka and providing better access to it. Theirfindings are briefly reported below.

There is much information on forests,including protected areas, but this is notreadily accessible to those who need it. Inpart, this is because the institutions andindividuals concerned do not make widelyknown the published and unpublishedinformation they possess. Often, the unpublishedinformation remains in files as raw data andmay eventually be lost. Some information is

found in scientific papers published abroad,and few people in Sri Lanka other than theauthors know of the existence of thesepublications. Clearly there is a need forcollation of the biodiversity related information,and this should be done as a continuation ofthe exercise which has already commenced atMFE in compiling a metadatabase.

An important data-set that hascontributed immensely to the information baseon forest biodiversity has been developedthrough the NCR. However, this information isrestricted to woody plants among the flora andto vertebrates, molluscs and butterflies amongthe fauna. Information on herbaceous flora hasnot been collected in this survey. Another areawhere forestry information is inadequate is onthe characterization of medicinal plants and ofdifferent ecotypes of useful species. On non-timber uses of forests, the recently carried outsurvey on traditional uses of forests providesvery useful basic information, but this has tobe followed up by more detailed studies. Arelated area is the human-forest relationship,where much of the available information isanecdotal.

Several important data-sets are availableon coastal and marine resources, but are notreadily accessible to researchers and planners.Examples are data on mangroves, coral mining,fishery practices, ornamental fish exports, etc.Information on habitats and ecosystems in thecoastal and marine areas is sparse. The wetlandsite reports provide a nucleus of informationand they could be used as a model whererapid collection of data on biodiversity isnecessary. On marine invertebrates, identificationand characterization is inadequate, particularlyin the context of the growing economicimportance of these species for export. Withregard to water quality, apart from NARA’ssurveys and reports of some years back andlimited monitoring by the National Water Supplyand Drainage Board and the University of SriJayewardenepura, there are no other sources ofinformation.

In the area of agriculture, biotechnologyand genetics, many institutions possessspecialised data-sets on focused topics, but thecustodians of the information do not readilymake it known that such information isavailable.

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On faunal species, much information isavailable but is difficult to access. Manyfaunal species, especially invertebrates, collectedin Sri Lanka have been identified andcharacterized outside the country, and fewpeople in Sri Lanka have access to thisinformation. Data on animal husbandry arenotably sparse. On micro-organisms, Sri Lankahas no institutionalized database, and, giventhe commercial significance of micro-organismstoday, this is considered a serious deficiency.There is also a marked absence of informationon biosafety measures.

An important information resource inSri Lanka is the indigenous knowledge onbiodiversity and its use in farming, ayurvedicmedicine, home remedies, etc. Some of theinformation on medicine is documented in olaleaves, but much of the information is in thememory of old medical practitioners, farmers,priests, and village elders, and this informationis passed down through an oral traditionfrom one generation to the next. Thisinformation must be compiled, documented andarchived. In so doing, it is important to seethat this traditional knowledge is adequatelysafeguarded, and that it is made accessibleonly if measures are taken to ensure that anybenefits derived from its use are equitablyshared by this country.

Objectives:

1. To ensure that the sources of all theinformation on Sri Lanka’s biodiversityare centrally documented.

2. To formalize and regulate access toinformation on biodiversity.

3. To strengthen the information base onbiodiversity, and to ensure that majorgaps in biodiversity information areidentified and addressed through targetedinvestments.

4. To archive indigenous knowledge andlegalize mechanisms to protect it.

Recommended action:

1. Formulate a national policy oninformation management that includes theidentification of criteria for collection,management and storage of biodiversity

information and guidelines to assistcustodial institutions to formulateindividual information access policies forin-country and external would-be users.

2. Establish mechanisms at MFE forregularly maintaining and updating themeta-databases on biodiversity now beingestablished, and for setting up of ameta-database on indigenous biodiversityinformation held outside Sri Lanka.

3. Identify a state institution to deal withbiodiversity information management andaccess issues and to facilitate thecontinued maintenance of biodiveristymeta-databases.

4. Increase capacity of individual custodialinstitutions to collate and analysebiodiversity data using current computertechnology and software through trainingand review of staff requirements; andincrease capacity for the operationallanguage of databases to be expanded tocover Sinhala and Tamil where relevant.

5. Promote measures to enhance technicalcapacity for information exchange andestablish mechanisms for the collation ofinformation on Sri Lanka’s biodiversityavailable within and outside the countryand store such data in the relevantcustodial institutions.

6. Extend the coverage of biodiversity datacollection to include non-woody and non-vascular flora, invertebrate fauna, micro-organisms and marine fauna and flora,and store such information in thecustodial institutions.

7. Strengthen information collection in thefollowing areas: uses of forest resourcesother than timber and fuelwood, functionalaspects and dynamics of ecosystems andhabitats, and human-resource relationships.

8. Collate data on hydrology and waterquality and store data in relevant custodialinstitutions.

9. Strengthen the database relating to thecharacterization of indigenous plantspecies in use for medicine and food.

10. Gather information on the benefits as

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well as risks associated with theapplication of modern biotechnology inthe conservation and use of biodiversity.

11. Launch a special programme for thecollection and archiving of data onindigenous knowledge pertaining tobiodiversity and institutionalize theprocess giving due regard to the needfor controlling and regulating access tothis information.

12. Identify and provide support to selected"centres of excellence" for collating andmanaging data sets on aspects ofbiodiversity.

13. Provide support to identified NGOs forassisting in research and collection offield data on biodiversity.


MFE, MAL, Ministry in charge of ayurvedicmedicine, Ayurveda Department, DOA, DWLC,FD, NARA, NARESA, CEA, universities.

6.10 Legal MeasuresIdentifying the issues:

In Sri Lanka, the different laws inforce today relating to environmentalprotection, many of which directly or indirectlyrelate to the conservation of species andecosystems, add up to around 80. The mostoften cited ones are the Forest Ordinance, theFauna and Flora Protection Ordinance, NationalEnvironmental Act, National HeritageWilderness Areas Act, Felling of Trees(Control) Act, Botanic Gardens Ordinance,National Aquatic Resources Research andDevelopment Agency Act, Fisheries and AquaticResources Act, Plant Protection Ordinance,Animal Diseases Act, and the CustomsOrdinance.

Despite this large body of statutes, itcould be said that there are many activitiestaking place today which are seriously erodingthe biodiversity resources of the country. Oneclear reason for this is poor law enforcement,since even with the existing laws, despitedeficiencies, much more could be done to

arrest the adverse trends in biodiversity loss.Another reason, and a major one at that, isthat the provisions available in the existinglaws for protecting the biodiversity of thecountry are defective in certain respects andinadequate for fulfilling their purpose. Forexample, there is now a lucrative export tradein the export of live ornamental fish andplants, and collection in the wild and exportin large numbers poses a serious threat tomany indigenous species. The laws relating tothese activities must be reviewed and revised.

In certain statutes there is overlap andsometimes, conflict. What is strictly regulatedand controlled by one Act may be permittedmore freely under another. A notable case isthe Fauna and Flora Protection Ordinance andthe Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Act inrespect of the import and export of fish andother aquatic organisms.

As regards the management of protectedareas and other state forests, the statutescovering this activity are generally repletewith acts that are prohibited and the penaltiesfor infringement - the command and controlconcept. There is very little room forparticipation of stakeholders in the managementof these areas. The rights that communitiesliving adjacent to forests have enjoyed forgenerations is not duly recognized in theseordinances. With regard to the state’sobligations, except for the Coast ConservationAct and the National Wilderness Areas Act,there is no direction to the implementingagencies as to their responsibility for theproper management of the areas under theirjurisdiction.

The Plant Protection Ordinance andthe Animal Diseases Act, dealing with theimport of plant and animal species respectively,are intended to prevent the introduction ofpests, diseases and invasive organisms.However, with changing perceptions in sciencewhere micro-organisms are not considered tobelong either to the plant or the animalkingdom, and with advances in science andtechnology bringing into being a new breed oforganisms, namely, living modified organisms,the statutes must be amended and updated torecognize these changes. At present, whenmicro organisms are to be imported to Sri

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Lanka, it is not clear whether it is theDepartment of Agriculture or the Departmentof Animal Production and Health that has togrant the relevant authority, or whether anyapproval at all is necessary.

The Convention on Biological Diversity(CBD) is the major international legalinstrument for the conservation of the world’sbiodiversity. It has been ratified by over 165countries as of March 1997. Sri Lanka ratifiedthe Convention in March 1994. Besides theCBD there are other international conventionsdealing with biodiversity, and notable amongthese are the Ramsar Convention on wetlandsand the CITES Convention on trade inendangered species.

The CBD has introduced many newareas of concern in international relationsregarding the conservation of biologicaldiversity. These include the transfer of geneticmaterial from one country to another, the useof traditional knowledge of one country fortechnological development in another, theequitable sharing of benefits derived from theuse of genetic resources, and collaboration inresearch between developed and developingcountries. These concerns are strongly voicedin developing countries which are richlyendowed with genetic resources but are oftenrelatively weak in their science and technologycapacity. These countries are also heirs to arich store of germplasm selected throughcenturies for particular desirable charactersand cultivated in situ, and of traditionalknowledge in the use of biological diversityfor food and medicine. The countries areconcerned that the developed countries may,through provisions in the CBD, gain access tothese resources and use their superiortechnological skills for product development,while not compensating the country from wherethe resource originally came. Many developingcountries do not have the legal mechanismsin place to safeguard their genetic resourcesfrom such exploitation. This is precisely whereSri Lanka is placed.

Legislative or quasi-legislative measures,as appropriate, must be adopted in thecontext of the CBD to safeguard Sri Lanka’sinterests regarding the conservation and use of

its biodiversity. Sovereign rights of the stateover its biological diversity have to berecognized by law. Laws and regulationsshould be enacted to control access to thecountry’s genetic resources and traditionalknowledge and to ensure that there is equitablesharing of benefits from the use of theseresources. Action must be taken to incorporate"prior informed consent" and "mutually agreedterms" in agreements covering the export ofgermplasm, the sharing of traditional knowledge,and the carrying out of joint research .

Objectives:

1. To develop sound legislation to ensurethe conservation and sustainable use ofthe country’s indigenous biologicaldiversity, particularly the componentsunder threat.

2. To enforce the legislation pertaining tothe conservation of biodiversity.

3. To provide for the fair and equitablesharing of benefits by resource ownersand users arising from the utilization ofgenetic resources and indigenousspecialized knowledge.

Recommended action:

1. Provide legal recognition to the sovereignright of the state over its biologicalresources, including genetic resources.

2. Establish a legal framework for thecontrol and regulation of access to geneticresources, collaborative research usingindigenous biodiversity, and bio-prospecting.

3. Establish a legal framework andregulatory mechanism for controllingresearch in, and the release of, geneticallymodified organisms.

4. Review the legislation pertaining to theimport and export of living organisms(including genetic resources) and amend,as necessary, to remove anomalies andstrengthen where necessary, so as toprovide adequate protection to indigenousbiodiversity.

5. Clarify legal issues relating to the importof a all organisms, includingmicroorganisms and living modifiedorganisms.

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6. Control and regulate the export of allorganisms, particularly threatenedorganisms.

7. Provide a legal framework for therecognition and protection of indigenousknowledge of the country by petty patentsor such other similar systems irrespectiveof time limitations.

8. Provide a legal framework to enable theimplementation of the CITES conventionwith regard to the protection ofendangered species.

9. Take remedial measures for the protectionof species that are presently being subjectto illegal trade.

10. Draft regulations in terms of section 38,of the Fauna and Flora ProtectionOrdinance regulating the release ofmammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fishor invertebrates.

11. Draft regulations in terms of section 24,of the Forest Ordinance, as amended bythe Forest (amendment) Act, No. 3 of1995 for the import and export oftimber and seeds of forest tree speciesand other forest produce.

12. Draft legally binding regulations toensure that research on any componentof indigenous biodiversity carried out bynon-nationals of Sri Lanka is only doneon the basis of an agreement with alocal institution and in close collaborationwith Sri Lankan scientists, and that theoutcome of such research, includinginformation that is generated, is madeavailable to Sri Lankan scientists andinstitutions.


MFE, MAL, Legal Draftsman, AG’sdepartment, FD, DWLC, Department ofAyurveda, Registrar of Patents and Trademarks

6.11 Institutional SupportIdentifying the issues:

A survey of the institutions in bothstate and non-state sectors revealed that thereare numerous organizations which arestakeholders in biodiversity conservation. Amongthese, there are several lead organizationswhose activities will determine the successfulimplementation of the Biodiversity Conservation

Box 6.9

VALUATION OF BIODIVERSITY

The economic values attributed to biodiversity may be categorized according to different types of usesas follows.

Direct Use This might be the use of a forest, wetland or other ecosystem for timber extraction,collecting non-timber products, fishing, and so on.

Indirect Use This refers to the benefits deriving from ecosystem functions such as flood control,storm protection, soil conservation, water recharge, nutrient recycling, carbon storage, etc.

Option Value This a potential use in the future i.e. based on opting to conserve biodiversitywith the hope that in the future it could be used directly or indirectly e.g. as a sourceof genetic material, for pharmaceuticals, etc.

Bequest value This measures the benefit accruing to any individual from the knowledge thatothers might benefit from the conserved resource in the future.

Existence value This is the value placed on biodiversity purely based on its continued existence,irrespective of whether or not it will ever be used.

Source: Pearce and Moran (1994)

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Action Plan (BCAP). These organizations needto be proactive to BCAP challenges. Theywill have to lead and enthuse otherorganizations and chart the future course ofthe BCAP. Capacity building efforts should bedirected primarily towards these institutions inthe expectation that such efforts would havethe desired multiplier effect on other relevantinstitutions. In addition, there are also manystate organizations which are important usersof bioresources as well as a large number ofinstitutions, both in the state and privatesector, whose activities can have an adverseimpact on biodiversity. The activities of someresearch institutions, universities, NGOs andprivate entrepreneurs can also exert aconsiderable influence on the biodiversity ofthe country. Efforts focused on promotingconservation and sustainable use of biologicalresources should be directed towards theseorganizations and institutions.

A survey on institutional capabilitieshas revealed a variety of organizational,managerial and structural deficiencies in additionto a gross shortfall in physical, financial, andhuman resources that would be needed for theeffective implementation of the BiodiversityConservation Action Plan.

The biological resources of the countryare administered by many state institutions -under the purview of the central governmentand the provincial administrations. Naturalforests come under the jurisdiction of severalstate agencies, chiefly the Forest Departmentand the Department of Wildlife Conservation.Other institutions that have a role in theconservation and management of biologicalresources are the Department of CoastConservation; the National Aquatic ResourcesResearch and Development Agency; theZoological Gardens; the National BotanicalGardens; the research institutes under theMinistry of Plantation Industry; the NaturalResources, Energy and Science Authority; theCentral Environmental Authority; and theMahaweli Authority. In addition, the provincialministries of the environment should have aresponsibility for biodiversity conservation atthe regional level. There are several othergovernment organizations whose activitiesinvolve the consumptive use of biologicaldiversity. These are, notably, the Departmentsof Agriculture, Fisheries, and Ayurveda. TheForest Department falls into this category

also, as timber and other forest products areharvested from the forests under its charge.The universities are engaged, to varyingdegrees, in carrying out research which providesbasic data for the conservation and managementof biodiversity.

Many non-governmental organizationsplay a significant role in the conservation ofSri Lanka’s biodiversity, both at national andgrass roots level. The key NGOs concernedwith biodiversity are regularly consulted bythe relevant government organizations onresearch and management activities, formulationof environmental policy, and promotion ofenvironmental education both at school andcommunity level.

At the national policy level, theministries in charge of the subjects ofenvironment, agriculture, lands, forests,plantations, fisheries, livestock, indigenousmedicine, science and technology, educationand defence, and the Provincial Councils havea vital role to play in the conservation andsustainable use of biodiversity.

In order to co-ordinate activities relatedto biodiversity conservation, MTEWA set upa Biodiversity Co-ordinating Group withrepresentatives from ministries, departments,corporations and the NGO sector. In addition,the ministry has set up an Experts Committeeon biodiversity whose main function is toadvise the ministry on matters relating to theimplementation of the Convention on BiologicalDiversity. Besides the above two bodies, theministry has set up networks of organizationsinvolved in the use or conservation ofbiodiversity or whose activities have an impacton biodiversity. The formation of these bodiesare useful first steps in enthusing the"constituency" as a whole to recognize theimportance of conserving biological diversityand using it sustainably. But to workeffectively, bodies created by the ministry incharge of the environment must be adequatelyresourced in terms of skilled manpower andfunds. This is what is lacking now and itmust be remedied as soon as possible.

The principal state organizationsmandated for environmental protection andbiodiversity conservation have developed planssuch as the Forestry Sector Master Plan, theNational Environmental Action Plan, and theCoastal Conservation Master Plan. Within the

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umbrella of these sectoral plans, several actionplans have been prepared. Notable amongstthose concerned with biodiversity conservationis the dozen or so management plans forconservation forests and the plan for the PeakWilderness Sanctuary. If these sectoral anddepartmental plans are implemented, they wouldmake a huge impact on the conservation ofthe nation’s biodiversity. But here again, theresource constraint is the impediment, andprogress in implementation is slow at best.

Much has been done to awakengovernment organizations and the generalpublic (many for which the concept ofbiodiversity as now understood was entirelynovel) to a realization that the country’sbiodiversity is a national treasure that had tobe conserved. This has been done primarilythrough the efforts of the ministry in chargeof the environment and other organizationsincluding NGOs. The time is now ripe todeclare a national policy on biodiversity, theadoption of which will give an impetus to theimplementation of biodiversity conservationprogrammes.

Objectives:

1. To develop an effective system tocoordinate and monitor activities for theconservation and sustainable use ofbiodiversity.

2. To ensure that institutional arrangementsare in place, with adequate resources andmanpower, in all the governmentorganizations concerned for theconservation and sustainable use ofbiological diversity.

3. To ensure that all governmentorganizations that have an impact onbiological diversity recognize the need toconserve this resource and takeappropriate action to do so.

Recommended action:

1. Provide the needed resources to thedepartments in charge of biodiversityconservation for capacity building - staffrecruitment and training and infrastructuralsupport.

2. Provide the needed resources to theDepartment of Ayurveda whose main

function relates to the use of biodiversity.

3. Catalyze international collaboration inrelevant areas of research on biodiversityand biotechnology where local expertiseand facilities are limited.

4. Develop plans for international projectson marine biodiversity in collaborationwith NARA and the universities.

5. Take adequate steps to strengthen theresearch capabilities of universities,research institutes and the botanical andzoological gardens, particularly in moderntechniques of biotechnology for taxonomyand germplasm conservation.

6. Take steps to modernize the storage andmaintenance capacity of "custodialinstitutions of information on biodiversity"to ensure confidentiality and efficiency.

7. Enhance the knowledge of lawenforcement and preventive officers(including the police, customs andquarantine) and provide the necessarymaterial to enable them efficiently tostem unauthorized transactions inbiodiversity.

8. Provide manpower training and facilitiesto implement recommended actions.


Ministry in charge of wildlife, Ministry ofFinance, MFE, MAL, FD, DWLC, DFAR,Department of Ayurveda, Botanical andZoological Gardens, CEA, NARA, NARESA,research institutes, universities, provincialadministration, police, customs and quarantine.

6.12 Valuation of BiodiversityIdentifying the Issues:

Biodiversity and the manifold processesthat go with it form the basis of life in thebiosphere. Biological diversity, therefore, hasimmense value because of its ecologicalfunctions.. It also has social, ethical andcultural values, and this has been recognizedfrom the earliest days of human history. Withmankind’s survival and well-being so heavilydependent on it, biodiversity must certainly

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also have considerable economic value.However, conventional principles of economicanalysis demand that a resource be used for itto acquire value. In other words, a standingtree can only be valued in terms of the priceit would fetch in the market place as timber.New approaches to economic assessment arerequired in order to ensure that economicvalues incorporate both monetary and non-monetary expressions of preference. Assigningthese qualitative and quantitative values couldprovide justification for increased action inconserving biodiversity.

In Sri Lanka, calculations of thecontribution of the forestry sector to the GDPtake into account only the marketed timberand fuelwood. In the case of fuelwood, agood part of what comes from the forest is infact not marketed. The numerous biodiversityvalues, which could be several times the valueof the marketed wood, are not taken intoaccount. The very presence of the biodiversityrich forests in the wet zone, situated as theyare on the mountain slopes, serve a criticallyimportant hydrological function. By regulatingwater discharge, they provide benefits toagricultural systems, hydropower schemes, andthe living environment. There are other benefitsthat are easier to quantify, but still notadequately recognized in assessing the value ofthe country’s biodiversity. These are themultitude of non-timber products whichthe forests provide such as fuelwood (thelarge quantities collected directly from theforest by rural house-holds), medicinal plants,food items, cane, rattan, etc. A country’sbiodiversity also serves as a gene pool ofconsiderable potential value. Wild species, orgenetic material derived from them, have fromtime to time yielded benefits of immense valuein the spheres of food and medicine. Here, inSri Lanka, a case in point is the developmentof cultivated varieties of rice which areresistant to certain pests and diseases bycrossing with wild varieties that are naturallyresistant. Wild species, particularly wild relativesof cultivated plants, are a resource ofconsiderable potential economic value, but thevalue of this resource cannot be estimateduntil it is used. Finally, an important value ofbiodiversity that goes unrecognized as such innational accounting is its aesthetic value.

The methodologies for valuingbiodiversity are still evolving, but studies havebeen made elsewhere in the world on how

biodiversity values can be incorporated intothe process of decision making on investmentprojects. In Sri Lanka, there is currently alack of expertise to carry out environmentalvaluation, and the relevant expertise must bedeveloped. This is a matter that should receivethe urgent attention of MFE (as the focalpoint for biodiversity and the environment),the ministry in charge of policy planning, andacademia.

In carrying out valuation studies, it isnecessary to emphasize the importance ofadopting appropriate criteria and methodologiesand focusing on values that are of relevanceto Sri Lanka. Grant funding should be madeavailable to encourage researchers to take tothis field of study. Failure to address thisissue will mean that biodiversity will continueto be undervalued, and public investments onbiodiversity will continue to bedisproportionately low.

Objectives:

1. To develop methodologies and expertisefor the proper valuation of the country’sbiodiversity.

2. To develop mechanisms to incorporatebiodiversity values into national accountingand decision making at different levels.

Recommended Actions:

1. Undertake policy studies on the generalimpacts of economic policy onbiodiversity.

2. Develop appropriate methodologies andapply them for carrying out studies tomake realistic valuations of Sri Lanka’sbiodiversity, and apply the results innational planning, national accounting,and decision making at different levels.

3. Gather information on indigenousknowledge on the use of plants for medicine,and carry out vertical integration in biodiversityprospecting, i.e. take the utilization ofbioresources for ayurvedic medicine beyond thebasic level of direct use to the preparation ofthe marketable finished products.

Main state sector institutions involved inimplementing:

MFE, Ministry in charge of planning, Ministryof Finance, Ministry in charge of Ayurveda,academia.

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Integrating National Efforts forBiodiversity Conservation

7.1 The Role of Government

The stakeholders of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity aremany. The State, as the custodian and trustee ofthe major portion of the land, is the most importantstakeholder. The government, through itsdepartments and other institutions, carries out manyactivities which have a significant impact onbiodiversity. There are three key departments whosemandates are heavily weighted towards theconservation of biodiversity. They are the ForestDepartment, the Department of WildlifeConservation, and the Department of CoastConservation. The policies and programmes of thesethree departments are crucial to the conservationand sustainable use of biological diversity. Besidesthese, there are a large number of departments andother statutory bodies whose activities affectbiodiversity. They can be broadly classified intothose that use, protect, or whose activities have animpact on, biodiversity.

National and sectoral planning policies andstrategies provide the environment within whichthe national planning process is initiated and carriedout. Down the line, this process involves severaltypes of studies, some of which constitute situationanalysis reports, project reports, evaluation studies,etc. These studies provide the basic data andinformation to guide the divisional or departmentalplanning officials in preparing their programmes,projects and budgets, which is done throughsupportive consultations involving decision makerson the one hand, and those responsible forimplementation on the other.

Where national policies have been followedup with strategies or action plans, the planningprocess proceeds to incorporate relevant componentsof such strategies and plans in the nationaldevelopment plan and the national investmentprogrammes. The national development plangenerally covers a period of four to six years, andis often subjected to annual review and revision.

In relation to biodiversity conservation,there are a number of policies and plans that havea bearing on national planning. These include thefollowing.

• The relevant provisions of the Constitutionof the Republic of Sri Lanka, and the policiesof the government.

• The National Conservation Strategy and theNational Environmental Action Plan.

• The Food and Nutrition Strategy, and thegroup of policies relating to self sufficiencyin food and productivity and profitability ofagricultural production systems.

• The National Policy Framework forAgriculture and the National AgriculturalResearch Plan.

• The group of policies on land use and theproposed action plan on land use in theagricultural sector.

• The National Forestry Policy and the SriLanka Forestry Sector Master Plan,including the recently formulated Five-YearImplementation Programme in Forestry.

• The National Wildlife Policy.

• Coastal 2000 - The ResourceManagementStrategy for Sri Lanka’s coastalregion and Coastal Zone Management Plan.

• Policies and plans on the conservation ofwetlands.

Besides the above, there are the statutoryprovisions and the policies relating to the devolutionof power to the provincial governments.

Action for integrating biodiversityconsiderations into national planning could be saidto have started with the preparation of the NationalReport for the United Nations Conference on

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Environment and Development in 1992. Followingthe ratification of the Convention on BiologicalDiversity by Sri Lanka in 1994, the ministry incharge of the subject of environment carried outseveral activities to promote the implementation ofthe Convention, culminating in the current exerciseof preparing the national Biodiversity ConservationAction Plan.

The BCAP is expected to lead to anintegration of biodiversity conservationconsiderations into national development planning.Since national planning adopts a sectoral approach,a convenient pathway for integration is through thesectoral plans and projects. In the implementationof projects, it is important to ensure that biodiversityconsiderations are duly recognized. This could beaddressed through the "initial environmentalexamination report" or the "environmental impactassessment report" which, according to the currentenvironmental law, has to be prepared in respect ofcertain categories of projects before approval isgranted for their implementation. The projectapproving agencies should pay special attention tosee that proposed projects avoid causing seriousadverse impacts on biodiversity. MFE and itsimplementation arm the CEA have a specialresponsibility to ensure that these conditions areobserved.

The government is the trustee of thenation’s biodiversity and hence holds the ultimateresponsibility for its conservation. While ensuringthat policies, plans and programmes will recognizethe need to protect and nurture this importantnational heritage, the government should providesufficient financial resources in the annual budgetsof the relevant institutions to enable them to takemeasures for the conservation of biodiversity.

7.2 Community-based ResourceManagement

Among direct users of biological diversity,the communities living within or on the fringes ofcritical ecosystems constitute the most conspicuousinterest group. It is important to involve thesecommunities in the management of the ecosystems,and the principle of community-based resourcemanagement (CBRM) is now widely accepted.However, there is no simple prescription forpractising CBRM, and a model found successful

in one region may not necessarily succeed in another,even within the same country.

As a pre-requisite for any community basedresource management project, a proper assessmentof the biodiversity resource has to be carried outpaying special attention to its dynamics (degradationor improvement), in order to determine sustainableharvest levels. Based on data on the demographyand cultural and economic features, the communitystakeholders have to be categorized and theircorresponding roles in the management processidentified. Enabling institutional and legalframeworks have to be established for co-management, user rights, tenureship, etc. Aharmonious relationship between communitydevelopment and long term resource managementhas to be established. Above all, the organizationand the mobilization of the community is of vitalimportance.

Initial access to local communities is bestmediated through village elders who commandrespect, such as temple head priests and other clergy,native physicians, senior school teachers, socialworkers, etc. It is advisable to avoid politicallyaffiliated individuals and government officials. Thecommunity should recognize the importance of bio-resources in relation to the common problemsencountered by the community, e.g. water shortagedue to denudation of forests; siltation of reservoirsas a result of soil erosion. Through processes ofdialogue and discussion, the community should bemotivated to conserve biodiversity. During theseinitial activities, individuals with leadership potentialshould be identified and gradually nurtured to takeover responsibilities. Throughout this exercise, duecare should be taken to let the community nominateorganizers voluntarily. Very often the first attemptmay not capture the best leader and sometimes itmay not be successful even after second or thirdattempts. Patience and forbearance is required inlarge measure during these formative steps. Theselected leaders should be provided with basicmanagement training relevant to the projects at hand,together with basic knowledge of maintainingrecords, book keeping and banking (if handling offunds is required). It is important, as an initialexercise, to give basic training on biodiversity skillsto village based officials such as Grama Niladharisand agriculture, veterinary and fisheries extensionpersonnel.

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Disbursement of funds as hand outs shouldbe avoided, as this becomes a negative inducementfor motivated participation in the long run. Provisionof funds (when necessary) has to be done as "seedmoney" or "soft loans" that would enable theinitiation of a project which could eventuallygenerate its own funds. Participants in community-based projects should be made stakeholders so thatthey may develop a sense of ownership of theresource they help to conserve.

In order to prevent the protectedbioresources turning into marketable touristproducts, community based conservation projectsfor "eco-tourism" have to be developed and managedwith due care. If such products enter the market,adequate measures for ex-situ propagation shouldbe taken to ensure the conservation of the originalresources.

Once a community is well organized andits confidence has been won over for a particularbiodiversity conservation activity, technical andother assistance should be made available throughpublic sector agencies and NGOs.

7.3 The Role of Non-governmentalOrganizations

One of the major problems in involvingnon-governmental organizations (NGOs) inbiodiversity conservation and other similar activitiesis inadequate institutional capability. Although itis widely recognized that NGO participation cansubstantially enhance natural resourcesmanagement, unless their institutional capability isstrengthened and they are provided with moreresources they would not be able to realize theirfull potential. NGOs should play both acomplementary as well as a supportive role, and inorder to do so effectively their activities should besupported with clear policy initiatives and legalback up.

Possible roles for NGOs (includingcommunity based organizations often referred toas CBOs) include (i) mobilization of villagecommunities and organizing community actiongroups, (ii) awareness creation and skillsdevelopment, (iii) establishment of forest plantationsand nurseries, (iv) promoting the conservation ofcoastal and marine biodiversity, (v) providing know-

how and material support for the cultivation ofmedicinal plants, (vi) assisting in establishing smallto medium scale industries, (vii) assisting inobtaining credit facilities, (viii) assisting inmarketing of agricultural and industrial products,(ix) assuming leadership and guiding communitybased rural development activities, (x) acting aslink agencies between the communities and the keyinterest groups (including state agencies), (xi)carrying out operational research in collaborationwith relevant state agencies, (xii) collecting dataand information for the purpose of evaluating andmonitoring of activities, and (xiii) assisting andco-operating in law enforcement in protected areasand sites such as multiple use natural forests.

7.4 The Role of the Private SectorThrough dialogue and dissemination of

information, the private sector should be madeaware of the fact that biodiversity conservationshould be a matter of concern to them and thatcontributing towards achieving conservationobjectives is in their long term interest. A policyframework has to be formulated to promote theirparticipation, for example by providing incentivesfor investment on conservation programmes. Onthe subject of biotechnology, while accepting thebeneficial aspects of its application, awarenessshould be created among the private sector of thedangers of indiscriminate use of genetically modifiedorganisms, or living modified organisms (LMOs)which have not been adequately tested andauthenticated. This should apply to organisms aswell as their products such as live vaccines.

In consultation with the private sector,schemes have to be worked out for bio-prospectingcombined with ex situ conservation (includingthe use of tissue culture and captive breeding) forindigenous bioresources having a good exportmarket.

Enabling legislative and leaseholdmechanisms should be formulated to attract privatesector participation in eco-tourism, establishmentof biofuel forests and multiple use wood lots, etc.

Tax concessions and other incentives shouldbe given to obtain private sector participation insponsoring biodiversity conservation orientedactivities, such as awareness programmes, skillsenhancement, mass media events and TVprogrammes.

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Where private sector organizations areinvolved in collecting fauna and flora from the wildfor commercial purposes, and if such an activity isallowable in the context of biodiversity conservation,regulations should be formulated to ensure that thestate which is the custodian of the nation’sbiodiversity is adequately compensated. A part ofthese funds could be channeled to NARA, theuniversities, the botanical and zoological gardens,etc. for research programmes on biotechnology,tissue culture, aquaculture and captive breeding.

It is necessary to establish a system wherebythe relevant government organizations and theprovincial authorities are empowered to charge inadvance the estimated cost of ecological restorationprior to the issuing of permits for timber extraction,gemming and prawn culture.

The following actions are recommended tobring in the private sector as active partners inbiodiversity conservation.

1. Develop a policy and legal framework tofacilitate the active involvement of the privatesector in biodiversity conservation.

2. Provide enabling mechanisms (e.g. taxrebates) for plantation companies to engagein (i) protection of river catchment areas andclusters of existing forests, (ii) establishmentof plantation forests, (iii) adoption of multiplecropping, (iv) establishment of field genebanks preferably including indigenous and

traditional species, (v) minimal use of toxicagro-chemicals, and (vi) setting examplesto others through demonstrations andmodels in the use of environment friendlytechnologies in agriculture (e.g. the SALTtechnology).

3. Prepare (or amend), in consultation withnational experts, regulations and guidelinesfor controlling and regulating (i) inward andoutward flow of biological material, (ii)standards and certification of plantingmaterial, (iii) use of biotechnology indeveloping genetically engineeredorganisms, (iv) import and distribution oftransgenic biological material (includingviruses, bacteria and other microorganisms),(v) reformulation and distribution of agro-chemicals not certified by the Departmentof Agriculture, and (vi) imports and exportsof indigenous and threatened species.

4. Provide enabling policy and legislativemechanisms to support leasehold forestrysystems.

5. Provide tenurial rights, planting materialand other resources to sustain home gardens.

6. Support and make provision for awarenesscreation in the trade and commerce sectoras well as in the construction industry, onthe significance of, and measures for,biodiversity conservation (e.g. theBiodiversity Skills Enhancement Projectundertaken by MfC).

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Implementation

The overall responsibility for implementing theBCAP will devolve on the Ministry in chargeof the subject of environment (ME), which isthe national focal point for the Convention onBiological Diversity. Once the BCAP isaccepted by the Cabinet of Ministers, it isrecommended that the government issues apolicy statement on the conservation andsustainable use of biological diversity in SriLanka. ME will then initiate action forimplementing the BCAP, and the followinginstitutional arrangements are proposed to enableit to take on the overall responsibility forensuring that the BCAP is implemented.

Biodiversity Secretariat:

It is necessary to establish aBiodiversity Secretariat in ME, mandated tocoordinate and promote the implementation ofall projects and programmes under the BCAP.It is recommended that the present "BiodiversityCell" of ME be elevated to a "BiodiversitySecretariat" with enlarged functions andadditional staff. In order to avoid duplicationof work and to use the existing institutionalstructures1, the Biodiversity Secretariat will beplaced in the Environment Division of theMinistry under the Director, Natural Resources.The core staff in this unit include an alreadyfunctioning Deputy Director and an AssistantDirector who will be appointed in 1998. TheBiodiversity Secretariat will have support stafffrom the Environment Division. As theSecretariat develops its activities, staff may beappropriately increased.

The Secretariat’s main functions are to:

• Liaise with sectoral agencies foridentifying priorities and developingmechanisms to incorporate therecommended actions in BCAP into theirimplementation plans;

• Liaise with governmental organizationsand the provincial administration in thepreparation of project proposals underthe BCAP;

• Monitor the implementation ofrecommendations in the BCAP, and takeappropriate corrective action wherenecessary;

• Initiate action on cross sectoral activitiesidentified in the BCAP;

• Organize meetings of the NationalSteering Committee (NSC) and the TaskForces (TF);

• Prepare documents for, and maintainrecords of, all meetings of NSC andTFs; and

• Attend to the day- to-day administrationof all activities of ME dealing withbiodiversity.

The Secretariat should also be thebody to liaise with the Secretariat to theConvention on Biological Diversity and beresponsible for preparing documentation inconnection with Sri Lanka’s participation atmeetings of the Conference of the Parties(CoP) and other Convention-related meetings.

The Biodiversity Secretariat will thusbe the implementation arm of the ME thatwill ensure that the Ministry fulfills all itsfunctions, obligations and responsibilities asthe focal point of the Government of SriLanka on the conservation and sustainableutilization of biodiversity. In carrying out itsfunctions, the Secretariat will be guided bythe National Steering Committee and the TaskForces. The recommended organizationalframework for implementation and co-ordinationof activities under the BCAP is depicted inFig. 8.1.

The Biodiversity Secretariat mustbecome fully operational within six months ofa proposed two-year inception phase for theimplementation of the BCAP. It should initiateaction leading up to the early setting up of

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the National Steering Committee and the TaskForces.

The Secretariat should also completethe following activities on a priority basis,within the first year of its operation:

• set up a biodiversity informationmanagement system, includingconditions for access and exchange;

• complete the setting up of the meta-database on biodiversity;

• draw up terms and conditions for accessto genetic resources;

• develop modalities for scientific andtechnical cooperation including terms andconditions for sharing results of researchand development in a fair and equitablemanner; and

• develop modalities for effectiveparticipation in biotechnological researchincluding establishment of nationalguidelines and regulations for safetransfer, handling and use of LMOs.

National Steering Committee on BiologicalDiversity:

It is proposed that the highest level ofcoordination be exercised by a National SteeringCommittee (NSC) on Biological Diversity,appointed by the Minister in charge of thesubject of environment, and chaired by theSecretary of the Ministry. This committee willbe the apex body for policy formulation andpolicy decisions on the overall implementationof the BCAP.

It is recommended that the NSC becomposed of 14 members, as follows.

• Secretary of the Ministry in charge ofthe subject of environment (Chair)

• Eight Secretaries chosen to represent thefollowing key sectors: Finance andNational Planning; Agriculture, includingplantations and livestock; Forests, Wildlife,Zoological Gardens and BotanicalGardens; Fisheries and Aquatic Resources,Coast Conservation and Tourism; Science

and Technology, and Education; Lands;Power, Energy and Irrigation; IndigenousMedicine

• Three experts on biodiversity-related areas

• One representative from the NGOcommunity

• One representative from the private sector

The suggested Terms of Reference forthe National Steering Committee are as follows.

(a) Provide policy guidelines to the ME fortranslating the recommendations of theBCAP into an implementation programme,and coordination of such activities atthe national level

(b) Provide policy guidelines to the ME onthe Convention on Biological Diversity,Conferences of the Parties, SubsidiaryBody for Scientific, Technical andTechnological device, and the GlobalBiodiversity Forum

(c) Identify priority areas in the BCAPrequiring the attention of the government

(d) Provide guidance and advice to the ME,and through it to the BiodiversitySecretariat, for overall coordination ofbiodiversity conservation activitiesidentified in the BCAP

(e) Periodically review the biodiversityimplementation plan

The Director, Natural Resources ofthe Environment Division shall function as theConvenor/Secretary of the NSC.

This committee will meet at leasttwice a year; once primarily to finalize anddecide on plans and programmes to beimplemented and the financial requirementswhich can be incorporated into the budgetestimates of the corresponding ministries, andagain to review progress and make necessaryadjustments.

Task Forces:

Many of the recommendations foraction in the BCAP will involve a co-ordinated effort by several government agenciesincluding provincial councils, non-governmentalorganizations, and the private sector. The

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Biodiversity Secretariat would require expertguidance to translate the recommendations inthe BCAP into implementation programmes,and it is proposed that this be achievedthrough the appointment of Task Forces foridentified key areas. The Task Forces willconsist of representatives of the mainimplementing agencies and other experts in therespective fields. The number of Task Forces,the activity areas to be covered by each, andthe personnel to be included will be decidedby the Secretary of the ministry in charge ofenvironment and will be subject to ratificationby the Minister.

To ensure effective coordination withthe devolved administration of the provinces, itis proposed that the Task Forces also includerepresentatives of the Provincial Councils,especially those Councils within whosejurisdiction the high priority bioregions fall.

The basic function of the Task Forceswill be as follows.

(a) Study the BCAP recommendations foraction

(b) Evaluate the current related activities inrelation to these recommendations

(c) Identify priority areas for action, and towork out a programme of actionassigning responsibilities forimplementation

(d) Provide expert advice to the NSC onmatters of relevance to their subject areas,as and when necessary

(e) Critically examine papers andrecommendations prepared by experts inrelation to identified issues, for theNational Steering Committee

(f) Regularly monitor and review performancein relation to implementation

(g) Undertake any other activities specifiedby the NSC

The roles of the current committees :

The Coordination Group on BiologicalResources and the Experts’ Committee onBiodiversity will have to be evaluated in thecontext of the new implementation andmonitoring structure that would be put in

place, and if one or both are consideredredundant they should be dissolved.

Time Frames for Achievement of Results:

For the implementation strategy to beeffective, it is necessary to set time framesfor achieving results. The following time frameshave been worked out on the presumption thatthe Biodiversity Secretariat together with theallied entities will be in place as stipulatedand would have completed its initial taskswithin the two-year inception phase. Thetargeted time frames have been worked outfrom the end of the inception phase.

It is expected that, within five yearsof completing the inception phase, Sri Lankashould have:

• a more complete inventory of itsbioresources, and a Metadatabase onBiodiversity;

• well formulated, forest management plansbeing implemented with the activeparticipation of stakeholder groups andcommunities;

• local communities more amenable andmotivated to protect and rehabilitateforests, wetlands and coastal and marinehabitats;

• some eco-tourism activities that strengthenthe conservation of forests, wetlands andcoastal and marine ecosystems;

• significant reduction in illegal activitiessuch as unauthorized logging, gemming,coral and sand mining, collection ofprotected species of fish and other faunafor trade, slaughter of small cetaceansand turtles, and use of illegal fishinggear and poaching;

• protective and rehabilitation programmesbeing actively implemented in the sixprioritized biodiversity regions;

• some operational units set up underNARA for the ex situ conservation ofmarine bioresources;

• wetlands, salt marshes and mangrovesprotected from unauthorized expansion ofprawn farming;

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• strengthened "field gene banks" of selectedcrops;

• institutionalized botanical, zoological andmicrobial surveys;

• an institution conducting biodiversity skillsenhancement programmes;

• more research activities on biodiversityrelated issues;

• well formulated, effective legislation forprotecting biodiversity; archiving andsafeguarding indigenous knowledge;regulating the import and export ofGMOs, LMOs and their products;implementing articles of CITES;incorporating of EIA procedures forrecognizing biodiveristy concerns;

• enabling legislation for land alienationfor home gardens and conservationfarming; active participation of NGOs,CBOs, communities and the private sectorin the management of biodiversity andnatural habitats; and providing fiscal,financial and other incentives forbiodiversity conservation and sustainableuse;

• strengthened capabilities among officersengaged in the prevention of illegaltransactions in biodiversity; and

• a proper basis for the government tomake budgetary provision of funds forbiodiversity conservation and relatedactivities.

It is expected that, ten years after theinception phase, Sri Lanka should have:

• a well established protected area networksystem of forests and wetlands, havingadequate representation of the diverserange of biodiversity found in thecountry;

• well managed and rehabilitated wetlands,protected from urban developmentactivities, and free of industrial pollutionand urban solid waste;

• a comprehensive database on the statusand distribution of forest biodiversity andits utilization;

• alternative sources of fuelwood including

cultivated woodlots that could minimizethe pressure on natural ecosystems forthis resource;

• well developed education and eco-tourismenterprises such as wetland and coastaland marine parks; arboreta; forestgardens; biodiversity conservation centres;and crop, horticultural and flowergardens that would strengthen thebiodiversity conservation efforts;

• alternative sources for coral lime thatcould mitigate the destruction of thisbioresource;

• marine and coastal conservation areasmanaged with the participation of localcommunities;

• a better understanding of the status ofmarine bioresources that would enablethe development of more sustainableharvesting strategies;

• well established programmes for the exsitu conservation of endangered freshwaterand marine flora and fauna;

• well maintained biodiverse home gardenshaving a multitude of indigenous plantspecies;

• significant replacement of chena cultivationby eco-friendly conservation farmingsystems;

• a higher level of multi-cropping in theperennial plantation sector, particularlyunder coconut;

• well formulated ex-situ biodiversityconservation programmes such as animalgermplasm conservation, and captivebreeding, and the widespread applicationof modern biotechnology (including tissueculture) for conservation and propagation;

• comprehensive surveys providing valuabledata on bioresources and facilities forpreservation and storage of usefulgermplasm including microorganisms;

• biodiversity included in the primary andsecondary school curricula and taught inuniversity undergraduate courses inagriculture, veterinary science, architecture,engineering, management studies and

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social sciences;

• postgraduate courses oriented towardsspecialized training in ecology andenvironmental management, includingconservation of biodiversity;

• well organized research programmes,including programmes on the applicationof modern biotechnology in theconservation and sustainable use ofbiodiversity;

• a high percentage of the populationaware of the value and importance ofbiodiversity and concerned about itsconservation for the benefit of futuregenerations;

• a high level of involvement of NGOs,CBOs, communities and the private sectorin biodiversity conservation efforts,working in close collaboration with statesector agencies;

• a private sector playing an active rolein conservation and rehabilitation effortsand in the use of biodiversity in asustainable manner; and

• a government that is aware of the truevalue of the country’s biodiversity, whichwould therefore allocate a proportionalquantum of funding for the conservationof this valuable resource.

Resource Needs:

Manpower training. Specialized training ofselected personnel will be necessary in certainareas such as underwater and marine research,modern biotechnology, bio-safety procedures,etc. Due to economic constraints such trainingwill have to be sought through bilateral andinternational programmes. On the other hand,universities and certain research institutes inthe country do have some trained staff andtheir expertise should be utilized to a maximum.Obtaining locally available expertise should begiven priority over the commissioning of foreignconsultants.

Taxonomy is a vital scientific disciplinein biodiversity and its related activities.However, it has been noted that increasinglylesser numbers enter this field of tertiary

education because of the lack of appropriateemployment opportunities. It has been claimedthat even in institutions such as the botanicalgardens, where a knowledge of taxonomyshould be at a premium, there is no provisionto give preference to graduates specialized intaxonomy in the recruitment procedures forcurators. Action must be taken at the highestlevels to rectify this anomalous situation.

Funds. The National Steering Committee shouldformulate a clear policy and a strategy toraise funds, both local and foreign, forbiodiversity-related activities. The possible areasfor fund raising include: licensing fee forexports and imports, income generation througheco-tourism, biodiversity centres, nature films,etc. Fund generation from the private sectorshould be promoted through tax rebates forcontributions to biodiversity conservationactivities.

Where international funding is involved,care should be exercised to prevent exploitationof biological resources contrary to the provisionsin the Convention on Biological Diversity.

In order to reflect the commitment ofthe country and its people to biodiversityconservation, it is recommended that thegovernment provides a line item in its budgetestimates to ME for biodiversity relatedactivities.

International collaboration. This should besought particularly in areas where there is adearth of national expertise, facilities andequipment. Regional cooperation with countrieshaving similar biodiversity would be a profitableapproach. International funding earmarked forsuch regional cooperative efforts should beexplored. Bilateral and international fundingshould be solicited through the Department ofExternal Resources, from countries and agenciescommitted to environmental protection andnature conservation. Universities and researchinstitutes would have to be given all theencouragement, information and support toprepare good research proposals and competefor international research funding.

In organizing collaborative programmeswith foreign organizations, due care has to betaken to ensure that there is "prior informed

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consent" and "mutually agreed terms" forreceiving an equitable share of benefits derivedfrom the use of the country’s biodiversity andtraditional knowledge.

Monitoring of progress. The Task Forces,with the assistance of the BiodiversitySecretariat, should develop a set of indices forthe continual monitoring of the progress ofplan implementation using the targeted timeframes as guidelines.

Fig. 8.1 Organizational Structure forImplementing BCAP

ME

TFs

NSC

BiodiversitySecretariat

ImplementingAgencies

– State Institutions– Provincial Councils– NGOs/CBOs

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The BCAP Preparatory ProcessThe BCAP preparatory process commenced with the assembling of a consultancy team made up of several subjectmatter specialists (some as part time consultants) in various fields concerned with biodiversity conservation

The consultancy team comprised:Prof. S A Kulasooriya (Team Leader), Mr M A T de Silva (Asst. Team Leader), Ms J D S Dela (Biodiversity Plansand Programmes), Mr H A Weerasinghe (Resource use), Dr A L Herath (Socio economic impacts), Prof. C V SGunatilleke (In situ conservation), Dr S Miththapala (Ex situ conservation), Mr A Nanayakkara (Legal aspects), DrD Wesumperuma (Institutional and Manpower Development), Ms S Blok (Education and awareness).

Prof. M U Jayasekera functioned as Team Leader in November and December 1996, during the absence of Prof.S A Kulasooriya. The Natural Resources and Environmental Policy Project of the MTEWA carried out the consultancyon biodiversity information management and valuation of biodiversity. The BCAP preparatory process receivedinputs from IUCN consultants Mr Jeremy Carew-Reid and Mr Jeffrey McNeely during short-term internationalconsultancies. Ms Nagis Umagiliya assisted with data collation on Education. The Ministry of Environment providedguidelines for the framework in Chapter 8.

The members of the consultancy team met with a large number of stakeholders (including NGOs) representing abroad spectrum of interests and incorporated their views in their respective thematic reports. Ms J D S Delaof the IUCN staff prepared a thematic report on education. The reports submitted by the consultants, and otheradditional information collated during discussions were consolidated into a comprehensive report by Prof. SA Kulasooriya and Mr M A T de Silva. This included recommendations and a draft implementation plan.

Based on the consolidated report, and with additional inputs, the BCAP was prepared by Mr L C A de S Wijesingheand Ms J D S Dela, supported by Ms C Wickramasinghe. The document was edited by Mr L C A de S Wijesinghe.

The preparation of the BCAP was monitored by a Management Committee Chaired by Ms Chandra Amerasekera(Addl. Secretary, MTEWA), and comprising Mr S Sapukotana (Senior Consultant, NAREPP), Mr Gamini Gamage(Deputy Director, MTEWA), Prof. S A Kulasooriya (BCAP Team Leader), Mr M A T de Silva (BCAP Asst.TeamL e a d e r ) ,Mr L C A de S Wijesinghe (Country Representative, IUCN Sri Lanka), Mr Kapila Fernando (Director Programme,IUCN Sri Lanka), Ms J D S Dela (Programme Officer, IUCN Sri Lanka and team member), and Dr SumithPilapitiya (World Bank Representative). MTEWA’s link with the BCAP preparation was maintained through repre-sentation in the management team.

In order to make the BCAP preparation a widely participatory process, a large number of stakeholders, including stateinstitutions and NGOs representing a broad spectrum of interests, were consulted through round-table discussions,brain-storming sessions, seminars, workshops and discussion groups. Individuals with specialized knowledge ondifferent aspects of biodiversity conservation were also consulted. Meetings were held with key personnel inselected government departments and institutions that are directly involved in biodiversity related activities. Thepreparatory process benefitted from these meetings in clarifying issues, identifying solutions, and arriving at aconsensus regarding outputs and activities. Table A 1.1 sets out the different meetings that were held duringthe preparatory stage, the participants, and the specific purpose of each meeting. Table A 1.2 sets outmeetings that were held to review and refine the BCAP.

The BCAP preparatory process and review of drafts benefitted from the inputs of the following, either as representa-tives of their organisations or in their individual capacity.

Dr A S Abeyratne ( Director, DAPH ); Mr S D Abeywardena ( FD ); Prof. B A Abeywickrama ( Univ. of Colombo); Dr S L Amarasiri ( Director General, DOA ); Ms Chandra Amerasekera (Addl. Secretary, MTEWA); Prof. F PAmerasinghe (Univ. Of Peradeniya); Dr U S Amerasinghe (Univ. of Kelaniya); Dr A R Attapattu (Director, DFAR):Mr P R Attygalle ( MASL); Dr K D Arudpragasam (NEC); Mr H M Bandaratilleke (Conservator of Forests); MsHestor Basnayake (UDA); Mr Gamini Batuwitage (IIMI); Prof. Uma Coomaraswamy (OUSL); Prof. M D Dassanayake;Dr Pauline Dayaratne (NARA); Mr Philip J DeCosse (NAREPP); Mr G W S K De Silva (Ministry of PublicAdministration, Home Affairs Plantation Industries and Parliamentary Affairs ); Mr Gunaratne De Silva (AyurvedaDepartment); Dr Jayanthi de Silva (Univ. of Colombo); Dr M P Dhanapala (Director, RRDI); Mr A M U Dissanayake(Director, Agricultural Statistics Division, Dept. of Census and Statistics ); Mr N W Dissanayake (Director, DWLC)Dr S U K Ekaratne (Univ. of Colombo); Dr S Epitawatta (USJ); Dr M H J P Fernando (Director, Seed Certificationand Plant Protection, Department of Agriculture); Mr Sarath Fernando (FD); Mr Gamini Gamage (MTEWA); Prof.I A U N Gunatilleke (Univ. of Peradeniya); Mr Nalaka Gunawardena (Free lance Journalist); Mr H S Hathurusinghe

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(Wildlife and Nature Potection Society); Mr H M B C Herath (DWLC); Mr J P Herath (NIE); Mr T Hewage(Director, FSDD); Mr Lal Hewapathirana (Worldview Sri Lanka); Mr J Jayasinghe (Head, Land Use Planning andPolicy Division); Dr J M P Jayasinghe (NARA); Dr A H M Jayasuriya (Director, PGRC); Mr Avanti Jayatilleke(USAID); Dr G Jayawardena (Director, HORDI); Prof. J Jinadasa (USJ); Mr A W Kalupahana (VRI) ; Dr S KKathirgamathaiyah (Director, DEA); Dr D Kirthisinghe (Executive Director, CARP); Dr A O Kodituwakku (DeputyDirector, DAPH); Dr H B Kotagama (Univ. of Peradeniya); Mr C Kudagamage (HORDI); Kaushallya Kurukulasuriya(Sri Lanka Environmental Journalists Foundation); Harsha Liyanage (Sarvodaya Foundation); Dr M Liyanage(Director, CRI); Mr Sunil Liyanage (FD); Dr R Mahindapala (Executive Director, CARP); Dr H Manthrithillake(MASL); Mr S Medawewa (FDED); Dr W Modder (Director, TRI); Ms N Mohottala (MTEWA); Ms MadhiviObaddage (Univ. of Colombo); Dr U K G K Padmalal (OUSL); Mr Alex Perera (National NGO Council); Mr A RPerera (Ministry of Foreign Affairs); Dr U Pilapitiya (Director BMARI); Mr S P Premadasa (ORDE); Mr W R A KJ S Rajapaksha (VRI); Mr Arjan Rajasuriya (NARA); Dr Hemantha Ranasinghe (USJ); Dr S S E Ranawana (VRI);Dr S Ratnaweera (Acting Director, SRI) ; Dr P K Samarajeewa (PGRC); Dr Jayampathy Samarakoon (Consultant,WCP); Mr R A D B Samaranayake (CCD); Prof. V K Samaranayake (Director,Institute of Computer Technology);Mr S Sapukotuna (MTEWA); Prof. Y D A Senanayake (Director, PGIA) ; Ms Iranganee Serasinghe (RukRekaganno); Dr Palitha Serasinghe (Univ. of Colombo); Dr B M P Singhakumara (USJ); Mr K P Sri Bharathie;Mr D B Sumithraarchchi (Director, National Botanical Gardens); Ms Manel Tampoe (Neo synthesis ResearchCentre) ; Prof. Rohana Ulluvishewa (USJ); Mr S I Vitarana (TR); Mr Hemantha Vithanage (EnvironmentalFoundation Ltd); Ms Kamini Vitharana (Ruk Rekaganno); Mr M Watson (NARESA); Dr R H Wickremasinghe(International Tropical - Environment Society); Mr Harsha Wijayawardena (Univ. of Colombo); and Dr N Yogaratnam(RRI).

Contributions were made by the following NGOs, through their representatives, during group meetings and work-shops or by a review of sections of the drafts:

Agriculture & Environmental Development Foundation (Mr S G Siriwardena); Arunodhaya Environmentalists (Mr TR Stanley); Bambaragama Environmental Conservation Board (Mr D K Piyasena Senadheera); Biyagama Environ-mental Protection Organisation (Mr L Somapala ); C T B Organisation (Mr P P Siriwardena); DiyawannaoyaFarmers Environmental Society (Mr G D T Wijesinghe); Environment and Natural Resources Protection Organiza-tion, Matale (Mr G A B Dissanayake); Environmental Foundation Ltd (Mr Ravi Algama, Ms Mihiri Gunawardena,Mr Hemantha Vithanage); EMACE Foundation of Sri Lanka (Mr E M Abeyratne); Gal lena Vihara EnvironmentalFoundation (Mr U G N M Wimalasiri); Gampaha Environmental Foundation (Mr S A M A R D Senaratne);Gemiseva Sevana, Galaha (Mr L D Samaranayake); Indigenous Medicinal Plants & Environmental ConservationSociety (Dr P J Withana); Integrated Development Society, Kandy (Mr S Wanigadeva); Kandurata SobadahamRakshitha Hawula (Mr J Ekanayake); Keethigama Vegetable & Fruit Producing Committee (Mr E M Chandrasekera);March for Conservation (Dr Nirmalee Pallewatte); Nation Builders Association (Mr M B Adikaram, Mr M Weerakoon): NATMACO, Waikkal (Mr S M Fernando); Nature Conservation Group (Mr S S S Jasinghe); Neo synthesisResearch Centre (Ms Manel Tampoe); Pavana Environmental Organisation ( Mr H W Wijesinghe); RITICOE (Mr PGunetillake); Ruhunu UNESCO Organisation (Mr C A Samaradivakara); Ruk Rekaganno (Ms Iranganee Serasinghe);Sama Sevaya (Mr S Jayasinghe); Sarvodaya Foundation (Mr Harsha Liyanage); Sarvodaya Women Movement (Ms KU De Silva); Saviya Development Foundation (Mr C Seneviratne); Seethawaka Environmentalists (Mr K P Yasapala);Sevashrama Environmental Circle(Mr D N Welikala); Social Development Association, Panadura (Mr P M K DeSilva); Social Development Society (Mr D A D N C Wimalaratne); Society for Environment & Social Protection (MrG A Gunawardene); Sri Bodhirajasthama Society (Ven. K Wimaladhamma Thero); Sri Lanka EnvironmentalCongress (Mr S Gunasekera); Sri Lanka Environmental Journalists Forum (Mr Piyal Parakrama); Sri Lanka Environ-mental Protection Society (Mr M Gunaratne) Sri Lanka Youth Exploration Society (Mr L Senadheera); TharunaSithivili Samajaya (Mr G B R Hurikaduwa); The League of Swans (M N Gunasiri); Vayamba Udanaya (Mr W M TBandara); Veerya Seva Movement (Ms N Kumar); Wildlife and Nature Protection Society (Dr Ranjen Fernando, MrH S Hathurusinghe); and Worldview Sri Lanka (Mr Lal Hewapathirana)

In addition to those mentioned earlier, the following members of the IUCN staff made contributions as indicatedagainst their names. Mr Kapila Fernando (review of drafts); Dr Ranjith Mahindapala (review of drafts), Ms SonaliSenaratne and Mr Torben Berner (text boxes on coastal and marine issues); and Ms Padmi Meegoda (word process-ing and formatting).

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Round table meeting with representatives ofnational NGOs8 Aug 1996

A brainstorming workshop to identify key issues to be addressed in theBCAP15 Aug 1996

Meeting to identify sectoral issues and options with regard to animalproduction and health11 Oct 1996

Meeting to identify issues and recommendations for the Agricultural sector21 Oct 1996

Meeting with the Standing Committee on Science of the UGC to apprisethem of the BCAP24 Oct 1996

Meeting to identify issues and needs to be addressed in the plantationresearch sector31 Oct 1996

Meeting to identify specific issues and options to enhance BDC in exportcrops1 Nov 1996

Brainstorming workshop for grassroot level NGOs to review issues identifiedby BCAP consultants on BDimpacts and users; research; in situ and ex situconservantion, information and valuation4 Nov 1996

Meeting to identify issues and identification of specific needs for BDC in thecoastal sector20 Nov. 1996

Meeting to identify current initiatives and issues connected with marine andinland aquatic biodiversity 20 Nov. 1996

Meeting to identify issues and options to be addressed in the Forestry Sector27 Nov 1996

Meeting to discuss current initiatives for land use planning and mapping27 Nov 1996

National seminar on biodiversity information3 Dec 1996

Meeting to discuss current programmes and future directions and needs in thewildlife sector, with emphasis on protected area management

Meeting to discuss the legal aspects to be addressed in the BCAP27 Feb 1997

Meeting to discuss past and present initiatives for education and awareness onBDC28 Feb 1997

Representatives of WNPS, NSRC, EFL, Ruk Rekaganno, ITES with someBCAP consultants andSenior IUCN staff

Members of the National Experts Committee on Biodiversity, relevant govern-ment officials, NGO invitees, selected subject specialists, MTEWA officialsa n dBCAP consultants

The Director of DAPH, Deputy Director - Research VRI and other officials ofthe DAPH with BCAPconsultants

The Directors of HORDI, RRDI, PGRC and Botanical Gardens with TeamLeader and other consultants

Members of the Standing Committee on Science, the BCAP Team Leader, andAsst. Team Leader

Directors of TRI, RRI, SRI and Director General Plantation Industries Divi-sion, Ministry of Plantation Industries, and consultants

Director and relevant officials of the Dept. ofExport Agriculture with BCAP consultants

Country-wide representatives of NGO organizations (43), subject specialists,MTEWA officials and BCAP consultants

Manager Coast Conservation Project of the CCDprogramme and BCAP consultants

Scientific staff of NARA and BCAP consultant.

Addl. Conservator of Forests (Research) DeputyConservator of Forests (Research), Asst. Conservator of Forests (EnvironmentManagement), and BCAPconsultants

Head, Land Use Planning and Policy Div. of MALF, and BCAP consultants

Representatives of key state institutions dealing with BDC, subject area special-ists NGO representatives,MTEWA officials, NAREPP officials and BCAPconsultants

Director and Deputy Director of DWLC with BCAP consultants

Chairman and two members of EFL and BCAPconsultants

General Coordinator MfC and BCAP consultants

Table A 1.1 Special meetings organised by IUCN with stakeholders during theBCAP preparation process

Meeting/activity Participants

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Meeting with representatives of key stateinstitutions concerned with BDC to review firstdraft10 April 1997

Meeting with representatives of key state institu-tions concerned with BDC and subject matterspecialists to examine and review second draft16 May 1997

Meeting with represenatives of national NGOsto examine and review third draft3 June 1997

Meeting with National Experts Committee onBiodiversity to review third draft10 June 1997

Officials from FD, CCD, DFAR, NIE, MTEWA,Addl. Secretary MTEWA, IUCN Country Repre-sentative, IUCN Director Programme, and con-sultants

State officials and scientific persons whose workis related to aspects of biodiversity conservation,Addl. Secretary MTEWA, IUCN Country Repre-sentative, IUCN Director Programme, and con-sultants

NGO representatives, Addl. Secretary MTEWA,IUCN Country Representative, IUCN DirectorProgramme, and consultants

Members of the National Experts Committee,IUCN Country Representative

Table A 1.2 Meetings held to review and refine draft BCAP

Meeting/activity Participants

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EquisetaceaeEquisetum debile

IsoetaceaeIsoetes coromandelina

LycopodiaceaeLycopodium carolinianumL. ceylanicum #L. clavatumL. hamiltoniiL. phlegmariaL. phyllanthumL. pinifoliumL. pulcherrimumL. serratumL. squarrosumL. wightianum

PsilotaceaePsilotum nudum

SelaginellaceaeSelaginella calostachya #S. cochleata #S. praetermissa #S. wightii

AdiantaceaeActiniopteris radiataCheilanthes thwaitesiiIdiopteris hookerianaPellaea boiviniP. falcataPteris argyreaP. confusa #P. gongalensis #P. praetermissa #P. reptans #

Provisional List of Threatened Species of Vascular Plants in SriLanka1

(The names of endemic species are denoted by#)PTERIDOPHYTES

AspleniaceaeAsplenium disjunctum #A. longipes #A. nitidumA. obscurumA. pellucidum

CyatheaceaeCyathea hookeri #C. sinuata #

DennstaedtiaceaeMicrolepia majuscula #Lindsaea repens var. pectinata

DryopteridaceaeDeparia polyrhizon #Diplazium cognatum #D. paradoxum #D. zeylanicum #Polystichum anomalum #Pteridrys syrmaticaP. zeylanicaTectaria thwaitesii #

GrammitidaceaeCtenopteris glandulosa #C. repandula #C. thwaitesii #Grammitis wallii #Scleroglossum sulcatumXiphopteris cornigera #

HymenophyllaceaeTrichomanes exiguumT. intramarginaleT. motleyiT. nitidulumT. pallidumT. saxifragoidesT. wallii #

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LomariopsidaceaeBolbitis appendiculataTeratophyllum aculeatum

MarattiaceaeMarattia fraxinea

OphioglossaceaeBotrychium daucifoliumB. lanuginosumHelminthostachys zeylanicaOphioglossum costatumO. gramineumO. nudicauleO. pendulumO. petiolatumO. reticulatum

OsmundaceaeOsmunda collina

PolypodiaceaeBelvisia mucronataLeptochilus wallii #Microsorium dilatatumPleopeltis macrocarpa

SchizaeaceaeSchizaea digitata

ThelypteridaceaeAmauropelta hakgalensis #Ampelopteris proliferaChristella meeboldiiC. subpubescensC. zeylanicaPronephrium gardneri #Sphaerostephanos subtruncatusThelypteris confluensTrigonospora angustifronsT. calcarataT. ciliataT. glandulosa #T. obtusilobaT. zeylanica #

AcanthaceaeAndrographis macrobotrysBarleria nitidaGymnostachyum thwaitesii #Strobilanthes caudataS. gardnerana #S. nigrescens #S. nockii #S. punctata #S. rhytisperma #S. stenodon #S. thwaitesii #S. zeylanica #Synnema uliginosum

AmaranthaceaeAchyranthes bidentataA. diandra #Centrostachys aquatica

GYMNOSPERMS

CycadaceaeCycas circinalis

ANGIOSPERMS

Cyathula ceylanica #

AnacardiaceaeSemecarpus moonii #S. obovata #S. parvifolia #

AnnonaceaeAlphonsea hortensis #A zeylanica #Anaxagorea luzonensisArtabotrys hexapetalusGoniothalamus thomsoniiMiliusa zeylanicaOrophea polycarpaPhoenicanthus coriacea #Polyalthia moonii #P. persicaefoliaUvaria cordata

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U. semecarpifolia #Xylopia nigricans #

ApocynaceaeAnodendron rhinosporumHunteria zeylanicaRauvolfia serpentinaVallaris solanaceaWillughbeia cirrhiferaWrightia flavido-rosea

ApostasiaceaeApostasia wallichii

AraceaeArisaema constrictum #Cryptocoryne spiralisC. thwaitesii #Rhaphidophora decursivaR. pertusaTyphonium flagelliforme

AraliaceaePolyscias acuminata

AsclepiadaceaeBidaria cuspidata #Brachystelma lankana #Caralluma adscendensC. umbellataCeropegia candelabrumC. elegans var. gardneriC. parviflora #C. taprobanica #C. thwaitesiiCosmostigma racemosumCynanchum alatumDischidia nummulariaGymnema rotundatum #Heterostemma tanjorenseHoya ovalifoliaH. paucifloraMarsdenia tenacissimaOxystelma esculentumTaxocarpus kleiniiTylophora fasciculataT. multifloraT. pauciflora

T. zeylanica

BalanophoraceaeBalanophora fungosa

BalsaminaceaeImpatiens janthina #leucantha #I. repens #I. subcordata #I. taprobanica #I. walkeri #

BegoniaceaeR Begonia dipetalaB. subpeltataB. tenera #

Bombacaceae(Adansonia digitata, introduced to Sri Lanka,but needs protection for historical reasons)

BoraginaceaeCordia subcordataHeliotropium supinumRotula aquatica

BurmanniaceaeBurmannia championiiThismia gardnerana #

CampanulaceaeCampanula canescensC. fulgens

CapparidaceaeCadaba fruticosaCapparis divaricataC. floribundaC. teneraCleome chelidonii

CaryophyllaceaeStellaria pauciflora

CelastraceaeCelastrus paniculatusEuonymus thwaitesii #Glyptopetalum zeylanicumKokoona zeylanicaMaytenus fructicosa #

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CombretaceaeLumnitzera littorea

CommelinaceaeCyanotis obtusa #

CompositaeAdenostemma angustifoliumAnaphalis fruticosa #A. pelliculata #A. thwaitesii #Blepharispermum petiolareBlumea angustifolia #B. auritaB. barbataB. crinita #B. lanceolariaGlossogyne bidensGynura hispida #G. zeylanica #Notonia grandifloraN. walkeriSenecio gardneri #Sphaeranthus amaranthoidesVernonia anceps #V. pectiniformisV. thwaitesii #Xanthium indicum

ConnaraceaeEllipanthus unifoliatus

ConvolvulaceaeArgyreia choisyanaA. hancorniifolia #A. pomaceaA. splendensBonamia semidigynaIpomoea copticaI. jucunda #I. staphylinaI. wightii

CrassulaceaeKalanchoe laciniata

CucurbitaceaeKedrostis rostrataMelothria leiosperma

CyperaceaeBaeothryon subcapitatum

Carex breviscapaC. taprobanensis #Cyperus articulatusC. cephalotesEleocharis confervoidesE. lankana #Fimbristylis zeylanica #F. monticolaHypolytrum longirostre #Mapania immersa #M. zeylanicaMariscus compactusPycreus stramineusRhynchospora gracillimaScirpodendron ghaeriScleria pilosa #Tricostularia undulata

DilleniaceaeAcrotrema dissectum #A. lyratum #A. thwaitesii #

DioscoreaceaeDioscorea trimenii #

DipterocarpaceaeCotylelobium scabriusculum #Hopea cordifolia #Shorea disticha #S. ovalifolia #Stemonoporus affinis #S. bullatus #S. lanceolatus #S. moonii #S. nitidus #S. oblongifolius #S. petiolaris #S. reticulatus #S. rigidus #Vatica obscura #

EbenaceaeDiospyros acuta #D. albiflora #D. atrata #D. attenuata #D. chaetocarpa #D. ebenoides #D. koenigii #

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D. moonii #D. opaca #D. oppositifolia #D. quaesita

ElaeocarpaceaeElaeocarpus ceylanicus #E. montanus #

EriocaulaceaeEriocaulon fluviatile #E. longicuspis #E. luzulifoliumE. philippo-coburgiE. walkeri #

EuphorbiaceaeAntidesma thwaitesianum #Bridelia stipularis (= B. scandens )Chaetocarpus pubescens #Chrozophora rottleriCleidion javanicumC. nitidumCleistanthus collinusCroton moonii #Dalechampia indicaDrypetes lanceolata #Euphorbia cristataGlochidion nemorale #Mallotus distansPhyllanthus affinis #P. anabaptizatus #P. hakgalensis #P. longiflorusP. rotundifoliusPutranjiva zeylanica #Sauropus assimilis #S. retroversus #Trigonostemon diplopetalus #

FlacourtiaceaeHydnocarpus octandra #

GentianaceaeExacum sessileCrawfurdia championii

GeraniaceaeGeranium nepalense

GesneriaceaeAeschynanthus ceylanica

Chirita moonii #C. walkeri #Didymocarpus floccosus #D. zeylanicus #Epithema carnosum

GoodeniaceaeScaevola plumieri

Guttiferae (= Clusiaceae)Calophyllum cordato-oblongum #C. cuneifolium #C. trapezifolium #Mesua stylosa

HaloragidaceaeLaurembergia indica #L. zeylanica

HippocrateaceaeHippocratea arnottianaH. macrantha

HydrocharitaceaeNechamandra alternifolia

IcacinaceaePyrenacantha volubilis

Labiatae (= Lamiaceae)Anisochilus paniculatusColeus elongatusLeucas longifoliaPlectranthus capillipes #P. glabratusP. subincisusScutellaria robusta #

LauraceaeActinodaphne albifrons #Cassytha capillarisCinnamomum capparu coronde #C. citriodorum #C. litseifoliumCryptocarya membranacea #Litsea nemoralis #L. undulata #

Leguminosae (= Fabaceae)Acacia ferrugineaAdenanthera bicolorAlbizia amaraAlyssicarpus longifolius

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Bauhinia scandensCassia italicaC. sennaCaesalpinia cristaC. digynaC. hymenocarpaC. majorCrotalaria berteroanaC. linifoliaC. montanaC. mysorensisC. triquetraC. wightianaC. willdenowianaCrudia zeylanica #Cynometra ripaDesmodium gangeticumD. jucundum #D. zonatumDioclea javanicaDunbaria ferrugineaEleiotis monophyllaEriosema chinenseGalactia striataIndigofera constrictaI. glabraI. parvifloraI. trifoliataI. wightiiMucuna giganteaM. monospermaPericopsis moonianaRhynchosia acutissimaR. densifloraR. nummulariaR. suaveolensSesbania sericeaSmithia confertaSophora violacea #S. zeylanica #Strongylodon siderospermusTephrosia hookeranaT. senticosaT. spinosa

LemnaceaeLemna gibba

LentibulariaceaeUtricularia scandens (= U. capillacea )

LiliaceaeChlorophytum heyneanumDipcadi montanumUrginea rupicola

Loranthaceae (See also Viscaceae)Barathranthus mabaeoidesDendrophthoe lonchiphyllusHelixanthera ensifoliaMacrosolen barlowiiTolypanthus gardneri

MalvaceaeAbutilon pannosum (= A. muticum )Dicellostyles axillaris #Julostylis angustifolia #Pavonia patens (= P.glechomifolia )Thespesia lampas

MelastomaceaeMedinilla cuneata #M. maculata #Memecylon ellipticum #M. gracillimum #M. grandeM. leucanthum #M. macrocarpum #M. orbiculare #M. ovoideum #M. phyllanthifolium #M. revolutum #M. rotundatumSonerila brunonisS. cordifolia #S. firma #S. gardneri #S. lanceolata #S. pilosula #S. robusta #S. tomentella #S. wightiana #

MenispermaceaeCoscinium fenestratum

MenyanthaceaeNymphoides aurantiaca

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MoraceaeBroussonetia zeylanica #Dorstenia indicaFicus costataF. trimeniiMaclura cochinchinensis

MyrtaceaeEugenia amoena #E. cotinifolia #E. fulva #E. glabra #E. mabaeoides #E. rivulorum #E. rufofulva #E. terpnophylla #Syzygium lewisii #

OchnaceaeOchna rufescens

OlacaceaeXimenia americana

OleaceaeJasminum bignoniaceumOlea paniculata

OrchidaceaeAgrostophyllum zeylanicum #Bulbophyllum crassifolium #B. purpureum #B. tricarinatum #Coelogyne zeylanica #Corymborchis veratrifoliaDendrobium maccarthiae #Diplocentrum recurvumEria tricolor #Galeola javanicaGastrodia zeylanica #Goodyera fumataHabenaria virensLiparis barbata #L. brachyglottis #Malaxis densifloraM. lancifolia #M. purpureaOberonia claviloba #O. dolabrata #O. fornicata #O. quadrilatera #

O. recurvaO. scyllae #O. wallie silvae #O. weragamensis #Peristylus plantagineusPhaius luridus #Phreatia elegansPteroceras viridiflorumRhynchostylis retusaRobiquetia gracilisSirhookera latifoliaTaeniophyllum gilimalense #Vanda thwaitesii #

OrobanchaceaeAeginetia pendunculataCambellia aurantiaca #Christisonia thwaitesii #

PalmaeAreca concinna #Nypa fruticans

PiperaceaePeperomia wightiana

PodostemaceaeDicraea stylosa

PolygalaceaePolygala leptalea

PortulacaceaePortulaca wightiana

ProteaceaeHelicia ceylanica #

RhizophoraceaeCeriops decandra

RosaceaeAlchemilla indicaRubus glomeratusSanguisorba indicum #

RoxburghiaceaeStemona minor

RubiaceaeByrsophyllum ellipticumCanthium macrocarpum #Dichilanthe zeylanica #Gardenia turgida

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Hedyotis cyanescens #H. cymosa #H. evenia #H. gardneri #H. inamoena #H. quinquenervia #H. rhinophylla #Lasianthus rhinophyllus #L. thwaitesii #Nargedia macrocarpa #Neurocalyx gardneri #Oldenlandia trinerviaOphiorrhiza pallida #Psychotria glandulifera #P. longipetiolata #P. moonii #P. plurivenia #P. stenophylla #Saprosma indicumS. scabridum #Scyphiphora hydrophyllaceaScyphostachys pedunculatus #Tricalysia erythrospora #

RutaceaeAtalantia racemosaGlycosmis cyanocarpaNaringi crenulataZanthophyllum caudatum

SapindaceaeCardiospermum corindumEuphoria gardneri #Thraulococcus simplicifolius #

SapotaceaeMadhuca clavata #M. moonii #Palaquium canaliculatum #P. thwaitesii #

ScrophulariaceaeAdenosma subrepens #Lindernia viscosaVerbascum chinense

SimaroubaceaeSuriana maritima

SonneratiaceaeSonneratia apetala

SterculiaceaePentapetes phoeniceaPterygota thwaitesii #Sterculia guttata

StylidiaceaeStylidium uliginosum

SymplocaceaeSymplocos diversifoliaS. elegans #S. kurgensis

SymphoremaceaeSymphorema involucratum

TaccaceaeTacca leontopetaloides

TheaceaeGordonia speciosa #

ThymelaeaceaePhaleria capitata

TiliaceaeCorchorus tridensGrewia asiaticaG. hirsutaTriumfetta glabra #

TriuridaceaeHyalisma janthinaSciaphila erubescens #S. inornata #S. secundiflora #

UmbelliferaePeucedanum ceylanicumSanicula elata

UrticaceaeElatostema acuminatumE. walkerae #Lecanthus peduncularis

VahliaceaeVahlia dichotoma

VerbenaceaePremna divaricata

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P. purpurascens #P. thwaitesii #Priva cordifoliaSvensonia hyderabadensis

ViolaceaeHybanthus ramosissimus #

ViscaceaeGinalloa spathulifolia #Korthalsella japonicaNotothixos floccosus #Viscum ramosissimum

ZingiberaceaeAlpinia fax #A. rufescens #Amomum acuminatum #A. benthamianum #A. graminifolium #A. hypoleucumA. trichostachyum #Curcuma albiflora #

Provisional List of Threatened Animal Species in Sri Lanka(The names of endemic species are denoted by #

The species denoted by * are those that are includedin the 1996 IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals)

INSECTS

LepidopteraAtrophaneura jophon # * - The Sri Lanka roseTroides helena - The common bird wingPapilio polymnestor - The blue mormonP. helenus - The red helenP. crino - The banded peacockGraphium antiphates - The five bar swordtailG. nomius - The spot swordtailHasora badra - The Ceylon awlBibasia sena - The orange tail awlB. oedipodea - The banded orange awletChoaspes benjaminii - The Indian awl kingGangara thyrsis - The giant redeyeG. lebadea - The banded red eye

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Tagiades japetus - The Ceylon snow flatTapena thwaitesi - The black angleGomalia elma - The African marbled skipperCaprona alida - The Ceylon golden anglePratapa deva - The white royalSuastus minuta - The Ceylon palm bobUdaspes folus # - The grass demonHalpe decorata # - The decorated aceH. homolea - The rare aceBaoris farri - The paint brush swiftPotanthus pseudomaesa - The common dartTajuria jehana - The plains blue royalHoraga albimacula - The brown onyxCatapaecilma major - The common tinselRapala iarbus - The Indian red flashR. lankana - The malabar flashJamides coruscans # - The Ceylon ceruleanJ. lacteata # - The milky ceruleanCelastrina singalensis - The Sinhalese hedge blueC. akasa - The white hedge blueC. lilacea - Hampson’s hedge blueC. lanka # - The Ceylon hedge blueSpindasis nubilus - The clouded silverlineAzanus ubaldus - The bright babul blueNacaduba ollvetti - Woodhouse’s four lineblueN. calauria - The dark Ceylon six lineblueN. noreia - The white tipped lineblueIraota timoleon - The silver streak blueArhopala abseus - The aberrent bushblueA. ormistoni # - Ormiston’s oakblueVirachola perse - The large guava blueV. isocrates - The common guava blueHypolycaena nilgirica - The nilgiri titBindahara phocides - The planeTarucus sylvia - The striped pierrotEuthalia lubentina - The gaudy baronE. evelina - The red spot dukeE. nais - The baronetParthenos sylvia - The clipperNeptis hordonia - The common lascarHypolimnas bolina - The great eggflyH. misippus - The danaid eggflyPrecis lintingensis - The yellow pansyVanessa indica - The Indian red admiralV. canace - The blue admiralCharaxes polyxena - The tawny rajah

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C. solon - The black rajahMurwareda athamas - The common nawabLimenitis procris - The commanderVindula erota - The cruiserPhalanta alcippe - The small leopardByblia ilithyia - The jokerCethosia nietneri - The tamil lace wingDoleschallia bisaltide - The autumn leafLibythea lepita - The beakL. myrrha - The club beakDiscophora lepida - The southern dufferIdea lynceus - The Ceylon tree nymphDanaus fumata # (= Parantica taprobana) - The Ceylon tigerEuploea phaenareta - The great crowKallima philarchus - The blue oak leafLethe dynsate - The Ceylon foresterL. daretis - The Ceylon tree brownMycalesis rama # - The Cingalese bushbrownElymnias singala - The Ceylon palmflyHuphina nadina - The lesser gullAppias indra - The plain puffinPrioneris sita - The painted saw tooth

HymenopteraAneuretus simoni # - Sri Lankan relict ant

SPIDERS

ArachnidaChilbrachys nitelinusPlesiophrictus tenuipesPoecilotheria baraP. faciataP. uniformisP. ornataP. subfusaScalidognathus oreophilusS. radialisPlagiobothrus semilunarisAprusia strenuusObrimona tennentiPhricotelus stelligerAtimiosa quinquemucronata

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CRUSTACEANS

CladoceraGhardaqlaia ambiguaStenocypris fernandoiChrissa ceylonicaC. halyiCentrocypris viridisDarwinuka lundi

DecapodaCaridina singalensis #C. pristis #C. fernandoi #C. zeylanica #C. costai #Macrobrachium srilankanse #Ceylonthelphusa rugosa #C. soror #C. inflatissima #Oziothelphusa minneriyensis #Hymenocera elegans - Painted shrimpStenopus hispidus - Boxing shrimpLysmatha debelius - Asoka/Scarlet shrimpL. amboinensis - Peppermint shrimpPanulirus versicolor - Painted spiny lobsterP. homarus - Scalloped spiny lobsterP. longipes - Long legged spiny lobsterP. ornatus - Ornate spiny lobsterP. pencilliatus - Prong horned spiny lobsterP. polyphagus - Mud spiny lobster

MOLLUSCS(Land and freshwater molluscs)

Acavus haemastoma #A. phoenix #A. prosperus #A. fastosus #A. roseolabiatus #A. superbus #Oligospira waltoni #O. skinneri #Rachis adumbratus #Aulopoma grande #A. helicinum #Ratnadvipia edgariana #

R. irridians #Beddomea albizonatus #B. ceylanicus #B. intermedius #Corilla adamsi #C. beddomeae #C. carabinata #C. colletti #C. erronea #C. fryae #C. gudei #C. humberti #

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Cryptozona ceraria #C. novella #Cyclophorus ceylanicus #Digoniaxis cingalensis #Ena panos #E. proletaria #E. stalix #Euplecta binoyaensis #E. colletti #E. concavospira #E. gardneri #E. hyphasma #E. isabellina #E. laevis #E. layardi #E. prestoni #E. rosamonda #E. trimeni #E. turritella #E. verrucula #Eurychlamys regulata #Glessula ceylanica #G. collettae #G. fulgens #G. inornata #G. lankana #G. layardi #G. nitens #G. pachycheila #G. prestoni #G. punctogallana #G. reynelli #G. serena #G. sinhila #G. veruina #Hemiplecta chenui #H. juliana #Japonia binoyae #J. occulta #J. vesca #Kaliella colletti #K. delectabilis #K. leithiana #K. salicensis #Leptopoma apicatum #L. taprobanensis #Leptopomoides conulus #L. orophilus #

Macrochlamys kandiensis #M. nepas #M. perfucata #M. tratanensis #M. umbrina #Microcystina bintennensis #M. lita #Nicida ceylanica #N. lankaensis #N. pedronis #Opeas layardi #O. mariae #O. prestoni #O. pussilus #O. sykesi #Phaedusa ceylanica #Philalanka circumsculpta #P. depressa #P. lamcabensis #P. liratula #P. mononema #P. secessa #P. sinhila #P. thwaitesi #P. trifilosa #Pterocyclus bifrons #P cingalensis #Pupisoma longstaffae #P. miccyla #Pyramidula halyi #Ruthvenia biciliata #R. caliginosa #R. clathratula #Satiella membranacea #Scabrina brounae #Sitala operiens #S. phyllophila #S. pyramidalis #Streptaxis cingalensis #S. gracilis #S. layardinaus #Cyathopoma ceylanicum #C. leptopornita #C. ogdeniamum #C. perconoideum #C. serendibense #C. uvaense #C. turbinatum #

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Theobaldius bairdi #T. liliputianus #T. cadiscus #T. parapsis #T. thwaitesi #T. loxostoma #T. annulatus #Thysanota elegans #T. eumita #T. eumita #Tortulosa aurea #T. austeniana #T. blanfordi #T. cumingi #T. decora #T. pyramidata #T. recurvata #T. templemani #T. rugosa #T. greeni #T. congener #T. connectens #T. eurytrema #

T. haemastoma #T. marginata #T. nietneri #T. sykesi #T. unicolor #Trochomorpha galerus #T. hyptiocyclos #Truncatella ceylanica #Viginulus maculautus #V. templetoni #Ravana politissima #Bulimus inconspicua #Paludomus chilinoides #P. sulcatus #P. regalis #P. tanschauricus #P. palustris #P. bicinctus #P. loricatus #P. decussatus #P. nigricans #P. neritoides #P. solidus #

(Marine molluscs)

Charonia tritonis - Triton’s trumpetChicoreus ramosaC. palmarosaMurex ternispinaCypracassis rufa - Helmet shellLambis scorpiusL. chiragraL. crocataL. lambisTibia delicatulaConus textile - Textile coneC. geographusC. aulicusC. litteratusC. episcopasTridacna squamosaCypraea tigris - Tiger cowryC. talpaC. argusC. nivosaExabranchus sanguinea - Spanish dancer

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ECHINODERMS

Protoreaster linkiFromia elegansF. monilisHeterocentrotus mammaliatus - Slate pencil urchinToxopneustes pileolusAsthenosoma varium

FISHES(Freshwater fishes)

CypriniformesPuntius titteya # - Cherry barbP. cumingii # - Cuming’s barbP. nigrofasciatus # - Black ruby barbP. srilankensis # 3 - Blotched filamented barbP. pleurotaenia # - Black lined barbP. bimaculatus # - Redside barbP. asoka # - Asoka barbP. bandula # * - Bandula barbP. martenstyni # * - Martenstyn’s barbRasbora vaterifloris # - Golden rasboraR. wilpita # * - Wilpita rasboraLabeo fisheri # * - Green labeoL. lankae # *Garra ceylonensis - Stone suckerG. phillipsi # - Phillip’s garraSchistura notostigma # - Banded mountain loachAcanthocobitis urophthalmus # - Tiger loachHoradandia atukorali # - Green carpletLepidocephalichthys jonklaasi # * - Jonklaas’ loach/spotted loachDanio pathirana # * - Barred danio

PerciformesSicyopus jonklaasi # - Lipstick gobySchismatogobius deraniyagalai # - Redneck gobySicyopterus griseusS. halei # - Red tailed gobyKuhlia marginata - Spotted flagtailMalpulutta kretseri # - Ornate paradise fishBelontia signata # - Combtail

ChanniformesChanna orientalis # - Smooth-breasted snakehead

CyprinodontiformesAplocheilus dayi # - Day’s killifishA. werneri # - Werner’s killifish

SiluriformesHeteropneustes microps # * - Stinging catfish

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(Marine fishes)4

PerciformesAcanthurus leucosternon - Powder-blue surgeon-fishParacanthurus hepatus - Wedge-tailed blue tangChaetodon falcula - Saddle back butterfly-fishC. lunula - Racoon butterfly-fishC. auriga - Thread fin butterfly-fishC. citrinellus - Speckled butterfly-fishC. collare - Collare butterfly-fishC. triangulum - Triangular butterfly-fishC. madagascariensis - Madagascar butterfly-fishC. meyeri - Meyer’s butterfly-fishC. ornatissimus - Ornate butterfly-fishC. oxycephalus - Spot-naped butterfly-fishC. octofasciatus - Eight banded butterfly-fishC. plebeius - Blue-spot butterfly-fishC. unimaculatus - Tear drop butterfly-fishC. xanthocephalus - Yellow-head butterfly-fishC. ephippium - Saddled butterfly-fishC. rafflesi - Latticed butterfly-fishC. guttatissimus - Spotted butterfly-fishC. semeion - Dotted butterfly-fishC. benneti - Bennett’s butterfly-fishCheilinus undulatus * - Humphead wrasseThunnus maccoyii * - Southern bluefin tunaT. obesus * - Bigeye tunaPseudochromis pesi *Anthias evensiForcipiger flavissimus - Long nosed butterfly-fishParachaetodon ocellatus - Ocellate coral-fishHemitauricththys zoster - Black pyramid butterfly-fishH. pleurotania - Indian banner-fishOxycirrhites typus - Long snouted hawk-fishParacirrhitus arcuatus - Hawk fishNemateleotris menateleotris - Fire blennyPlectorhynchus obscurusGaterin albovittatusLabroides bicolor - Bi-coloured cleaner wrasseL. dimidiatus - Cleaner wrasseCoris formosa - Queen rainbow-fishBodianus diana - Diana’s hog-fishLutjanus sebae - Emperor snapperPomacanthus annularis - Blue-ringed angel-fishP. semicirculatus - Koran angel-fish

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P. imperator - Emperor angel-fishCentropyge eibli - Eibl’s pigmy angel-fishApolomichthys trimaculatus - Three spot angel-fishAmphiprion clarkii - Clark’s anemone-fishA. nigrepes - Maldive clown-fishPterois volitans - Red turkey-fishP. antennataP. radiata - Clear fin turkey-fishDendrochirus zebra - Dwarf lion-fishD. brachypterus - Short fin turkey-fishD. biocellatusEpinephelus flavocaeruleus - Blue grouperE. lanceolatus * - Giant grouperPlectropomus laevis - Black saddled coral troutVariola louti - Lunar tailed grouperZanclus cornutus - Moorish idol

TetradontiformesOxymonocanthus longirostris - Beaked leatherjacketParaluteres prianurusBalistoides conspicillum - Clown trigger-fishPseudobalistes fuscus - Jigsaw trigger-fishCanthigaster benneti - Bennett’s pufferC. valentini - Black saddled pufferOstracion cubicum - Blue-spotted box-fishLactoria cornuta - Long horned cow-fishL. fornasini - Ceylon cow-fishDiodon hystrix - Porcupine puffer fish

LophiiformesHistrio histrio - Sargassum fish

AnguilliformesEchidna nebulosa - Starry moray eelE. zebra - Zebra moray eelRhinomuraena quaesita - Ribbon moray eelMyrichthys maculosus - Spotted snake eelM. colubrinus - Striped snake eel

CypriniformesPlotosus lineatus - Striped catfish

SyngnathiformesHippocampus aimei *H. borbonensis *H. brachyrhynchus *H. camelopardalis *H. coronatus *H. erinaceus *H. fuscus *H. histrix *

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H. horai *H. japonicus *H. jayakari *H. kuda * - Spotted sea horseH. longirostris *H. novaehebudorum *H. planifrons *H. raji *H. sindonis *H. spinosissimus *H. taeniops *H. takakurae *H. trimaculatus * - Three-spotted sea horse

GasterosteiformesPegasus laternarius *

HexanchiformesHexanchus griseus * - Bluntnose sixgill shark

LamniformesCarcharias taurus * - Sand tiger sharkCarcharodon carcharias * - Great white sharkLamna nasus * - Probeagle

CarchariniformesCarcharhinus limbatus * - Blacktip sharkC. obscurus * - Dusky sharkC. plumbeus * - Sandbar shark

SqualiformesDalatias licha * - Kitefin shark

PristiformesPristis pectinata * - Smalltooth sawfish

AMPHIBIANS

AnuraBufo kelaarti # - Torrent toadB. atukoralei # - Atukorale’s dwarf toadRana greenii # (=Limnonectes greeni) - Sri Lanka reed frogR. corrugata # (=L. corrugata) - Wrinkled frogRana gracilis # - Slender wood frogR. aurantiaca # - Lesser wood frogNannophrys guentheri # - Guenther’s cliff frogN. ceylonensis # - Sri Lanka cliff frogN. marmorata # - Marbled cliff frogTomopterna breviceps #T. rolandae #Polypedates cruciger # - Greater hourglass tree frog

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P. eques # - Montane hourglass tree frogP. longinasus # - Sharp nosed tree frogPhilautus nasutus # - Lesser sharp nosed bush frogP. hypomelas #P. temporalis #Theloderma schmarda # - Wrinkled tree frogRamanella palmata # - Montane ramanellaR. obscura # - Red ramanellaMicrohyla zeylanica # - Montane narrow mouthed frogRhacophorus cavirostris #R. fergusonianus #R. macropus #R. reticulatus #R. microtympanum # - Small-eared tree frog

ApodaIchthyophis glutinosus # - Lesser yellow banded caecilianI. pseudangularis # - Yellow banded caecilianI. orthoplicatus # - Brown caecilian

REPTILES

TestudinataDermochelys coriacea * - Leathery turtleLepidochelys olivacea * - Olive-backed ridley turtleCaretta caretta * - Loggerhead turtleEretmochelys imbricata * - Hawksbill turtleChelonia mydas * - Green turtleMelanochelys trijuga - Hard-shelled terrapinLissemys punctata - Soft-shelled terrapinTestudo elegans - Star tortoise

CrocodyliaCrocodylus porosus - Estuarine crocodileC. palustris * - Marsh crocodile

SquamataCnemaspis podihuna # - Lesser diurnal geckoC. jerdoni #Gymnodactylus frenatus # - Jungle geckoGeckoella triedrus # - Devil geckoG. yakhuna # - Devil geckoHemidactylus depressus # - Jungle geckoH. triedusCalodactylodes illingworthi # - Great rock geckoCalotes liocephalus # *C. ceylonensis # - Sri Lanka lizardC. liolepis #C. nigrilabris # - Black-lipped lizard

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C. calotes - Green garden lizardOtocryptis wiegmanni # - Earless lizardCophotis ceylanica # - Pigmy tree lizardCeratophora stoddarti # - Rhino-horned lizardC. tennentii # * - Tennent’s leaf-nosed lizardC. aspera # - Rough-nose horned lizardLyriocephalus scutatus # - Hump-nose horned lizardChamaeleo zeylanicus - ChamaeleonMabuya macularia # - Spotted skinkM. bibroniDasia haliana - Haly’s skinkSphenomorphus megalops #S. striatopunctatus #S. dorsicatenatus #Lankascincus taprobanensis # - Smooth skinkL. deignani #L. fallax # - Brown skinkL. taylori #L. deraniyagalae #L. gansi #Riopa singha #Chalcidoceps thwaitesi # - Four-toed snake skinkNessia burtoni # - Three-toed snake skinkN. didactyla # - Two-toed snake skinkEvesia monodactyla # - Toeless snake skinkBipodes sarasinorum # - Sarasin’s snake skinkB. smithi # - Smith’s snake skinkAnguinicephalus deraniyagalae # - Deraniyagala’s snake skinkA. layardi # - Layard’s snake skinkA. hikanala # - Shark-headed snake skinkCabrita jerdoni - Lesser grass lizardC. leschenaulti - Grass lizardTyphlops mirus #T. ceylonicus #T. malcolmi #T. violaceus # All the Typhlops speciesT. lankaensis # and Typhlina braminaT. veddae are referred to asT. tenebrarum # blind snakesT. porrectusT. leucomelas # - Pied typhlopsTyphlina braminaUropeltis melanogaster #U. phillipsi #U. ruhunae #Pseudotyphlops philippinus # - Large shield-tail snake

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Rhinophis blythi #R. drummondhayi # All UropeltisR. porrectus # Rhinophis, Pseudotyphlops andR. punctatus # Platiplectrurus speciesR. philippinus # are referred to as rough-tails orR. oxyrhynchus # shield-tailsR. trevelyanus #R. dorsimaculatus #R. tricolorata #Platyplectrurus madurensisCylindrophis maculatus # - Sri Lankan pipe snakeOligodon sublineatus # - Dumeril’s kukri snakeO. calamarius # - Kukri snakeO. taeniolatus - Variegated kukri snakeLycodon osmanhilli # - Taylor’s wolf snakeDendrelaphis oliveri # - Oliver’s bronze backD. caudolineatus - Gunther’s bronze backMacropisthoden plumbicolor - Green keelbackLeopeltis calamaria - Reed snakeDryocalamus nympha - Bridal snakeD. gracilis - Scarce bridal snakeCercaspis carinatus # - Sri Lanka wolf snakeBalanophis ceylonensis # - Blossom kraitAspidura copei # - Cope’s roughsideA. trachyprocta # - The common roughsideA. drummondhayi # - Drummond-Hay’s roughsideA. brachyorrhus b # - Boie’s roughsideA. guentheri # - Guenther’s roughsideA. deraniyagalae #Haplocerus ceylonensis # - The black spined snakeChrysopelea taprobanica #C. ornata - Gold and black tree snakeDryophis pulverulentus - Brown speckled whip snakeBoiga barnesi # - Barne’s cat snakeXenochrophis asperrimus # - The common pond snakeGerarda prevostiana - Gerard’s water snakeBungarus ceylonicus # - Sri Lanka kraitHypnale hypnale - Merrem’s hump-nosed viperH. nepa # - Montane hump-nosed viperH. walli # - Gloyd’s hump-nosed viperTrimeresurus trigonocephalus # - Green pit viperCalliophis melanurus - Slender coral snakeAcrochordus granulatus - Wart snakePython molurus - Rock pythonEryx conicus - Sand boa

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BIRDS

PelecaniformesPhalacrocorax carbo - Indian comorantPelecanus philippensis * - Spot-billed pelican

CiconiiformesEgretta gularis schistacea - Indian reef heronEphippiorhynchus asiaticus - Black-necked storkPlegadis falcinellus - Glossy ibisLeptoptilos javanicus * - Lesser adjutant

AnseriformesSarkidiornis melanotos - Comb duck

FalconiformesAviceda jerdoni - Legge’s bazzaSpizaetus nipalensis - Mountain hawk eagleHieraaetus kienerii - Rufous-bellied hawk eagleIctinaetus malayensis - Black eagleFalco peregrinus - Peregrine falconF. tinnunculus - Indian kestralPernis ptilorhynchus - Crested honey buzzard

GalliformesFrancolinus pictus - Painted partridgeGalloperdix bicalcarata # - Sri Lanka spurfowlGallus lafayettii # - Jungle fowl

GruiformesRallus striatus - Blue-breasted banded railPorzana fusca - Ruddy crake

CharadriiformesDromas ardeola - Crab ploverCursorius coromandelicus - Indian courserVanellus gregarius * - Sociable lapwingRostratula benghalensis - Painted snipeEurynorhynchus pygmeus * - Spoon-billed sandpiper

ColumbiformesTreron phoenicoptera - Yellow-legged green pigeonColumba torringtoni # * - Sri Lanka wood pigeon

CuculiformesPhaenicophaeus pyrrhocephalus * - Red-faced malkohaCentropus chlororhynchus # * - Green-billed coucal

StrigiformesTyto alba - Barn owlPhodilus badius - Bay owlOtus scops - Little scops owlBubo nipalensis - Forest eagle owlGlaucidium cuculoides # - Chestnut-backed owlet

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CaprimulgiformesBatrachostomus moniliger - Frogmouth

TrogoniformesHarpactes fasciatus - Ceylon trogon

CoraciiformesAlcedo meninting - Blue-eared kingfisherCeyx erithacus - Three-toed kingfisherHalcyon pileata - Black-capped purple kingfisherEurystomus orientalis - Broad-billed rollerOcyceros gingalensis # - Ceylon grey hornbill

PiciformesChrysocolaptes festivus - Black-backed woodpeckerPicus xanthopygaeus - Scaly-bellied green woodpeckerXantholaema rubricapilla - Ceylon small barbet

PasseriformesSturnus senex # - Sri Lanka white-headed starlingGracula ptilogenys # - Sri Lanka hill mynahCissa ornata # - Sri Lanka blue magpieIrena puella - Fairy blue birdPycnonotus penicillatus # - Yellow-eared bulbulTurdoides rufescens # - Sri Lanka rufous babblerGarrulax cinereifrons # * - Ashy-headed laughing thrushMuscicapa sordida # - Dusky-blue fly catcherBradypterus palliseri # - Sri Lanka warblerFicedula subrubra * - Kashmir flycatcherMyiophonus blighi # * - Arrenga/Ceylon whistling thrushZoothera wardii - Pied ground thrushZ. spiloptera # - Spotted-winged ground thrushZ. dauma - Sri Lanka scaly thrushDicaeum vincens # - Legge’s flower peckerLonchura kelaarti - Hill munia

MAMMALS

InsectivoraFeroculus feroculus # * - Kelaart’s long-clawed shrewSuncus zeylanicus # * - Ceylon jungle shrewSuncus etruscus *5 - Sri Lanka pygmy shrewS. murinus *6 - Sri Lanka highland shrewCrocidura miya # * - Ceylon long-tailed shrewSolisorex pearsoni # * - Pearson’s long-clawed shrew

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ChiropteraKerivoula picta - Painted batK. hardwickei - Malpas batHipposideros galeritus - Dekhan leaf-nosed batMyotis hasselti - Van Hasselt’s batMurina cyclotis - Ceylon tube-nosed batTadarida aegyptiaca - Indian wrinkled-lipped bat

PrimataLoris tardigradus * - Slender lorisTrachypithecus vetulus # * - Purple-faced leaf monkey

RodentiaPetaurista petaurista - Large flying squirrelPetinomys fuscocapillus - Small flying squirrelFunambulus layardi - Flame-striped jungle squirrelF. sublineatus - Ceylon dusky-striped jungle squirrelMus fernandoni # - The Ceylon spiny-mouseRattus montanus # * - Nillu ratCoelomys mayori # - Bicoloured spiny-ratSrilankamys ohiensis # - Ceylon bicoloured spiny-ratVandeleuria nolthenii # * - Ceylon highland long-tailed tree mouseRatufa macroura * - Sri Lanka giant squirrel

CetaceaBalaenoptera musculus * - Great blue whaleB. borealis * - Sei whaleB. physalus * - Fin whaleB. edeni - Bryde’s whaleMegaptera novaeangliae * - Hump-backed whalePhyseter catodon * - Sperm whale cachalotStenella longirostris - Spinner dolphin

CarnivoraLutra lutra nair - Ceylon otterMelursus ursinus * - Sloth bearParadoxurus zeylonensis # - Golden palm-civetHerpestes vitticollis - Striped-necked mongooseFelis rubiginosa - Rusty Spotted catF. chaus - Jungle catF. viverrina - Fishing catPanthera pardus - Leopard

ProboscideaElephas maximus * - Elephant

SireniaDugong dugon * - Dugong

ArtiodactylaTragulus meminna - Mouse-deerCervus porcinus - Indian hog-deer

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accession A sample of crop variety collected at aspecific location and time; may be of any size.

avifauna The birds which live naturally in a certainarea.

alien species (Non-native, non-indigenous, foreign,exotic) is a species, subspecies, or lower taxonoccurring outside of its natural range and dispersalpotential (i.e. - outside the range it occupiesnaturally or could not occupy without direct orindirect introduction or care by humans) andincludes any part, gametes or propagule of suchspecies that might survive and subsequentlyreproduce.

biodiversity (= biological diversity) The definitiongiven by Article 2 of the Biodiversity Conventionis "The variability among living organisms fromall sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marineand other aquatic ecosystems and the ecologicalcomplexes of which they are part; this includesdiversity within species, between species and ofecosystems". A simpler definition is the total rangeof the variety of life on earth or any given part ofit.

Biodiversity Convention See Convention onBiological Diversity.

biodiversity hotspot A term introduced to describea location that features an exceptional concentrationof species with exceptional levels of endemism andfaces exceptional degrees of threat.

biogeography The scientific study of the geographicdistribution of organisms.

bioregion A territory defined by a combinationof biological, social and geographic criteria, ratherthan geopolitical considerations; generally, a systemof related, interconnected ecosystems.

bioresources (= biological resources) Thosecomponents of biodiversity of direct, indirect, orpotential use to humanity.

Biosphere Reserve An area of terrestrial orcoastal/marine ecosystem, or a combination thereof,which is internationally recognised within theframework of UNESCO’s programme on Manand the Biosphere (MAB).

Glossary

buffer zone The region bordering a protected areawhere restrictions are placed upon resource use orspecial development measures are undertaken toenhance the conservation value of the protectedarea.

chena (= shifting cultivation) Probably the oldestform of agricultural practice in Sri Lanka,widespread in the country until recently, but nowconfined largely to the dry zone. This involvesclearing of a forest area for cultivation which maycontinue for two to three years after which it isabandoned for a new site.

climax vegetation The plant community whichwould finally develop in an area in the absence ofhuman intervention.

conservation of biodiversity This covers humanactions ranging from totally preserving anycomponent of biodiversity to using biologicalresources provided that such use is withinsustainable limits and does not cause erosion ofbiological diversity. In the Convention on BiologicalDiversity and in the BCAP, the expression”conservation and sustainable use of biologicaldiversity” is frequently used to give emphasis tothe aspect of conservation that includes the wiseand sustainable use of the components ofbiodiversity.

continental shelf Sri Lanka is surrounded by aseaward extension of the adjacent continent, fromthe shoreline to the line called the shelf edge beyondwhich there is a marked increase of slope. Thecontinental shelf surrounding Sri Lanka is onaverage 20km in width and 20-65m in depth.

Convention on Biological Diversity ThisConvention was signed by over 150 countries atthe Earth Summit (The United Nations Conferenceon Environment and Development) in Rio in 1992.The objectives of the Convention are theconservation of biological diversity, the sustainableuse of its components and the fair and equitablesharing of the benefits arising out of the utilisationof genetic resources.

cryo-preservation A method of preserving livingtissue by freeze-drying.

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demographic Pertaining to the science of vitaland social statistics as of the births, deaths,marriages, etc. in human populations.

deniya Water-logged valley bottoms situated in thewet zone.

dunes Wind blown accumulations of sand distinctfrom adjacent land forms such as beaches or saltmarshes; found along portions of the northern,southern and northwestern coasts of Sri Lanka.

ecosystem A community of interdependentorganisms and the environment they inhabit.

ecotourism As defined by IUCN’s ecotourismprogramme: "Environmentally responsible traveland visitation to relatively undisturbed natural areas,in order to enjoy and appreciate nature thatpromotes conservation, has low visitor impact andprovides for beneficially active socio-economicinvolvement of local populations.

edaphic Environmental conditions that aredetermined by the physical, chemical and biologicalcharacteristics of the soil.

EIA This refers to an environmental impactassessment of the possible effects of developmentprojects on the environment.

endemic Restricted to a specific locality, or country.

estuaries A semi-closed coastal body of waterwhich has a free connection with the sea, and withinwhich sea water is immeasurably diluted byfreshwater derived from land drainage.

ethnobotany The study of the relationshipsbetween people and plants in the broadest sense. Itrequires a multidisciplinary approach, incorporatinganthropology and ethnology, botany, linguistic, andin some cases economics, pharmacology, medicineand agronomy.

Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) Part of theoffshore area of a country where the country hasexclusive rights in respect of all economic resourcesof the water column, underlying seabed and subsoil.

eutrophication Enrichment of water by nutrientswhich results in the production of very largepopulations of plant life that rapidly die and depleteoxygen during their putrefaction.

ex situ conservation Keeping components ofbiodiversity alive outside of their original habitator natural environment.

fen A wetland of high nutrient status resulting frominputs via flowing water.

flash floods A sudden and destructive rush ofwater down a narrow gully or over a slopingsurface.

flood plains A nearly flat plain along the courseof a stream or river that is naturally subject toflooding.

fossorial Digging or burrowing.

gene bank A facility established for the ex situconservation of individuals (seeds), tissues, orreproductive cells of plants or animals.

genome The set of chromosomes found in eachnucleus of a given species.

genotype The genetic constitution of an organism.

germplasm The protoplasm of germcellscontaining the units of hereditary, the chromosomesand genes.

Global Environment Facility A fund set up in1992 and managed by the World Bank, UNDP andUNEP to assist developing countries to addressissues relating to the conservation of biodiversity,climatic change, ozone depletion and internationalwaters.

habitat The natural dwelling place of anindividual or group of organisms.

home gardens A traditional system of perennialcropping that uses a range of economically valuableplant species producing fruits, spices, medicinalproducts, timber, etc. It offers a highly diversifiedand economically viable form of land use foundaround a house.

in situ conservation The conservation ofecosystems and natural habitats and the maintenanceand recovery of viable populations of species intheir natural surroundings and, in the case ofdomesticated or cultivated species, in thesurroundings where they have developed theirdistinctive properties.

kalle korales Forest officers, who in former timeswere appointed by kings, whose duties includedprevention of poaching and protection of forestsand trees set aside by royal decree.

kitul tapping An important traditional activityof the rural communities of Sri Lanka. The phloemsap obtained by the tapping of the younginflorescence of the kitul palm (Caryota urens) isused to produce treacle, jaggery (a locally usedsweetener) and an alcoholic beverage.

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lagoon Coastal bodies of water containing brackishwater, which are permanently separated from thesea, or connected to the sea only during part of theyear.

lewaya A depression in the coastal sand belt,with highly saline soil.

liana A woody climbing plant.

littoral zone Shallow water region with lightpenetrating to the bottom, typically occupied byrooted plants.

Mahawansa Chronicle of Sri Lanka’s historycovering the period 6th century BC to 4th centuryAD.

mangroves Salt-tolerant, woody, seed-bearingplants ranging in size from small shrubs to talltrees.

meta-data Data about data. A second level ofinformation about other data sources. Thus, adictionary of all those who hold datasets on differentaspects of biodiversity would be called a meta-database.

montane Mountainous area.

National Conservation Review (NCR) A samplesurvey of biodiversity covering woody plants,vertebrates, butterflies and molluscs, and ahydrological assessment of the natural forests ofSri Lanka, carried out for designing an optimumprotected areas system for the country’s naturalforests.

National Park In Sri Lanka, a category ofprotected area, designated under the Fauna andFlora Protection Ordinance. It falls within the IUCNProtected Area Management Category II - a naturalarea of land and/or sea, designated to (a) protectthe ecological integrity of one or more ecosystemsfor present and future generations, (b) excludeexploitation or occupation inimical to the purposesof designation of the area, and (c) provide afoundation for spiritual, scientific, educational andvisitor opportunities, all of which must beenvironmentally and culturally compatible.

patanas A local term used for the montanegrasslands.

phylogenetic Pertaining to the evolutionary historyof a particular group of organisms.

protected area An area of land (and/or sea)especially dedicated to the protection andmaintenance of biological diversity, and of naturaland cultural resources, and managed through legalor other effective means.

Ramsar site A site designated as a wetland ofinternational importance under the Convention ofWetlands of International Importance Especiallyas Waterfowl Habitat.

Red Data Books Catalogues published by IUCNthe World Conservation Union, or by nationalauthorities listing species which are rare or in dangerof becoming extinct globally or nationally.

Sanctuary A category of protected area in SriLanka, that may contain both state and privateland.

salt marshes Marshy area subject to frequentinundation by sea water and containing herbaceous,salt-resistant plants.

seagrass beds Composed of rooted, seed-bearingmarine plants that occur as submerged meadowswithin estuaries and lagoons and near-shore coastalwaters which are sheltered from highwave energy.

seed bank A facility designed for ex situconservation of individual plant species and varietiesthrough seed preservation and storage.

slash and burn See chena.

sustainable development Development that meetsthe needs and aspirations of the current generationwithout compromising the ability of futuregenerations to meet their needs.

taxa The classification units to which individuals,or sets of species, are assigned.

The Earth Summit The United NationsConference on Environment and Development heldin Rio de Janeiro in June 1992.

villu Wet grassland in the dry zone.

World Heritage Site. A site designated underthe 1972 Convention on the Protection of the WorldCultural and Natural Heritage.

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AG Attorney GeneralBCAP Biodiversity Conservation Action PlanBD BiodiversityBDC Biodiversity ConservationBMARI Bandaranaiyake Memorial Ayurvedic Research InstituteCARP Council for Agricultural Research PolicyCBD Convention on Biological DiversityCBO Community-Based OrganizationCBRM Community-Based Resource ManagementCCD Coast Conservation DepartmentCEA Central Environmental AuthorityCISIR Ceylon Institute of Scientific and Industrial ResearchCITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and

FloraCRI Coconut Research Institute of Sri LankaCZMP Coastal Zone Management PlanCZM Coastal Zone ManagementDEA Department of Export AgricultureDOA Department of AgricultureDAPH Department of Animal Production and HealthDFAR Department of Fisheries and Aquatic ResourcesDWLC Department of Wildlife ConservationEEZ Exclusive Economic ZoneEFL Environmental Foundation LimitedEIA Environmental Impact AssessmentFD Forest DepartmentFDED Forestry Development and Environmental DivisionFSDD Forestry Sector Development DivisionGIS Geographical Information SystemGNP Gross National ProductGMO Genetically Modified OrganismHORDI Horticultural Crops Research and Development InstituteIIMI International Irrigation Management InstituteITES Institute of Tropical Environmental StudiesIUCN International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources - The

World Conservation UnionKDN Kanneliya-Dediyagala-NakiyadeniyaLMO Living Modified OrganismMAL Ministry of Agriculture and Lands, functioning as such from 10 June 1997MALF Ministry of Agriculture, Lands and Forests; functioned as such until 9 June 1997.

Since then subjects have been reallocated to the Ministry of Agriculture and Lands(MAL) and Ministry of Forestry and Environment (MFE)

MASL Mahaweli Authority of Sri LankaMCS Marine Conservation SocietyME Ministry in charge of the subject of Environment. Up to 9 June 1997, this was

MTEWA or the Ministry of Transport, Environment and Womens Affairs; from10 June 1997 it has been the Ministry of Forestry and Environment ( MFE )

Abbreviations

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MfC March for ConservationMFE Ministry of Forestry and Environment, functioning as such from 10 June 1997.MTEWA Ministry of Transport, Environment and Women’s Affairs; functioned as such

until 9 June 1997.NARA National Aquatic Resources Research and Development AgencyNAREPP Natural Resources and Environmental Policy ProjectNARESA Natural Resources, Energy and Science Authority of Sri LankaNCR National Conservation ReviewNCS National Conservation StrategyNEAP National Environmental Action PlanNEC National Education CommissionNGO Non Governmental OrganizationNIE National Institute of EducationNM National MuseumNSC National Steering CommitteeNSRC Neo-synthesis Research CentreNWP National Wetland PolicyNWSC National Wetlands Steering CommitteeOUSL Open University of Sri LankaPGIA Postgraduate Institute of AgriculturePGRC Plant Genetic Resources CentreRITICOE Ritigala Community based Development and Environmental Management Founda-

tionRRDI Rice Research and Development InstituteRRI Rubber Research Institute of Sri LankaSALT Sloping Area Land TechnologySAM Special Area ManagementSRI Sugarcane Research Institute of Sri LankaTF Task ForceTRI Tea Research Institute of Sri LankaUDA Urban Development AuthorityUGC University Grants CommissionUNEP United Nations Environmental ProgrammeUSAID United States Agency for International DevelopmentUSJ University of Sri JayewardenepuraVRI Veterinary Research InstituteWCMC World Conservation Monitoring CentreWCP Wetland Conservation ProjectWNPS Wildlife and Nature Protection Society

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