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ANATOMICAL POSITION

– the subject stands erect

facing the observer, with

legs together and feet

slightly apart, arms at the

sides with palms facing

the front, and with the

thumbs away from the

body

Directional Terms

• Directional terms describe the locations of

structures in relation to other structures or

locations in the body.

• These terms often have a counterpart with

converse or opposite meaning.



Directional Terms

• Superior – Towards the head or

upper part of astructure or the body;above (this term ismainly used in thetorso region)

• Inferior – Away from the head

or toward the lowerpart of a structure or

the body; below (thisterm is mainly used inthe torso region)

Directional Terms

• Anterior (ventral) – Towards the front of the

body, organ, or section ofthe body

– This term is only

used interchangeably inhumans

• Posterior (dorsal) – Towards the back of the

body, organ, or section ofthe body

– This term is only

used interchangeably inhumans



Directional Terms

• Medial – Towards the

middle of the body,

organ, or section of

the body

• Lateral

– Towards the side

of the body, organ,

or section of the

body

Directional Terms

• Lateral

– Ipsilateral

• On the same

side of the body

– gallbladder and

ascending colon

– Contralateral

• Opposite sidesof the midline

– ascending and

descending

colon



Directional Terms

• Proximal

– Closest to the point

of attachment

• the wrist is proximal to

the fingers

• Distal

– Away from the point

of attachment

• the fingers are distal to

the wrist

Directional Terms

• Deep (internal)

– Towards the internal

portion of the body

• organs are deep to the

skin

• Superficial (external)

– Away from the

internal portion of the

body• skin is superficial to the

organs

Skin

Organ



Activity

• Use 3 directional terms to describe the location of thefollowing

• (Remember that directional terms are always relative to

something. Be sure to state that the structure is

superior to the … or proximal to the …)

– The right small finger

– The left shoulder blade

– The nose

– The right ear

– The liver

– The left knee

Planes• Medical professionals often refer to

sections of the body in terms of anatomical

planes (flat surfaces)

• These planes are imaginary lines – vertical

or horizontal – drawn through an upright

body

• The terms are used to describe a specific

body part



Types of Planes

1) Sagittal plane – This vertical (up and

down) plane divides

the body, organ, or

section of the body

into right and left

sections

– Has 2 sub-types

a) Midsagittal

b) Parasagittal

Median or Midsagittal plane

• This vertical (up and

down) plane divides the

body, organ, or section

of the body into equal

right and left halves



• Parasagittal plane

– This vertical (up and

down) plane divides

the body, organ, or

section of the body

into unequal right

and left parts

2) Frontal or Coronalplane

– This vertical (up and

down) plane divides

the body, organ, or

section of the body

into anterior and

posterior portions



3) Transverse

(cross sectional

or Horizontal)

plane – This plane divides

the body, organ, or

section of the body

into superior and

inferior portions

Planes and Sections of the Brain

• Horizontal

Plane

• Frontal Plane

• Midsagittal

Plane



Body Cavities• The spaces of the body containing the

internal organs (viscera).

• The two main cavities are;

i) Ventral Cavity (subdivided into the

thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities)

ii) Dorsal Cavity (subdivided into the cranial

and vertebral or spinal cavities)

• The ventral cavity is the larger cavitytowards the front of the body.

The ventral Body Cavity

– Subdivided into

a) thoracic cavity which is superior(above) to the diaphragm.

b) abdominopelvic cavity which isinferior (below) to the diaphragm.

These two sub-cavities are separatedby the diaphragm, a dome-

shaped muscle of respiration

– Each of these major subdivisionsof the ventral cavity can be furthersubdivided.



Thoracic Body CavitiesDivided into 4

subcavities locatedabove the diaphragm;

• 2 Pleural cavities

- One containing the

right lung and the other

the left lung.

• 1 Superior mediastinum;

- space between the

two pleural cavities thatcontains organs.

• 1 Pericardial cavity;

- contains the heart.

Abdominopelvic Cavity

Divided into 2 subcavitieslocated below thediaphragm;

• Abdominal cavity

– this space contains theabdominal organs(stomach, intestine,spleen, liver, etc.

• Pelvic cavity

– space that contains theurinary bladder, somereproductive organs,and the rectum.



Dorsal Body Cavity

is subdivided into;i) cranial cavity

- contains the brain

and its associated

membranes.

ii) vertebral or

spinal cavity

- contains the spinalcord and its

associated

membranes.

Abdominopelvic regions

• Right hypochondriac region

– This region is located laterally to

the Epigastric region (remember

your anatomical right)

• Right lumbar region

– This region is located laterally to

the umbilical region (remember

your anatomical right)

• Right iliac or inguinal region

– Is located laterally to the

hypogastric region

– (remember your anatomical

right)




• Epigastric region

– This region is located superior

to the umbilical region

• Umbilical

– This region is the centermost

region

• Hypogastric (pubic) region

– Is located inferiorly to theumbilical region


• Left hypochondriac region – This region is located laterally to

the epigastric region (rememberyour anatomical left)

• Left lumber – This region is located laterally to

the umbilical region (rememberyour anatomical left)

• Left iliac or inguinal region – Is located laterally to the

hypogastric region

– (remember your anatomicalleft)



Quadrants

• RUQ

– right upper quadrant

• RLQ

– right lower quadrant

• LUQ

– left upper quadrant

• LLQ

– left lower quadrant

Activity• Get a torso model

• Please use only wooden pointers with themodels NOT PENS!

• Name the regions and quadrants where thefollowing organs are found. – The liver

– The gall bladder

– The stomach

– The right kidney

– The spleen

– The large intestine

– The urinary bladder

– Vermiform appendix



Membranes

• Body membranes are thin sheets of tissue that

line body cavities, and cover internal organs

within the cavities.

• 2 types;

a) Parietal membranes.

b) Visceral membranes

• Parietal membrane

– this serous

membrane lines the

cavity walls or can

line the outside wall

of an organ

• Visceral membrane

– this serous

membrane covers the

organs in the cavity



Membranes of the Heart

• Parietal pericardium

– lines the pericardial

cavity (pericardial

sac)

• Visceral pericardium

or epicardium

– the parietal

pericardium reflects

back and covers theheart

Membranes of the Lungs• Parietal pleura

–this serous

membrane

lines the walls

of the thoracic

cavity

Parietal pleura



Membranes

• Visceral pleura

– this serous

membrane

covers the lungs

Visceral pleura

Membranes of the

Abdominopelvic Cavity

• Parietal

peritoneum

– is associated with

the walls of the

abdominopelvic

cavityParietal peritoneum



• Visceral

peritoneum

– covers most of

the organs within

the

abdominopelvic

cavityVisceral peritoneum

Microscope• In biology, it is imperative that the student be

proficient in the use of the microscope

• All biology students should be able to focus on asmear in less than three minutes with anymicroscope

• Initially, you must learn the parts of themicroscope, the function of each part, and finally

the care and the maintenance of the microscope• Ideally, at the conclusion of this exercise, you

should be well on your way to success in the useof the microscope



Microscope

• Ocular (eyepiece)

– usually a 10 power

(lOX) lens containing

a pointer which can

be used to designate

a particular location in

the field of view

Microscope• Body tube

– a tube, quite long in

some microscopes,

which forms the main

body of the microscope;

the ocular is at the top

of the body tube, and a

nosepiece or containingseveral objectives is at

the bottom of the tube



Microscope

• Coarse adjustment

– a knob which raises

and lowers the body

tube to bring the

specimen on the slide

into focus

Microscope

• Fine adjustment

– a knob to be used

for fine adjustment

(focusing) after

using the coarse

adjustment



Microscope

• Nosepiece

– a turret that holds

the objectives and

allows them to pivot

into position as

needed

Microscope• Objectives

– there are usually four objectivelenses, but some nosepieceshave fewer; they are a 4Xscanning lens, a 10X lowpower, a 40X-45X high power,and a 100X oil immersion

– On many microscopes, theobjectives are identified by colorbands: green for low power,yellow for high power, and red

for oil immersionWhat would be the total

magnification when using any

of these objectives?



Microscope

• Spring clips or

Mechanical slide

holder

– these hold the

glass slide in

position on the

stage

Microscope• Stage

–a platform on

which the slide is

placed



Microscope

• Diaphragm

– regulates the size ofthe light opening inthe stage, thusregulating the amountof light passingthrough the specimen

– proper control of theamount of light is

nearly as important asproper focusing forviewing the specimen

Microscope• Illuminator

– a sub-stage light ormirror is enclosed in thebase of somemicroscopes

– If the light source is notsufficient, the fullcapabilities of amicroscope cannot berealized. Turn this lightoff when not in use; theswitch usually liesbehind the light



Microscope

• Arm

– the main supportive

structure of the

microscope, and the

only part except the

base by which the

instrument should be

carried

Microscope• Base

– the supportive bottom

of the instrument that

holds the light

source



Microscope

• Condenser – a lens system locked into the

light opening of the stage ofmany microscopes (not presenton all)

– the condenser focuses orconcentrates the light from theilluminator on the specimen

– the condenser can be adjustedto a higher or lower position bya substage adjustment knobbut for most purposes, thecondenser should be fullyraised

– if a pattern appears in the field

of view, you lower thecondenser until the patterndisappears

ACTIVITY-MICROSCOPE

• Get out a microscope

• Learn the various parts

– Ocular

– Objectives

• 4x, 10x, 40x

– Stage

– Course adjustment

– Fine adjustment

– Diaphragm



TISSUES• Tissues are a group of cells that have

a similar structure, and are specializedfor a specific function.

• The four main types of tissues are;

– Epithelial

– Connective

– Muscle

– Nerve

4 MainTypes of Tissue• Epithelial Tissue

– Simple

– Stratified

– Pseudostratified

• Connective Tissue – Loose

– Dense

– Cartilage

– Bone

– Blood

• Muscle Tissue – Cardiac

– Smooth

– Skeletal

• Nervous Tissue



1-EPITHELIAL TISSUE

Characteristics of Epithelial Tissue

i) Cellularity

– composed almost entirely of cells

ii) Special contacts

– form continuous sheets held together by tight

junctions and desmosomesiii) Polarity

– apical and basal surfaces

Characteristics of Epithelial Tissue

iv) Supported by connective tissue

– reticular and basal laminae

v) Avascular but innervated

– contains no blood vessels but supplied

by nerve fibers

vi) Regenerative

– rapidly replaces lost cells by cell division



Epithelial Tissue

• Classified by presence oflayers and shapes

• Classification by layers

– Simple

• One layer

– Stratified

• Many layers

– Pseudostratified

• Single layer

• Appears multilayered

Types of Epithelial Tissue1) Simple squamous

– Location

• blood vessels, lining the

heart (visceral pericardium),

air sacs of the lung, kidney

(Bowman’s capsule)

– Function

• Diffusion and filtration,

secretion of lubricating

substances in the serosae – Special features

• flat single layered cells,

square to octagonal shape,

central nucleus



Epithelial Tissue

2) Simple cuboidal – Location

• kidney tubules, ovary,

ducts and secretory

portions of small glands

– Function

• secretion and

absorption

– Special features

• single layered, cube

shaped, central nucleus

Epithelial Tissue3) Simple columnar

– Location

• gastrointestinal (GI)

tract, gallbladder, and

excretory ducts of some

glands

– Function

• secretion “mucus” and

absorption “nutrients”


• column shaped, goblet

cells, microvilli



Epithelial Tissue

4) Pseudostratifiedciliated columnar

– Location• upper respiratory tract

(trachea, nasal cavity,etc.) and male urethra

– Function• secretion of mucus and

movement by cilaryaction

– Special features• cilia and scattered

nuclei

Epithelial Tissue5) Stratified squamous

– Keratinized and non-keratinized

– Location• skin, vagina, mouth,

esophagus

– Function• Protection

– Special features• layers of cells and

dark basementmembrane



Epithelial Tissue

6) Transitional – Location

• urinary tract (urethra,

ureter, urinary

bladder)

– Function

• Stretching and

distension


• dome shaped cells

with centralized

nuclei

2- CONNECTIVE TISSUE

Structural Elements of Connective Tissue

• Cells

– fibroblasts, chondroblasts, osteoblasts, and

hematopoietic stem cells

• Matrix

– Ground substance

• unstructured material that fills the spacebetween cells

– Fibers

• collagen, elastic, or reticular



Cells

• Fibroblasts – collagen and elastin

• Chondroblasts

– cartilage

• Osteoblasts

– bone

• Hematopoietic stem cells

– blood

• White blood cells, plasma cells,macrophages, and mast cells

Fibers• Collagen

– tough; provideshigh tensilestrength

• Elastic

– long, thin fibersthat allow forstretch

• Reticular – branched

collagenous fibersthat form delicatenetworks



Types of Connective Tissue

i) Loose Connective Tissue

a) Areolar

– Location

• surrounds capillaries and

distributed under epithelial

– Function

• wraps and cushions organs


• scattered fibers

Loose Connective Tissue

b) Reticular

– Location

• spleen, bone

marrow, and lymph

nodes

– Function

• frame work (stroma)

of various organs


• reticular fibers and

blood cells



Loose Connective Tissue

c) Adipose – Location

• around the heart andkidney, under the skin,posterior portion of theeye

– Function• energy storage, thermal

regulation, support andprotects organs


• Cells with large fat(triglycerides) vacuolesthat push the nuclei tothe periphery

ii) Dense Connective Tissue

a) Dense regular

– Location

• tendons (attach

muscle to bone)

and ligaments

(attach bone to

bone)

– Function

• strong attachment


• collagen fibers in

waves



b) Dense irregular – Location

• dermis of theskin

– Function

• strength andwithstandstension

– Special features• collagen fibers in

waves

Dense Connective Tissue

iii) Elastic Connective Tissue

• Elastic connective

– Location

• elastic artery walls

and lung

– Function

• elasticity


• scattered elastic

fibers



iv) Cartilage

a) Hyaline cartilage

– Location

• trachea, ends of long

bones, tip of the nose

– Function

• supports, cushioning,

and resists stress


• a vast number ofchondrocytes in

lacuna, collagen

Cartilageb) Elastic Cartilage

– Location

• external ear (pinna)

and epiglottis

– Function

• shape and structure


• vast number of

elastic fibers



Cartilage

c) Fibrocartilage

– Location

• intervertebral disc,

pubic symphysis,

discs of knee joint

– Function

• strength and

absorbs shock

– Special features• thick collagen

fibers

v) BONE• Bone

– Location

• skeletal system

(bones)

– Function

• protection,

support, blood

production – Special features

• osteons

(haversion

systems)



Vi) BLOOD

• Blood

– Location

• blood vessels and

heart

– Function

• protection, regulation,

transportation


• red blood cells (RBC),white blood cells

(WBC), plasma

WBC

RBC

Plasma

3-MUSCLE TISSUESa) Skeletal Muscle

– Location

• skeletal system

(gross muscles)

• attached to bone

– Function

• voluntary movement

and generate heat


• striations and

cylindrical fibers



Muscle Tissue

b) Cardiac Muscle – Location

• heart wall

– Function• Pumps blood

through involuntarymovement.

– Special features• striations,

intercalated disc,centralized nuclei,and branches

Muscle Tissuec) Smooth Muscle

– Location• Hallow organs, blood

vessels, andgastrointestinal tract

– Function• involuntary

propulsion(movement) of

substances – Special features

• non-striated fiberswith centralizednuclei



4-NERVOUS TISSUE• Neuron

– Location

• central and

peripheral nervous

system

– Function

• action potential and

nerve impulse


• dendrites, axon, cell

body (soma)

THE SKIN• Epidermis

– the outermost layer of the skin

– It forms the waterproof, protective wrap over thebody's surface and is made up of stratifiedsquamous epithelium



The Skin

• Epidermis

– Stratum corneum(Horny layer)

• keratin

• 25-30 cell layersthick

• top layer of deadcells (dry skin anddandruff)

• provides a durableovercoat forprotection

• Epidermis

– Stratum lucidum

(Clear layer )

• visible in the palms

of our hands and

soles of our feet

(thick skin layers)

The Skin



The Skin

• Epidermis – Stratum granulosum

(Granular layer)• Contain Dying cells

• keratohylinegranules which formkeratin

• contain lamellatedgranules whichcontain awaterproofingglycolipid

The Skin• Epidermis

– Stratum spinosum

(Prickly layer)

• contain

keratinocytes and

Langerhans’ cells

• among the

keratinocytes aremelanin granules



The Skin

• Epidermis

– Stratum basale

(Basal layer) or

stratum

germinativum

• continually

dividing cells

(mitosis)

The Skin• Dermis (composed of two sub-layers)

– One layer of skin beneath the epidermis that

consists of connective tissue and cushions thebody from stress and strain



The Skin

• Dermis – Papillary region (layer)

• contains dermal papillae

• Ridges which form the bases for forming our

fingerprints

Accessory Structures• Meissner’s corpuscles

– in dermal papillae

– touch receptors



Accessory Structures

• Free nerve endings

– in dermal papillae

– pain receptors

The Skin• Dermis

– Reticular region (layer)

• Stretch-recoil properties




• Hair shaft – part of the hair that is above the skin

• Hair root

– part of the hair buried in the follicle under

the skin




• Hair bulb – this area is expanded resembling a bulb

– a knot of sensory nerve endings


• Papilla of hair

– At the base of the follicle is a largestructure that is called the papilla




• Hair follicle – Is part of the skin that grows hair by

packing old cells together


• Arrector pili muscle

– a bundle of smooth muscle cells

– produces goose bumps (raiser of hair)





• Sebaceous (oil) glands

– secrete an oily substance called sebum

Accessory Structures• Sweat (sudoriferous) glands

– two types eccrine and apocrine

– eccrine the most abundant

– eccrine secretes a hypotonic filtrate (sweat) of the

blood



The Skin• Hypodermis or Superficial fascia (not part of the skin,

but shares some of the skins protective properties)

– anchors skin to the underlying structures (mostly muscles)

• subcutaneous tissue mostly composed of adipose cells


• Pacinian corpuscles

– deep pressure receptor

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