bio 211 chapter 18 assignment

8/19/2019 BIO 211 Chapter 18 Assignment

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BIO 211Chapter 18 Assignment

Introduction

A. The cardiovascular system consists of which three components?a. Blood, the heart, and blood vessels

B. Dene Blood –b. A connective tissue consisting of plasma in which various cells

and cell fragments are suspended.. Dene Interstitial fuid –

c. The e!tracellular "uid that directly bathes body cells and isconstantly renewed by the blood.

18.1 Blood contains plasma and formed elements and transportsessential substances through the body.

A. #unctions of blood

Describe the three general functions of blood$

%. Transportation –i. Transports o!ygen from the lungs to cells throughout

the body and carbon dio!ide from body cells to thelungs for e!halation.

ii. arries nutrients from the gastrointestinal tract to bodycells, hormones from endocrine glands to other bodycells, and heat and waste productts away from cells tovarious organs for elimination from the body.

&. 'egulation –

i. Blood helps regulate p( through the use ofbu)ers* chemicals that convert strong acids or basesinto wea+ ones

ii. (elps ad-ust body temp. through the heatabsorbingand coolant properties of the water in blood andblood/s variable rate of "ow through the s+in.

0. 1rotection –i. Blood can clot in response to an in-ury, which

protects against its e!cessive loss from thecardiovascular system.

ii. Blood/s white blood cells protect against disease by

carrying on phagocytosis.

B. 1hysical characteristics of blood

%. (ow does blood compare to water?i. Blood is denser and more thic+er than water, which is part

of the reason it "ows more slower than water.

&. 2hat is the temperature of blood?

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ii. The temperature of blood is 03 *%44 #

0. 2hat is the p( of blood?

iii. Blood has a slightly al+aline p( ranging from 5.06 to 5.767. 2hat is the color of blood?iv. 2hen saturated with o!ygen blood is bright red, when blood

has a low o!ygen content it is dar+ red.

. omponents of blood

%. 2hole blood is composed of$

a. 1lasma *668 – li9uid e!tracellular "uid that containsdissolved substances

b. #ormed elements *768 – cells and cell fragments

%. 'ed blood cells *'Bs

&. 2hite blood cells *2Bs

0. 1latelets

&. Describe the appearance of centrifuged blood, and includea denition

for buy coat .I. #ormed elements * which are more dense sin+ to the

bottom and plasma * which is less dense forms alayer on top. And because they are less dense than

'Bs and 2Bs and platelets form a very thin layercalled the buu coat.

0. 1lasma

a. Dene Plasma Proteins – synthesi:ed mainly by livercells and they are conned to blood.

b. 2hat is the percentage of water in plasma andwater/s function?

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1lasma is about ;%.68 water and water absorbs,transports, and releases heat.

c. 2hat is the percentage of plasma proteins inplasma?

3.68 is solutes%. 2hat is the function of albumins?

(elp maintain proper blood osmotic pressure.&. 2hat is the function of globulins?

ompose defensive proteinsproduced during certain immune

responses.0. 2hat is the function of brinogen?

egative feedbac+ systems

2hat regulates the di)erent types of 2Bs?

hemopoiesis

B. Dene Hemopoiesis (hematopoiesis) –

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2hat is red bone marrow, where is it located and why is itimportant in hemopoiesis?

. Dene Pluripotent Stem Cells – cells that have the ability todevelop into many di)erenttypes of cells

D. 2hat happens to red bone marrow as we age? 'ed bone marrow becomes inactive and is replaced byyellow bone marrow.

. @nderstand the following diagram, which outlines thedevelopment of formed elements.

#. True#alse. All formed elements can divide once they leave redbone marrow. false

. Describe what the following hormones *hemopoietic growthfactors do.

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%. rythropoietin *1C – increases the number of 'Bprecursors

&. Thrombopoietin –stimulates the formation of platelets frommega+aryocytes

0. yto+ines – stimulate white blood cell formation

18.3 ature red blood cells are biconca!e cells containing

hemoglobin.

A. Dene Hemoglobin – o!ygencarrying protein which gives wholeblood its red color.

B. (ow many 'Bsµ of blood in a healthy adult male? A healthyadult female?

A healthy male has about 6.7 million 'Bs per microliterand women have 7.3 million.

. 'B anatomy

%. Describe the anatomy *appearance, organelles, contents,membrane, etc. of erythrocytes *mature 'Bs.Bioconcave discs that lac+ a nucleus and other organellesand can/t reproduce or carry on e!tensive metabolicactivities. The 'B plasma membrane is both strong and"e!ible, which allows the cell to deform without rupturingas they s9uee:e through narrow capillaries.

D. 'B physiology

%. 2hat is a main function of 'Bs and how do theirstructures ma!imi:e this function? 'Bs are highlyspecili:ed for o!ygen transportation. Because of themhaving no nucleus, all of their internal space is avalible totransport o!ygen molecules.

&. Describe the structure of hemoglobin including globin,heme, iron, etc.

• A hemoglobin molecule consists of a protein calledcalled globin, composed of four poEypeptidechainsE aringli+e nonprotein called a heme is bound to each of the four chains. At the center of the ring is an ironion that can combine reversably with one o!ygen

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molecule, allowing each hemoglobin molecule tobind four o!ygwn molecules.

0. (ow is o!ygen transported with hemoglobin? An iron ion that can combine reversably with oneo!ygen molecule, allowing each hemoglobin moleculeto bind four o!ygwn molecules

7. (ow is carbon dio!ide transported with hemoglobin? Blood "owing through the tissue capillaries pic+s

up carbon dio!ide, some of which combines withamino acids in the globin part of hemoglobin.

18." #ed blood cells ha!e a life cycle of 12$ days.

A. 2hy do 'Bs only live about %&4 days?

B. @se the gure below to describe the steps involved in theformation and destruction of 'Bs.

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*%macrophages in the spleen, liver,and red marrow phagocyti:eruptured and wornout 'Bs split apart the globin and hemeportions of hemoglobin.

*&globin is bro+en down into amino acids, which can be reused bybody cells to synthesi:e other proteins.

*0iron removed from the heme portion associates w the plasma

protein transferrin, a transporter for iron in the bloodstream.

*7the transferrin comple! is then carried to red bone marrow, where'B precursors use it in hemeglobin synthesis.

*6within red bone marrow, 'B production releases 'Bs into thecirculation.

*=when iron is removed from heme, the noniron portion of heme isconverted to biliverden , and then into bilirubin. Bilirubin enters bloodand its transported to the liver within the liver, bilirubin is secreted byliver cells into bile which passes through the intestines.

*5in the large intestine, bacteria convert bilirubin into urobilinogen.Fome is turned into urobilin and e!creted in the urine most is eliminated inthe feces in the form of brown pigment called stercobolin.

18.% &rythropoiesis is the process of red blood cell formation.

A. Dene Erythropoiesis – the process of red blood cell formation

B. Describe the process of erythropoiesis beginning with theproerythroblast and including reticulocyte.

The proerythroblast divides several times, producing cellsthat begin to synthesise hemoglobin. @ltimately, a cell nearthe end of the development se9uence e-ects its nucleus andbecomes a reticulocyte.

. 2hat is a reticulocyte count and what information does itprovide? Gt is how the rate of erythropoeisis is measured and thisinformation can tell if a person is anemic or recovering and ifan athelete is ta+ing epoetin alfa which is illegal.

D. Dene Hypoia and give e!amples of why this might occur.• ellular o!ygen deciency

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• #or e!ample the lower o!ygen content of air at highaltitudes reduces the level of o!ygen in the blood

. @nderstand and be able to e!plain the negative feedbac+ systemthat

regulates erythropoiesis as shown below.

18.' Blood is categori(ed into groups based on surface antigens.

A. Dene !ntigens (agglutinogens) – based on the presence orabsence of various characteristic combinations, blood is catagori:edinto di)erent blood groups.

B. 2here are antigens located? The surface of erythrocytes

. 2hat is the di)erence between blood groups and blood types? There are at least &7 blood groups, and more than %44antigens that can be detected on the surface of 'Bs.

D. ABC blood group

%. The ABC blood group is based on which two antigens? A and B&. Dene !ntibodies (agglutinins) –

'eact with the A or B antigens if the two aremi!ed

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0. 2here are antibodies located? Gnside your plasma

7. 2hy don/t the antibodies in your blood attac+ your 'Bs? Gf you are a certain type then your body has thattype of antigens on your 'Bs.

. Transfusions

%. Dene "rans#usion –the transfer of whole blood or bloodcomponets into the bloodstream

&. 2hat is agglutination and what causes this to occur? lumping of donated 'Bs

0. 2hy can agglutination lead to death?


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Characteristic Blood )ypeA

Blood)ype B

Blood )ypeAB

Blood )ypeO

Antigen on #BC A B Both A andB

*either anor B

Antibody inplasma

Anti+B Anti+A *either Anor B

Both Anti+Aand Anti+B

Compatible

donor bloodtypes

A, O B, O A, B, AB, O O

Incompatibledonor bloodtypes

B, AB A, AB +++ A, B, AB

#. 'h blood group

%. Gndividuals whose 'Bs have 'h antigens arenamedHHHHHHHHH'hIHHHHHHHHHHH

Gndividuals whose 'Bs lac+ 'h antigens are namedHHHH'h HHHHHHHHH

&. >ormally plasma does not contain anti'h antibodies,therefore, why might a person ma+e anti'h antibodies?

Gf the immune system starts to ma+e anti'h antibodiesthat will remain in the blood. 0. 2hat is hemolytic disease of the newborn?

2hen a 'h woman is carrying an 'hI fetus and themothers antibodies try to attac+ and +ill the fetus.

. Typing and crossmatching blood for transfusion

onsider the following results from a blood typing procedure.

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%. 2hat is the blood type shown? Type B

&. 2hat antigen*s, if any, are present on the 'Bmembrane?

B

0. 2hat antibody*ies, if any, are present in this type ofblood? AntiA

7. 2hat is the preferred blood donor for this blood type?

A B AB C

18.- hite blood cells combat in/ammation and infection

A. Dene %eu&ocytes – a white blood cell

B. (ow do 'Bs and 2Bs di)er?• They have nuclei and a full complament of other

orgenelles and do not contain hemoglobin

. 2hat is the di)erence between granular and agranularclassications of 2Bs?

• Depending on whether they contain cytoplamic granules*vesicles made visible by staining when viewed through a

light micrscope.

D. 2B types

Describe each of the following types of leu+ocytes using thepictures below. Jnow which categories they belong to *agranularv. granular.

%. ranular leu+ocytes

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a. >eutrophil

ranular• The granules are smaller, evenly distributed and a pale

lilac in coloring.• The nucleus has & to 6 lobes connected by very thin

strands og nuclear material.• As a cell ages the number of lobes increases

b. osinophil – ranular

• The granules usually do not cover or obscure thenucleus

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• The nucleus is round or slightly endented

• The cytoplasm forms a rim around the nucleus

• an be as small as =; um or as large as %4%7 um

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movement through the capillary wall and into the interstitial "uidof the in-ured tissue.

&. >eutrophils and macrophages carry out phagocytosis.Dene Chemotais – a chemical released by microbes andin"amed tissues that attract phagocytosis.

0. >eutrophils

2hat do neutrophils release after engulng a pathogenduring phagocytosis and what do these chemicals do? These chemicals include lyso:yme, which destroys certainbacteria and strong o!idants, such as hydrogen pero!ide.

7. osinophils

2hat specic problems do eosinophils combat and how? They are believed to release en:ymes, such ashistaminase, that combat the e)ects of histamine and

other substances involved in in"ammation during allergicreactions.

6. Basophils

2hat do basophils release and why? 'elease heparin,histamine,and serotonin. These substances intensify thein"ammatory reaction and are also involved inhypersensitivity *allergic reactions.

=. ymphocytes

2hat are the functions of the following$

a. B cells particularly e)ective in destroying bacteriaand inactivating their to!ins.

b. T cells –attac+ viruses, fungi, transplanted cells,cancer cells and some bacteria, and areresponsible for transfusion reactions,

allergies, and the re-ection of transplantedorgans.

c. >aural +iller cells – attac+ a wide variety ofinfectious microbes andcertain tumor cells.

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Ta+e longer to reach site of infection than neutrophils, butthey arrive in large numbers and destroy more microbes.@pon their arrival monocytes enlarge and di)erentiate intowandering macrophages, which clean up cellular debrisandmicrobes by phagocytosis after an infection.

#. 2B life span

2Bs can live a few hours to years depending on conditions.

'Bs outnumber 2Bs by 544$%. 2Bsµ of blood is normally6,444%4,444.

%. Dene %eu&openia – an abnormally low level of white bloodcells

&. Dene %eu&ocytosis – an increase in number of 2Bsabove %4,444 u

0. Dene 'ierential hite Blood Cell Count – a count of eachof the ve di)erent 2Bs.

7. omplete the following table to understand thesignicance of high and low 2B counts.

BC )ype High count mayindicate

0o count mayindicate

*eutrophils Bacterial infection,burns, stress,in/ammation

#adiation eposure,drug toicity, !itaminB12 deciency,systematic lupuserythematosus450&6

0ymphocytes 7iral infections, someleuemias

9rolonged illness,immunosuppression,treatment ithcortisol

onocytes 7iral or fungalinfections,tuberculosis, someleuemias, otherchronic diseases

Bone marrosuppression,treatment ithcortisol

&osinophils Allergic reactions,parasitic infections,

autoimmune diseases

:rug toicity, stress

Basophils Allergic reactions,leuemias, cancers,hyperthyroidism

9regnancy,o!ulation,stress,hyperthyroidism

18.8 9latelets reduce blood loss from damaged !essels

A. Describe how "hrombocytes *platelets are formed?

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B. 2hat are two functions of platelets?

%. 2hen blood vessels are damaged, platelets help stop bloodloss by forming a platelet plug that lls the gap in the blood vesselwall.

&.ontain a chemical that promotes blood clotting

18.; Hemostasis is the se


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Gnitially, platelets contact and stic+ to parts oa a damaged bloodvessel, such as collagen bers of the connective tissueunderlying the damaged endothelial cells.

*& 1latelet release reaction –

Due to adhesion, platelets e!tend many pro-ections that enablethem to contact and interact with one another, and theybegin to liberate the contents of their vesicles.

*0 1latelet aggregation

The release of platelet chemicals ma+es other plateles in thearea stic+y and the stic+iness of the newly recruited andactivated platelets causes them to stic+ to the originallyactivated platelets,

Dene Platelet Plug –the accumulation and attachment of largenumbers of platets to form a mass.

#. Blood clottingLblood that is withdrawn from the body thatthic+ens and forms a gel. That gel separatesfrom the li9uid and a straw colored li9uid called

serum is made.

%. 2hat happens to blood if it is withdrawn from the body?

&. Dene Serum –plasma minus the clotting protein

0. Dene Clot –consists of a networ+ of insoluble proteinbers

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7. Dene Coagulation *clotting –the process of gel formation

6. Dene "hrombosis – blood clotting too easily

=. @se the gure below to describe the three stages ofclotting$

*%1rothrombinase

*&Thrombin

*0Ftabili:ed brin threads

5. The e!trinsic pathway

Describe the e!trinsic pathway, including how 9uic+ly it isactivated.

Cnce prothrombinase is formed, the steps involved in thene!t & stages of clotting are the same for both thee!trinsic and intrinsic pathways and together these &

stages are re)ered to as the common pathway.

3. The intrinsic pathway

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Describe the intrinsic pathway, including how 9uic+ly it isactivated.

Gt is named because a tissue protein called tissue factorlea+s into the blood from damaged tissue cellsoutside*intrinsic to the blood vessels. Tissue factorbegins a se9uence of reactions re9uiring calcium ions andseveral clotting factors that eventually form prothrombinase.

;. The common pathway

2hat mar+s the beginning of the common pathway? The formation of prothrobinaseDescribe the two positive feedbac+ loops that thrombin

a)ects?

a.thrombin accelarates the formation of prothrombinase

b.thrombin activates platelets

%4. lot retraction and blood vessel repair

a. Dene Clot *etraction – the consolidation ortightening of the brin clot.

. (emostatic control mechanisms

%. Fmall blood clots form throughout the day. (ow are theseclots dissolved *what is the name of the process?

brinolysis

&. 2hat are plasminogen and plasmin and why are theyimportant?

1lasminogen in an inactive plasma en:yme incorporatedinto the clot and once both blood and tissue thatcontain substances that can turn plasminogen to plasminwhich can dissolve the clot.

0. Dene anticoagulants and give an e!ample.Fubstances that suppress or preven clotting. !. heparin

(. lotting in blood vessels

%. Dene "hrombosis – clotting in an unbro+en blood vessel

&. Dene "hrombus – the clot itself

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0. Dene Embolus – a blood clot, bubble of air, fat frombro+en bones, or a piece of debris

7. Dene Pulmonary Embolism – when an embolus lodges inthe lungs

6. 2hat is ar#arin and how does it wor+? Acts as anantagonist to vitamin J and thus bloc+s synthesis of four

clotting factors.

=. 2hat is DTA used for and how does it wor+? thylenediamine tetraacetic acid is a substance that removesa&I.

CO*C&9) =>&5)IO*5 4page '"1 in tetboo6

%. 2hat would happen if a person with type B blood were given atransfusion of type C blood?

Gt woud be ne since type C is the universal donor

&. Gn regions where malaria is endemic, some people build up immuneresistance to the malaria pathogen. 2hich 2Bs are responsible forthe immune response against pathogens? (ow do they function?osinophils phagocyti:e antigenantibody comple!es and are e)ectiveagainst certain parasitic worms.

0. 2hy are platelets not called blood cells?Because they are -ust splinters of huge cells.

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bio 211 chapter 18 assignment

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