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Bhutan State of the environment report 2016
National Environment CommissionRoyal Government of Bhutan
2016
Bhutan State of the Environment Report 2016 Coordinated and Edited by: Chencho Norbu, Secretary, NECS Karma C. Nyedrup, Environment Specialist, NECS Thinley Namgyel, Chief, CCD, NECS Tshewang Dorji, Dy. CEO, CCD, NECS Tshering Tashi, Communication Officer, NECS Sonam Dagay, Asst. Environment Officer, CCD, NECS BSER 2016 Drafting Team and Contributing Authors: Karma C. Nyedrup, Environment Specialist, NEC Thinley Namgyel, Chief, CCD, NECS Jigme Nidup, Dy. CEO, WRCD, NECS Tshewang Dorji, Dy. CEO, CCD, NECS Sonam L. Khandu, Dy. CEO, CCD, NECS Karma Tshering, Sr. Program Officer, PPS, NECS Sonam Choden, Sr. Forestry Officer, WMD, DOFPS Jigme Dorji, Sr. Biodiversity Officer, NBC, MoAF Tshering Tashi, Communication Officer, NECS Sonam Dagay, Asst. Environment Officer, CCD, NECS Karma Yangzom, Asst. Land Record Officer, NLC Rinzin Namgay, ICT, NECS Design and Layout: Tshering Tashi, Communication Officer, NECS Published by: National Environment Commission Royal Government of Bhutan Post Box # 466 Thimphu, Bhutan Tel: +975 – 2 – 323384/324325 Fax: +975 – 2- 323385 www.nec.gov.bt ISBN # 978-99936-865-5-2 © National Environment Commission, 2016
Contents Preface ......................................................................................................................... 1 Foreword ...................................................................................................................... 2 Executive Summary ...................................................................................................... 3 1. Background to the National Environment report ................................................... 6
1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 6 1.2 State of the Environment reporting .......................................................................... 6 1.3 Process .................................................................................................................... 7 1.4 Methodology ........................................................................................................... 7
2. Physical features ................................................................................................... 82.1 Geography ............................................................................................................... 8 2.2 Climate .................................................................................................................... 8
3. Demography and socio-economic development ..................................................... 83.1 Demography ............................................................................................................ 8 3.2 Poverty .................................................................................................................... 8 3.3 Socioe-conomic development ....................................................................................9 3.4 Industries ................................................................................................................. 9 3.5 Energy ................................................................................................................... 10 3.6 Urbanization .......................................................................................................... 10 3.7 Migration ............................................................................................................... 11 3.8 Tourism ................................................................................................................. 12 3.9 Transport ............................................................................................................... 12 3.10 Health services and infrastructure .......................................................................... 12
4. Land .................................................................................................................... 134.1 Pressure ................................................................................................................. 13 4.2 State ...................................................................................................................... 22 4.3 Impact ................................................................................................................... 28 4.4 Response ............................................................................................................... 30 4.5 Recommendations .................................................................................................. 30
5. Water .................................................................................................................. 325.1 Pressure ................................................................................................................. 32 5.2 State ...................................................................................................................... 33 5.3 Impact ................................................................................................................... 36 5.4 Response ............................................................................................................... 37 5.5 Recommendations ................................................................................................. 38
6. Air ....................................................................................................................... 396.1 Pressure ................................................................................................................. 39 6.2 State ...................................................................................................................... 43 6.3 Impact ................................................................................................................... 46 6.4 Response ............................................................................................................... 46 6.5 Recommendations ................................................................................................. 47
7. Biodiversity... ...................................................................................................... 497.1 Pressure ................................................................................................................. 49 7.2 State ...................................................................................................................... 50 7.3 Impact ................................................................................................................... 53 7.4 Response ............................................................................................................... 55
7.5 Recommendations ................................................................................................. 57 8. Cross-cutting issues: Waste Management .................................................. .........58
8.1 Pressure ................................................................................................................. 58 8.2 State ...................................................................................................................... 58 8.3 Impact ................................................................................................................... 60 8.4 Response ............................................................................................................... 61 8.5 Recommendations ................................................................................................. 61
9. Cross-cutting issues: Climate Change.......... .......................................................... 639.1 Pressure ................................................................................................................. 63 9.2 State ...................................................................................................................... 63 9.3 Impact ................................................................................................................... 63 9.4 Response ............................................................................................................... 65 9.5 Recommendations ................................................................................................. 67
10. Implementation of Recommendations in Bhutan Environment Outlook 2008 ..... I
10.1 Land .......................................................................................................................... I 10.2 Water ..................................................................................................................... VI 10.3 Air .......................................................................................................................... IX 10.4 Biodiversity ........................................................................................................... XIII 10.5 General Recommendations .................................................................................... XV
Annexure I: DPSIR Framework ...................................................................................... I Annexure II: Policy Responses ..................................................................................... IV Annexure III: Recommendation of Waste Management Conference ........................... VII Annexure IV: Waste Management in Thimphu City ................................................... VIII Annexure V: Ecological footprint of Bhutan Report 2014 ............................................. IX References.................................................................................................................... 1 Acronyms and Glossary of Bhutanese Terms ................................................................. 4
Preface
The Bhutan State of the Environment Report 2016 is the third edition of the periodic reports on Bhutan’s state of the environment (SOE). The National Environment Commission and its Secretariat are mandated to publish periodic SOE reports to provide environmental information to the citizens of Bhutan. The SOE report provides information on the current state and trends in Bhutan’s environment, the underlying causes of environmental change and the responses to such changes.
This Bhutan State of the Environment Report has been prepared by the National Environment Commission Secretariat with support from relevant stakeholders, through a consultative and review process. The report covers four thematic areas of land, water, air and biodiversity, while waste management and climate change has been considered as cross cutting issues. Each of these themes are described using the framework of drivers, pressures, state, impact and response (DPSIR) and is based on published information and data collected from various organizations.
The information in the SOE report aims to improve the understanding of environment and sustainable development issues and for informed decision-making. As a result, this report supports the government and citizens in their respective constitutional responsibilities in environmental conservation while pursuing justifiable socio-economic development and ultimately for the wellbeing of the Bhutanese people.
Chencho Norbu Secretary
Foreword
Conservation of environment has always played a central role in Bhutan’s approach to economic development. Concern for our natural environment and heritage is embedded in the development philosophy of Gross National Happiness guided by the enlightened and visionary leadership of our beloved Monarchs.
The health of our environment has a direct link and bearing on the quality of life and economy for present and future generations. The natural environment provides many essential ecosystem services that we take for granted, such as clean air & water, and natural resources required for sustainable development. It is because of this critical role of our natural environment and the fragile mountainous situation of our country, that under the Article 5 of the Constitution of Bhutan, environmental stewardship is the duty of every Bhutanese and also a mandate for the government.
With the continuing rapid pace of socio-economic development, there are emerging challenges for our environmental obligations in the government’s constitutional mandate to “secure ecologically balanced sustainable development, while promoting justifiable economic and social development”. Periodic reporting on the state of the environment informs our citizens and also helps the government in this mandate by identifying emerging issues and recommending effective actions.
Bhutan’s first State of the Environment report was prepared in 2001, followed by the second edition in 2008. The third edition of the State of the Environment is timely and will inform citizens on the present state of the environment and also help planners to integrate environmental concerns in developing the 12th Five Year Plan.
I urge all relevant stakeholders, government and non-government, civil society organizations, academia, private sector and citizens to actively take part in the implementation of recommendations highlighted in this report for the benefit of present and future generations.
Lyonpo Yeshey Dorji Vice Chair of NEC and
Minister for Agriculture and Forests
Executive Summary
The country today has 80.89% of total land area under forest cover and more than half of the country’s landscape (51.40%) is under protected areas. Nonetheless, the state of Bhutan’s environment has been changing over time due to population growth and economic development. The pressures on environment are directly proportional to the number of people dependent on natural resources. Bhutan’s population is estimated to be 757,042 in 2015.
Economic developments also exert pressure on the environment. According to the International Monetary Fund, Bhutan was recognized as the 4th fastest growing economy in the world in 2012. The country’s Gross Domestic Product per capita has been increasing. Bhutan’s GDP per capita in 2014 was USD 2,611.7.
Land: The conversion of arable land and forests into other land uses is increasing at an alarming rate. The pressure is mostly from accelerated construction of farm roads, electricity transmission/distribution lines, industries and urbanization. There are also emerging signs of forest degradations within the 80.89 % forest cover area. Forest management units (FMUs) are areas designated for scientifically managed timber production. Some report suggest FMUs are being overharvested. More alarmingly, supply of timber and fuel wood are much higher from forests falling outside of FMUs, indicating that there is overall, very high pressure on the forests and its resources. Pressures in critical watersheds and water sources are also likely to impact water supply. These impacts are compounded by rapid and poor road construction methods that are not only triggering numerous surface runoffs and landslides in geologically fragile areas but are also opening previously inaccessible forest areas and watersheds to exploitation.
Land cover map of 2011 reported the operated agriculture land at 2.93 %. This prime agricultural land (especially paddy fields) is under increasing pressure from growth in existing urban areas and creation of new urban settlements. In contrast, agricultural lands in rural areas are increasingly being left fallow due to rural urban migration. Such pressures and impacts on agricultural land have a huge implication on the food and nutrition security of the country.
A few pressures on the land appear to be diminishing gradually. The population of free grazing cattle and yaks are seen to be diminishing gradually over the past decade. This trend suggests a decline in the pressure on land from grazing. While the per capita consumption of fuel wood (1.2metric tons/year) is one of the highest in the world, the consumption of fuel wood appears to be decreasing slowly, indicating signs of reducing pressure on forests from household energy needs.
Water: Although Bhutan has one of the highest per capita water resource availability in the world with 94,500 m3/capita/annum, its imbalance geographical and temporal distributions is leading to experience of shortages in local areas (NEC, 2016). Adverse impact of climate change is further aggravating water problem for agriculture. Water quality is deteriorating in and around the urban areas.
The Bhutan Water Security Index (BWSI) developed in 2015 has five key dimensions, each with set of indicators. The five key dimensions are 1) Rural drinking water supply, sanitation and hygiene, 2) Economic water supply for agriculture, industries and hydropower, 3) Urban water supply,
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sanitation and drainage, 4) Environmental water security, and 5) Disaster and climate change resilience.
BWSI should be adopted as a Key Result Area of successive Five Year Plan. This will help in mainstreaming water into sectoral plans, programs and project. River Basin Committees (RBCs) should be established in all major river basins with the view to prepare River Basin Management Plan (RBMP). RBMP should ensure coordinated development and management of water resources in the country to improve water security.
Air: Air pollution is becoming one of the emerging issues that have serious risk to human and environment health. Its quality is deteriorating, particularly in urban centers, industrial area and along the southern border of the country. Emission of greenhouse gases, which contributes to global climate change, is also on the rise.
The air pollution from domestic sources can be controlled by enhancing appropriate existing air quality related standard to more stringent level and strengthening its enforcement. Policies and incentives on the import of vehicles need to be harmonized. Trans-boundary air pollution and its impact can be controlled by strengthening regional cooperation.
Biodiversity: The total land area under Protected Areas is 16,396.4 km2, accounting to 51.40 % of the country. There are 24 threatened mammal species of which one is critically endangered, 11 endangered, 12 vulnerable. In terms of avifauna, 18 threatened species are found of which four are critically endangered and 14 vulnerable. There are 182 species of butterflies categorized as rare and threatened species (IUCN, 2016). The total of 10,231 Ha land area are under high altitude wetland/marshes. However, engagement in the illegal logging and poaching activities are increasing.
Biodiversity management can be improved by incorporating it in the environmental assessment process. Maintaining certain percentage of water flow as environmental flow (e-flow) in the river system at all time will also help in sustaining aquatic life. In addition list of flora, fauna and invasive alien species should be updated periodically. Protected areas should also be physically demarcated by the end of the 11th FYP.
Waste Management: Waste management is the major emerging environmental issue for Bhutan. Poor waste management practices threaten public health and natural environment such as pollution of water, air and emission of Greenhouse gases. According to the first National Solid Waste Survey in the urban areas in 2008; organic waste constitutes more than half of municipal waste characteristics. Medical facilities, industries and used electronic items are contributing to increasing amount of hazardous waste.
There is a need to provide adequate financial, technical and capacity building support to the implementing and collaborating agencies for effective implementation of Waste Prevention and Management Act, 2009 and its Regulation 2014. Implementing and collaborating agencies should prepare and implement action plan towards attaining "Zero Waste through maximizing resource recovery for creating sustainable waste management systems and protect the natural unique ecology of Bhutan” as reflected in the NISWM, 2014.The government should continue to encourage and incentivize private entities in carrying out waste management initiatives.
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dependence of the population on agriculture and the significant role of hydropower for economic development increases the vulnerability. Bhutan also faces increasing threats from climate hazards and extreme events such as flash floods, glacial lake outburst floods (GLOF), windstorms, forest fires and landslides.
Developing a climate change policy and a long term comprehensive strategy will be useful to address adaptation, mitigation and means of implementing climate actions. The strategy should also look at ways to integrate climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction, mitigation with health, gender and cross cutting issues. Better coordination among institutions is essential to improve effectiveness of accessing climate finance. Information on climate finance sources should be made available by the various focal agencies to sectors and other implementers. Improving research capacity within institution and empowering local experts, especially Royal University of Bhutan (RUB), would help by providing scientific basis for climate actions.
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Climate Change: Bhutan is highly vulnerable to the adverse impacts of climate change. In addition to being a land locked and least developed country with a fragile mountainous environment, high
1. Background to the National Environment report
1.1 Introduction Environmental conservation has always played a central role in Bhutan’s socio-economic development. Benefits of our conservation action extend beyond national boundaries and help to ensure inter-generational equity of Bhutanese and the global community. Bhutan’s unwavering commitment to environmental conservation has been recognized globally and is widely regarded as a bastion for conservation in the 21st century.
Bhutan is one of the few countries in the world that enshrines environmental conservation in its Constitution. Article 5 of the Constitution of the Kingdom of Bhutan reflects commitment to secure ecologically balanced sustainable development while promoting justifiable socio-economic development.
The 11th Five Year Plan (2013- 2018) of Bhutan is developed on the concept of ‘green’ plan creating a ‘green’ mindset and attitude in order to prioritize environment management and reduction of greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) and pollution.
Today, 70.46% of total land area remains under forest cover. More than half of the country’s landscape (51.40%) is protected area made up by the five national parks, four wildlife sanctuaries, strict nature reserve and biological corridors (MoAF, 2009; NSB, 2015).
Bhutan declared to remain carbon neutral at the 15th Conference of Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 2009 in Copenhagen, Denmark. In addition, the Intended Nationally Determined Contribution (INDC) submitted in September 2015 towards finalization of Paris Agreement further re-iterated Bhutan’s pledge to remain carbon neutral.
The National Environment Commission (NEC) released the first Bhutan Environment Outlook Report (BEO) in 2008. The BEO 2008 provided inputs towards the formulation of 11th FYP. The National Environment Commission Secretariat (NECS) periodically produce status report on the environmental condition in the country in accordance with the mandate under the National Environment Protection Act of Bhutan, 2007 (NEPA). Henceforth periodic report will be called the Bhutan State of the Environment Report (BSER).
The aim of BSER 2016 is to report on current status of the environmental condition and inform decision makers on environmental issues in relation to relevant socio-economic development activities.
1.2 State of the Environment reporting The BSER 2016 is part of the periodic assessment of the environmental conditions and trends. Following are the key elements in the reporting process:
• Analyze current environmental issues;• Provide objective, scientific information about the current conditions and prospects of the
environment;• Raise awareness on current state of the environment;• Provide vital environmental information for informed decision-making;
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• Enhance effective management of the environment;• Take stock of the implementation of recommendations in BEO 2008; and• Make recommendations for strengthening enforcement and implementation of
environmental policies, plans and programmes.
1.3 Process The BSER was formulated in a participatory and consultative manner throughout the process. Various stakeholders from governmental and non-governmental organizations including Civil Society Organizations were involved.
1.4 Methodology Integrated Environment Assessment Training Manual, produced by the UNEP, served as overall guidance for the preparation of this report. The report is divided into three parts. Part one (Section one to three) contains information on National Environment Reporting Process and Overview of the national context including demography and socioeconomic development as drivers. Part two (Section four to nine) of the report examine the state and trends of the ecosystem in an integrated manner using the Driver-Pressure-State-Impact-Response (DPSIR) framework (refer Annexure I, DPSIR Framework) and Part three (Section 10) take stock of the implementation status of the recommendation from BEO, 2008.
Figure 1 Altitude Zones of Bhutan
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2. Physical features
2.1 Geography Bhutan is a small, landlocked country with an area of 38,394 Km2 situated on the southern slope of the Eastern Himalayas, bordering China to the North and India to its South, East and West. The country is almost entirely mountainous with altitudes ranging from 150 to 7,500 masl. The dominant topographic features are the high Himalayas in the north with snowcapped peaks and alpine pastures, north–south valleys and ranges forming watersheds, deep valleys created by fast-flowing rivers, rugged foothills, and alluvial plains with broad river valleys.
2.2 Climate Bhutan has three climatic zones as shown below in Table 1:
Bhutan receives about 70% of the precipitation during monsoons while pre-monsoon accounts to 20%. The annual precipitation ranges widely in various parts of the country. The northern region gets about 40 mm of annual precipitation, mostly in the form of snow. The temperate central valley gets a yearly average of about 1,000 mm of rainfall while the southern region gets about 1,500 mm of rainfall annually (NEC, 2011). The monsoons last from late June through late September.
3. Demography and socio-economic development
3.1 Demography Bhutan is one of the least populated countries in Asia with an estimated population of 757,042 in 2015. When population is classified by three broad age groups, children under the age of 14 years constitute 31.4%, which is the largest proportion of the total population in 2008 (based on the population and housing census of Bhutan). This is projected to decline to 22.8% by 2030. The proportion of population above the age of 65 years was estimated at 4.76% in 2008 and projected to reach 6.55% by 2030. Aging index, that is the ratio of old age persons above age 65+ to every hundred children below age 15, was 15.1% in 2008 and projected an increase to 28.7% by 2030 (PHCB 2005).
3.2 Poverty Poverty is measured by two indicators of food and non-food consumption level (NSB, 2007). A single national food poverty line and single non-food allowance are computed based on monthly
Table 1: Climatic Zones of Bhutan (SNC, NEC, 2011) Belt Physical
features Altitude Climatic characteristic Temperature
Southern belt
Himalayan foothills
150 m – 2,000 m Subtropical climate High humidity and heavy rainfall
15oC – 30oC all year round.
Central belt River valleys 2,000 m – 4,000 m Cool winters, hot summers and moderate rainfall.
15oC – 26oC (June – September) and-4oC – 15oC (winter season).
Northern belt
Snowcapped peaks and alpine meadows
above 4,000 m Cold winter and cool summer
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per capita levels. Table 2 shows the change in the poverty lines from 2007 to 2012. The proportion of total population living below the poverty line has decreased from 23.2% to 12% during the period.
3.3 Socioeconomic development The country’s economic sector is divided into three sectors; primary consisting of agriculture and mining, secondary constitutes manufacturing, electricity, water and construction sectors and tertiary sectors comprises of service sectors (NSB, 2015). In 2014/15, the tertiary sector recorded a sharp increase in real growth, from 0.3% in 2013 to 8.9% in 2014 (RMA, 2015).
The International Monetary Fund (IMF) in 2012 recognized Bhutan as the fourth fastest growing economy in the world (RGoB, 2013). Bhutan’s GDP per capita in 2014 increased to USD 2,611.7 from USD 2,463.8 in 2013, and GDP growth rate at constant price dropped from 11.7% in 2010/11 to 5.5% in 2014/15 (RMA, 2015).
3.4 Industries The major industrial activities include mining, manufacturing, whole sale and retail trade and other service industries. There were 69,847 industrial establishments as of 2014 (NSB, 2015) figure 3. The manufacturing sector consists of wood based, agro-based, and mineral-based industries and accounted to 8.12% of GDP in 2014 while employing 7% of the total employed population. Mining and quarrying activities accounted to 2.83% to the GDP, contributing to 0.9% employment in the same year (NSB, 2015).
Table 2: Overall Poverty line (in Nu. per person per month) Source: NSB, 2007 & 2013 Poverty Parameter 2007 2012
Food poverty line 688.96 1154.74 Non-food allowance 407.98 550.10
Overall national poverty line 1,096.94 1704.84
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1015202530354045
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
Perc
enta
ge
Primary Secondary Tertairy 0 10000 20000 30000
2010
Figure 3 Types of Industries (2010 – 2014). Source: NSB, 2015
Figure 2 Share of major economic sectors to GDP. (Source: NSB, 2015)
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3.5 Energy Biomass (firewood, biogas & briquettes) dominates (36% equal to 234,369 TOE in 2014) total energy (650,372 TOE) consumption in the country. Use of other fuels are also growing. According to National Accounts Statistics 2015, fuel imports grew on average by 9.19% from 2011 to 2014, of which diesel constitutes 80%. Bhutan imported 1.17 million kilo liters of fuels in 2014 with a slight decline from 1.22 million kilo liters in 2013.
Hydropower sector has been one of the main drivers of the country’s economy contributing to 14.13% of the country’s GDP in 2014. In 2014, the total electricity generation was 7,164.16 million unit as shown in figure 4. Electricity is the main energy source for lighting for 88% of households (NSB, 2012).
The country has a theoretical hydropower potential of 30,000 MW out of which 23,765 MW has been found to be techno-economically feasible. The total installed capacity of hydropower plants is 1,488 MW (DGPC, 2016).
The domestic per capita electricity consumption increased to 2,798.8 units in 2014 from 2,392.9 units 2009/10. This is mainly attributed to accelerated rural electrification program.
3.6 Urbanization Although, 55% of Bhutan’s population reside in rural areas, (DoL 2014), the pace of urbanization is accelerating. Only 5% of the total population was estimated to live in urban areas in 1980. This increased to 15% in 1994 and 30.8% in 2005. The western region which includes the capital city
Image 1: Pasakha Industrial Area. Photo: Thinley Namgyel.
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(Thimphu) ranks the highest in terms of urban population (65.1%) and the central western ranks the lowest (7.1%).
3.7 Migration Poverty, drudgery of rural life and the perception of better economic prospects in the urban areas have led to rural-urban migration as shown in figure 5. Poverty Analysis Report (PAR) 2007 points out that incidences of poverty is less than 2% in the urban area vis-a-vis 23.2% in rural area. The Rapid Impact Assessment of Rural Development (Planning Commission, 2007), also indicated that accessibility to services that could support income generation was only 16% in the rural areas.
Figure 5 Reasons for migration in percent. Source: PHCB, 2005
4675
1798
368
197
109
17
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Million UnitFigure 4 Electricity generation by hydropower
stations, 2014 (Source: NSB, 2015)
31.50%
17%15%
11%
10%
7%
3.40%7%
Family moves EmploymentEducation and Training MarriageTransfer of work visitorsResettlement Others
Image 2: Traffic along Changlam in Thimphu. Photo: Thinley Namgyel, 2016 11
3.8 Tourism Revenue generation from the tourism sector has increased to USD 73 million in 2014 from USD two million in late 1980’s. About one-third of visitor in 2015 were international tourists (dollar paying) and rest were regional tourists (NSB, 2015).
3.9 Transport Road is the main transport system. The number of vehicles have been increasing at an average of 8.8% for the period 2008 to 2015. As of April 2016, there were 77,813 registered vehicles (RSTA, 2016).
Air transport was introduced in 1983 with links to neighboring countries through national airline (Druk Air). Private airline (Bhutan Airlines), joined the national carrier in November 2011. Domestic airline service was introduced in December 2011, operating on Paro - Bumthang, Yonphula – Gelephu route. Recently, a helicopter service was also introduced.
3.10 Health services and infrastructure The health system network comprises of 31 hospitals, 215 BHUs and 562 outreach clinics. The number of health workers doubled between 2010 and 2014. The ratio of doctors to population for every 10,000 persons improved from 2.7 in 2010 to 3.3 in 2014 (NSB, 2015). 90% of the population has access to basic health care services.
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Irrigated terraced paddy fields at Tsirang. Photo: Chencho Norbu
1. Land
Pressure on the land is growing with economic development and population growth. The pressures are further compounded by the steep topography and mountainous environment. While the population density of Bhutan at a gross level is quite low with 16 persons per Km2 in 2005 (PHCB, 2005), the population density taken over arable and settlement areas soars to 85 persons per km2 (NEC 2011).
1.1 Pressure The pressures and drivers on the land resources are described in the National Action Program (NAP) to Combat land Degradation (MOAF 2014) and the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP 2014). “Direct pressures” are identified in the NAP and “direct factors” are identified in the NBSAP (table 3) and both can be classified as “pressures” in the DPSIR approach. The drivers and pressures identified during the consultative process of the BSOE are also similar and are described in this section.
Table.3 Drivers and Pressures on land and resources as identified in the National Action Program to Combat Land Degradation and the National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plan.
National Action Program (NAP) to Combat Land Degradation 2014
National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plan (NBSAP) 2014
DIRECT FACTORS DIRECT PRESSURE
Infrastructure development - Roads - Power transmission lines and distribution
grids Urbanisation Industrial activities Unsustainable mining
Land use conversion
Forest Fires Unregulated farming activities (burning of agriculture debris and pasture)
Forest fire
Excessive Forest Use Over extraction of timber and fuelwood Over grazing Overgrazing
Forest offences and wildlife poaching Unsustainable Agriculture - Imbalanced use of inorganic fertilizers - Steep slope agriculture - Use of plant protection chemicals - Irrigation management system
Unsustainable agricultural practices
Solid Waste Pollution INDIRECT FACTORS INDIRECT PRESSURES Climate Change Climate change Population Growth and Structure Population Poverty Poverty Policy and Institutional Issues
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Increasing pressure on GRF land/State land1 Pressure on “government reserved forest land" or “state land” comes mainly from the demand for infrastructure for development (hydroelectricity and roads) and mining. Data on permits issued for use of “government reserved forest” (GRF) between 2008 to 2014 show that the highest demand for land was for infrastructure development in the form of “right of way” for power transmission lines (9,426.16 Ha.), road construction (5,462.04 Ha) and land leased on long term amounted to 5,207.67 Ha (figure 6). NLC data for land leased on long term (figure 7) shows that highest demand for leased land was for mining at 1550.18 Ha. Business is the second highest purpose for long term land lease (615.27Ha) and this category consists of largely land leased for hydropower (550.78 Ha) and other commercial activities such as mobile towers, sawmills, fuel depots, etc. (NLC 2016). “Satshab” land accounts for 2,825.70 Ha of GRF land and is mainly substitute land for marginal lands or land taken over for development activities. Between 2009 and 2015, Trongsa and Wandue
1 GRF land is referred in Forest and Nature Conservation Act, 1994, while Land Act, 2007 makes reference as State land.
Figure 6 'Government Reserved Forest' (GRF) Land approved for various development activities (in Ha) between 2008-09 fiscal year and 2013-4 fiscal year. Data source: Forestry facts and figures, DOFPS, 2011,
2013, 2014
Figure 7 State land' leased on Long term during the period 2009-2014 for various purposes (in Ha). Data
source: NLC, 2015 Figure 8 State land leased for hydropower activity
(2009 - 2015) period. Source: NLC, 2016
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Phodrang dzongkhags faced the highest demands for state land on leased for hydropower (figure 8).
Increasing demand for electricity and road services Demand for development services, particularly for rural development, were the leading pressures for land in the past decade with acceleration in rural electrification and construction of rural farm roads after 2008. The largest areas of State Land leased was for electricity transmission lines (figure 6) and this is largely driven by construction of low voltage distribution lines of 33kV and 11 kV(figure 9) to achieve 100% rural household electrification. The long term target of universal electrification of the country by 2020 (Planning Commission, 1999) was accelerated by the new mandate to Bhutan Power Corporation (BPC) “to provide electricity for all by 2013” and BPC had achieved 94% of this target by 2013 (BPC, 2013). It is expected that with almost 100% rural electrification having been achieved, there may not be much increase in demand for land for low voltage distribution lines, but with major hydro projects under construction and also being planned there will be increasing demand for land for high voltage transmission lines in the future.
Similarly, pressure from road construction had the second highest demand on GRF land, due to accelerated construction of rural farm roads after 2008 (figure 10). The total length of farm roads increased from 1,045 km in 2008 to 5,128km by 2013 and 201 of 205 Gewogs had been connected (NSB, 2015). Major highways, forest access roads and urban roads did not increase significantly. The dzongkhags with the highest network of roads are Trashigang, Mongar and Chukha with sizeable connectivity of national highways, dzongkhag roads and farm roads. The least connected dzongkhags are Trashi Yangtse, Tsirang, Haa and Gasa (figure 11).
0
500
1,000
1,500
2,000
2,500
3,000
3,500
4,000
4,500
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Hect
ares
33kV
11kV
220kV
132kV
66kV
400kV
Total area for "right of way" under electricity transmisison and distribution lines from 2007-2015. Data source: Bhutan Power Corporation
Figure 9 Growth in electrification in rural areas
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Figure 10 Types of Roads and length (km) in Bhutan (2008 - 2014). Data source: DOR, MOWHS
Figure 11 Length of road network by Dzongkhags as of June 2014. Data Source: DOR, MOWHS in SYB 2015
Demand for timber and fuel wood Demand for timber and wood has been increasing and is driven by construction of houses and buildings, and increasing natural and manmade disasters. There was a significant surge in demand for ‘cham’, ‘drashing’ and logs in the 2012-2013 fiscal year, and for ‘drashing’ in 2014-2015 fiscal year, while there was drop in the quantities of timber in 2013-2014 (figure 12). The surge in 2012-2013 corresponds to the free timber provided for reconstruction of houses, monasteries and lhakangs in western Bhutan after the earthquake of 18 September, while the drop in 2013-2014
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corresponds to the freeze in loans for housing construction put in place to address the Rupee shortage. The surge in drashing in 2014-2015 may be explained by the demand for reconstruction of the Wangue Phodrang Dzong following the fire of 2012.
While fuelwood is a primary source of energy for households in Bhutan, demand for fuel wood appears to be declining. Fuelwood accounts for 21% of total household energy consumption behind electricity (69%) a national level but 94% of rural household energy consumption is met by fuelwood while it is only 6% in urban areas (DRE, 2014).
Bhutan’s per capita fuelwood consumption is 1.2 metric tons/year and is considered one of the highest in the world (Wangchuk et al. 2014). The demand for fuelwood however appears to be declining and between 2008-2015, the total quantity of fuelwood supplied has declined steadily from 109,416.6 m3 to 67,589.74 m3 (figure 12).
Pressure on forests outside of formally managed production areas are higher than in managed areas. It can also be noted from figure 12 and figure 13 that significantly higher amount of timber
has been supplied from outside of FMUs by DoFPS, as compared to timber supplied by NRDCL from FMUs and other managed concessions. Given the assessment of the state of overharvesting of FMUs (DOFPS, 2014) as described in the section on ‘state and trends in land’, it may be inferred that the state of forests in areas outside of FMUs may not fare any better. The results of the NFI expected at the end of 2016 should provide an accurate assessment of the state of all forests.
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Figure 12 Types of timber supplied from outside of FMUs by Dept. of Forest and Park Services between 2008-09 fiscal year and 2014-15 fiscal
year (in cubic meters). Data source: Forestry facts and figures 2011, 2013, 2014, 2015, DOFPS
Figure 13 Timber supplied by NRDCL (Quantity in 1000 cft). Source: RNR Stats 2015
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Image 3: firewood is a primary source of energy for rural houses. Photo: Thinley Namgyel
Forests fire Despite an apparent decline in incidence of forest fire between 2008-2015 (figure 14) the area affected by forest fire appears to be increasing. There was also a major fire event in Wangdue Phodrang in early 2014, which resulted an almost four times the average annual area being burnt in this season. The dzongkhag wise distribution or forest fire statistics for the same time period indicates that Wangdue Phodrang, Mongar and Trashigang are the most affected dzongkhags in terms of total area burnt (figure 15). The dzongkhags with highest incidences of forest fires are Thimphu, Mongar, Wangdue Phodraong and Trashigang.
It should be noted that while Thimphu has more than double the incidences of forest fires, the total area affected is much lower than in the other affected dzongkhags. This could be attributed to the population and human activity in Thimphu as both a cause of forest fire and also for response for fire fighting.
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Figure 14 Number of forest fire incidences and area burnt from 2008 – 2015 (Data source: Forestry facts and figures,
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Mining and mineral extraction NRDCL reported increasing production of stone and sand from 2008 to 2011-2012 followed by a decline in production from 2012-2014 as shown in figure 16. This decline in production coincides with the freeze in construction loans in 2013. Data from DGM shows the same trends over the year in stone production (figure 17) while production of dolomite, limestone and gypsum which are mineral inputs into the major manufacturing industries in Bhutan have increased steadily.
Figure16: Sand and stone supplied (2008-2014) in m3. (Data source: NRDCL, 2014
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Figure 17 Mineral production by type between 2007-2014. (Data source: DGM, MOEA)
Image 4: Gypsum mines in Khotakpa, Pema Gatshel. Photo: Tshering Tashi, 2016
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Urbanisation Urbanisation is identified as a direct factor leading to land degradation in Bhutan primarily due to direct utilization of agricultural land and increased requirements for construction materials such as sand and stones and timber along with requirements for waste dumpsites and impacts from pollution NAP (MOAF 2014). The rate of urbanization was estimated at 7.3% average annual growth in urban population in the Bhutan National Urbanisation Strategy 2008 (MOWHS, 2008). The strategy also projects that additional land required nationally for urban areas by 2020 may vary from 900 Ha to over 34,000 Ha depending on town densities and additional urban population growth. The strategy also projects that with the most likely scenario of urban population growth of 250,000 by 2020, the additional land requirement would be 2,462 Ha (0.06%) of total land area. The strategy also recognizes that most pressure for urban land would fall on agricultural land.
Grazing by livestock Both the NAP 2014 and NBSAP 2014 identify overgrazing as contributing to land degradation in Bhutan. Most cattle grazing takes place in forests, open pastures and grasslands on a free-range basis. Due to migratory practices most grazing areas in temperate zones are subject to grazing throughout the year by cattle in summer and yaks in winter (MOAF, 2014). NBSAP notes that the issue of overgrazing is still not clear due to lack of detailed studies and notes that other factors may also affect grazing areas. However, the trend in total population of cattle appears to be declining in the last five years and would imply reducing on pressures from grazing by cattle in forests and grasslands (figure 18).
Image 5: Prime agriculture land (especially paddy fields) are under increasing pressure from growth in urban areas and creation of new urban settlements. Thimphu valley in 2004 and 2016. Photo: Thinley
Namgyel, 2004 & 2016
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4.2 State
Land Cover The latest assessment of the present state of land cover and land use is for the year 2010 under the Bhutan Land Cover Assessment (BLCA) by Ministry of Agriculture and Forests. The BLCA analysed satellite imagery from 2010 and reports that forests (excluding shrubs) remain the dominant land cover in Bhutan covering 70.46% of the land area. Shrubs (10.43%), snow cover (7.44%), meadows (4.10%), cultivated agricultural land (2.93%) and rock outcrops (2.6%) constitute much of the remaining land. Water bodies cover only 0.79% of total area while “built up areas” (0.16%), landslide areas (0.18%), and degraded areas (0.54%) are the smallest land categories (MOAF, 2011).
No comprehensive assessments of trends in land cover and land use changes have been conducted in Bhutan. The only other assessment of land cover and land use is for 1994 as published in the “Atlas of Bhutan, Land Cover and Area Statistics” by the Ministry of Agriculture (MOA, 1997). Comparison of land cover and statistics between 1994 and 2010 is difficult as the differences in area and statistics is largely attributed to the different methodology and technology of the two assessments (MOAF 2011).
Forested land The dominant forest type is broadleaf forests at 62.43%, with mixed conifer as the next dominant type at 22.69% (MOAF 2011). The remainder of forest types comprise of Fir (6.77%), Chir Pine (3.98%), Blue Pine (2.96%) and broadleaf with conifer (1.16%).
On the trends in forest cover, the BLCA 2010 report shows an increase in forest area from 25,787 km2 in 1994 to 27,052.9 km2 in 2010 (MOAF 2011). While the BLCA and Atlas of Bhutan figures may not be comparable due to technical reasons, a general increase in forest cover is corroborated by a multi-decadal assessment of Landsat imagery which shows an increase in overall forest area from 25,558 km2 in 1990 to 26,732 km2 in 2010 (Gilani et.al. 2015). This assessment also found an overall
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Figure 18 Population of cattle and yaks from 2009- 2014. (Data source: Department of Livestock, MOAF
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reduction in grassland, shrubland, and barren area and the largest increase of forest area is in Bumthang dzongkhag which had 277 km2 increase in forest cover over the same period.
The National Forest Inventory (NFI) currently underway is expected to provide a detailed picture on the forest structure including age, growth rates, biomass and carbon stock by different species, soil carbon and the overall health of the forests. An evaluation of the Forest Management Units (FMU) in 2014 indicated that management prescriptions had not been followed and four of the seven FMUs assessed were found to have been over-harvested beyond the annual allowable cuts (AAC). Furthermore, there was generally very low success of natural regeneration or re-plantation in these FMUs (DOFPS 2014).
Image 6: View of Paro valley: an important rice production area. Photo: Chencho Norbu (above) in 2006 and (below) 2016
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Agriculture land With almost the entire country characterized as mountainous, steep sloping land is the dominant terrain and the population is concentrated in the smaller pockets of valleys and gentler mountain sides. One of the key indicators for sustainable agricultural practices is the proportion of land on slopes between 50-100% and as a result of the mountainous terrain, 31% of the limited agricultural land falls on slopes steeper than 100% (MOAF 2010 & 2014).
Within the 2.93% of agriculture land, the dominant class is kamzhing (non-irrigated agricultural land) at 61.9%, while chuzhing or “wetland” (irrigated land) is 27.86% (MOAF 2011). Horticulture land accounts for 10.24% of the agricultural land and consists mainly of apple, citrus, areca nut and cardamom. However, cadastral data from NLC (2016) indicates that the proportion of kamzhing is even higher and accounts for 73.3% of all types of non-state land (figure 19). The differences in the area statistics of agricultural type can be attributed to the different data types of land ownership which may differ from actual use as captured in satellite imagery.
The trend in agricultural land use has been of conversion to other uses, particularly to urbanisation and development activities. From 1998 to 2015, a total of 306.55 Ha of chuzhing was lost for various purposes and mostly for urban development and other infrastructure development. While the conversion of chuzhing over the years appear to show an increasing trend (figure 20), it is not clear when conversions have taken place, as legal conversion records may also have taken place post-facto after many years. The dzongkhag with the highest conversion of chuzhing during this period was seen in Punakha, Sarpang and Thimphu, followed by Paro, Wangdue Phodrang, Samtse, Dagana, Tsirang and Trashigang (figure 21). Paro, Wangdue Phodrang, Samtse, Dagana and Tsirang also lost significant amounts of chuzhing to infrastructure development and urbanization.
Figure 19 Land use type in non-state land in 2016 excluding urban areas (Source: NLC, 2016)
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Figure 21 Area of chhuzhing (paddy fields) converted to other land use between 1998-2015 by Dzongkhag (in Ha). Data source: BEO 2008 and MOAF 2016
Degraded land Degraded land constitutes a relatively minor area of the total land area. The BLCA indicates degraded areas to be 0.18% of the total land with 7,032.54 Ha classified as “landslides” and 6.66 Ha as “gullies”. A further 0.35% of total land (13,596.24 Ha) is classified as moraines created by glacial action (MOAF 2010). In comparison, the LUPP assessment classified 95,400 Ha or 2.4% of the country as “landslips/erosion” in 1994.
Information on erosion rates in Bhutan is limited. Initial assessments in sample agricultural plots by the National Soil Services Center (NSSC) indicate unsustainable agricultural practice can have accelerated soil loss on average of 6.42 t/Ha/year and as high as 20.25t/Ha/year. Bare reference plots had the highest erosion rates at 24.6/t/Ha/year. Demonstration of ‘sustainable land
Figure 20 Area (Ha) of chuzhing (paddy field) converted annually to other use from 1998-2015. Source, NEC 2008 & MoAF, 2016
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management’ techniques had the potential to reduce erosion rate of up to 53% in such agricultural land (NSSC 2009 & 2010). The NSSC reported that annual average soil loss from traditional farming practices is 26.73 tons/ha/year and that sustainable land management interventions reduced soil loss up to 44% (NSSC 2013).
Besides such areas of landslides and natural erosion areas, information on the state of degraded land in other land categories is not fully known. While many causes and pressures of land degradation are often identified in the National Action Plan for Combating Land Degradation (MOAF, 2010 & 2014) and the National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans (MOAF 2014), it is not known to what extent and state the different categories of land such as forests, grasslands and agricultural land are degraded.
Built up land Human settlements and related built infrastructure have been classified as “built up areas” in the BLCA 2010 and includes airports, rural settlements, urban areas, schools & institutes, industrial areas, hospital premises, sewage treatment plant, sports and leisure facilities and roads. The built up area in 2010 is 6,150.87 Ha or 0.16% of total land area (MOAF 2010) and the three major Thromde (municipalities) of Thimphu, Gelephu and Phuentsholing together cover an area of 1,550 Ha as indicated in table 4 (NLC 2015). The trend in built up land is increasing as the area of built up land in 2010 has doubled the area under settlements which was at 3100Ha in 1994 (MOA 1997).
Image 7: Land degradation at Moshi, Wamrong. Photo: Chencho Norbu, 2005
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Table 4. Nos. of plot, area and estimated population for three urban areas of Bhutan. Source, NLC, 2015 and NSB, 2015 Thromde No of Plots Ha Population (est) Thimphu 4343 634.81 116,012 Gelephu 3,430 459.19 14,984 Phuentsholing 2097 455.75 58,841
Non-built up areas The category of “non-built up areas” in the LCMP is classified as land where natural cover is removed by anthropogenic factors and includes areas classified as waste dumpsites, mining and quarry sites, and covers an area of 330.1 Ha which is equivalent to only 0.01% of total land area. However, as per official records of mine leases, there were 65 quarries and 37 mines in operation between 2004-2016 and covered an area of 812 Ha and 1,255 Ha respectively (DGM, 2016). In terms of spatial distribution, the dzongkhags with highest coverage of quarries are in Wangdue Phodrang and Thimphu (figure 22), presumably due to high demand for construction in urban areas and hydroprojects respectively. The concentration of mines is highest in Samtse and Pema Gatshel (figure 23), due to mineral deposits and proximity to industries.
The NLC reports that between 2009 and 2015, a total of 2,739.37 Ha of state land was leased out (NLC 2015).The different purpose of land leasing include, mining, business (including hydropower), development activities and commercial agriculture. The highest approval for leasing of state land in 2010 and 2011 is largely driven by mining and business (including hydropower).
Figure 22 No. of quarries and total area covered (2004 - April 20016). Source: DGM, 2016
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Figure 23 No. of mines and total area covered (2004 - April 2016). Source: DGM, 2016
4.3 Impact
Biodiversity Many of the pressures on the land have been identified as a threat to the rich biodiversity of Bhutan (MOAF 2014). The impacts from pressures on the land would include direct loss of forest cover due to timber harvesting and clearing of forests for infrastructure development. Road construction also opens up previously inaccessible areas for exploitation of natural resources and contribute to habitat fragmentation and potential loss of biodiversity.
Air quality Loss of vegetation cover due to forest fire on the land can increase air pollution through increased smoke and suspended particulate matter.
Water resources Loss of vegetation cover can lead to increased run off and affect water quality and aquatic life as covered in the chapter on water, and also potentially increase the operating costs of hydropower generation.
Land and forest degradation may contribute to decrease in water availability in watershed areas. According to assessment on drinking water sources conducted by Public Health Engineering Division in 2012, drying up of drinking water source has been reported in various dzongkhags. More than 500 households have been affected by drying of drinking water sources with highest report from Trashi Yangtsi dzongkhag. Yalang and Khamdang gewog in Tashi Yantse reported their existing sources dried up, while Toetsho and Ramjar gewogs have reported that their sources are getting dried up. Radhi gewog in Trashi Gang and Dungmin, Yurung, Khar and Zobel gewogs of Pema Gatshel have reported that the sources drying in winter season. Similarly, Drujeygang gewog, Dagana has also reported of water shortage with existing source drying up (MoH, 2013)
Landslides Road and other infrastructure construction in fragile mountain geological conditions often lead to problems of landslides and erosion and exacerbate natural disasters. Some of the major landslide
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areas along roads include: Rotpashong (Lhuentse – Mongar highway); Latongla (Semtokha – Trashi Gang highway); Chengala and Khagochen (Sunkosh-Daga highway); Tintalay (Wangdi-Sarpang highway); Sorchen, Jumja and Tala Manitar road (Thimphu-Phuentsholing highway); Box cutting (Trongsa-Gelephu highway); Mushu and Reserboo (Samdrup Jongkhar –Trashigang highway); Reotala (Trongsa-Gelephu highway) (DOR, 2013).
Food production One of the key national policies is on food and nutrition security and of particular concern is the loss of agricultural land to urbanization and other developmental activities (MOWHS 2008). The loss of agricultural land has the potential to reduce food availability, but the impact has been attenuated by improvements in technology and management techniques. While the area available for most grain crops have been declining in the last decade (figure 24) the production of the same grain crops have been increasing (figure 25). The increase in yields despite loss of land is attributed to research and development, along with improved rice technologies. (Ghimiray et. al. 2013).
Figure 25 Distribution of production quantity for selected primary crops. Data source: RNR statistic available at www.Countrystats.com
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Figure 24 Distribution of Area sown for selected primary crops. Data source: RNR statistic available at www.Countrystats.com
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4.4 Response
Legislation A number of legislation and policies have been put in place for the sustainable management of land and its resources. The Constitution of the Kingdom of Bhutan mandates environmentally sustainable and justifiable sustainable development and mandates the government to ensure 60% forest cover for all time and also identifies the roles and responsibilities of both citizens and government in this regard. Several legislation such as the National Environment Protection Act 2007; Land Act 2007; Environment Assessment Act 2000; Forest and Nature Conservation Act 1995; Mines and Minerals Act 1995; and Waste Management and Prevention Act 2009 contain mandates for sustainable management of land. Details of the provisions of these legislations are further elaborated in Annexure II.
Some of the relevant processes arising from the above legislation include safeguard measures such as Environmental Assessment including EIA for major development activities. For example, Strategic Environmental Assessments has been conducted for Dhamdum Industrial Estate and Punatsangchhu basin.
Policies and strategies Several policies also guide land management such as National Forest Policy 2011, Food and Nutrition Security Policy 2014.
Sustainable land management Sustainable Land Management is now implemented as a regular program through the Land Management Unit at NSSC. Implementation of SLM to combat land degradation in the country is also to fulfil the requirements/obligations as a member country to United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD). SLM technologies and approaches are being promoted and implemented in the field in collaboration with farmers, dzongkhag and gewog extension and regional research centers. In addition to RGoB budget additional funding supports are explored in order to implement SLM activities.
4.5 Recommendations
There are adequate legislative tools and policies for sustainable land and forest management. However strategic assessments and planning and application of existing measures and tools are required to ensure integrated and holistic management across sectors. Some of the specific recommendations include:
SEA for new Thromde plans Implement Strategic Environment Assessment (SEA) for urban (new Thromde plans) and infrastructure planning, including impacts beyond urban or project boundary.
Integration of food and nutrition security into developmental planning The food and nutrition security policy must be integrated in overall decisions on land conversion planning for development activities.
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Identification and prioritization of critical forests, habitats, and watersheds Identification and prioritization of critical forests, habitats, and watersheds needs to be completed for long run sustainable management of land and water resources.
Land capability mapping Land capability mapping should be completed at the earliest to identify areas that can sustainably support various uses such as agriculture or other development activities.
Studies on ecological footprint and local ecological carrying capacity Studies on ecological footprint and local ecological carrying capacity should be completed to support policy makers, planners, decision makers and managers in development planning and land management as per Constitutional mandates on “ecological degradation”.
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Bhutan has large water resource availability. Nam ling Fall, Mongar. Photo: Chencho Norbu, 2014
5. Water
Bhutan is endowed with abundant fresh water resources. Water bodies and wetlands, glaciers, supra-snow lakes, supra-glacial lakes, glacial lakes, lakes, rivers, streams, springs, peat lands, marshes, peat-bogs, fens and other forms of wetlands) are important fresh water sources in Bhutan.
According to a study carried out by Ugyen Wangchuck Institute for Conservation and Environment (UWICE) in 2010, there are 110 supra-snow lake, 495 supra-glacial lakes and 637 glacial lakes with a total area of 5183.78 Ha. The same study also shows an area of 4,997.33 Ha of lakes. Additionally, the National Land Cover Assessment of Bhutan carried out by Ministry of Agriculture and Forests (MoAF, 2011), shows that there are 319.47 Ha of marshes in the country.
The river systems (22,684.66 Ha) and their hydrological basins (38,39,400 Ha) are shown in Figure 26.
5.1 Pressure
Increased water demand Water demand in Bhutan is from domestic uses, agriculture, tourism, industrial use and hydropower generation. Small scale cottage industries such as breweries, bottling plants, paper factories, hot stone bath houses and chip board industries also add pressure to the available water resources (NEC, 2016) Table 5 shows the water demand in Bhutan for domestic (drinking) use, agriculture and for industrial use for 2015 and the projections for the year 2030.
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Figure 26 Major river systems of Bhutan. (Source: NEC, 2016)
Table 5 Water demand projection for different types (in MCM/yr) for 2015 & 2030 Sl No Demand type 2015 2030 1 Drinking water 36.09 77.68 2 Industry and other 74.39 218.35 3 Irrigation 666.9 911.8
Increased waste generation Increased waste, particularly untreated wastewater generation, pollute pristine water bodies. In Thimphu City, household connection to the sewerage treatment plant in Babesa remains below 15%. The remaining 85% rely on individual septic tanks and have higher risk of sewerage outflow.
Water bodies in urban centers, such as Thimphu and Phuentshoing, are subjected to additional pressure from automobile workshops, which generated waste oil and other effluents. Thimphu alone has more than 47 automobile workshops. Detailed trends on waste generation and impact on water bodies are discussed under Cross cutting issues.
5.2 State
Water resources and availability Bhutan has one of the highest per capita water resource availability in the world with 94,500 m3/capita/annum, (NEC, 2016). Most of the river system is fed by the rainfall, glacial melt (estimated 2-12%) and snow melt (2%). The total annual water availability stands at 70,576.02 m3 which works out to average flow of 2,238 m3/s in 2015 (NEC, 2016). Table 6 below shows the area of the river basins and their annual flow.
Although Bhutan water balance does not show any water scarcity at the national, basin, or even Dzongkhag level, imbalance geographical and temporal distributions of water leads to experience
Image 8: Over flow from sewer pipe and choked drains during monsoon. Photo: Tshering Tashi, 2015
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of shortages in local areas. Water is largely available in the form of major rivers and tributaries flowing in valley bottoms, while most communities depend on smaller streams, springs and lakes for domestic and agricultural use.
There are increasing reports of drying water sources all over the country. Drying up of irrigation water sources over the last two decades, along with experiences of decrease and erratic rainfall patterns including delayed onset of monsoon is reported in Punakha and Wangude Phodrang valley (Norbu & Kusters, 2012). In Tashigang, gewog statistics shows that about 12 villages, including Sakteng, Phongmey, Bartsham, Yangnyer and Lumang, have reported water sources drying up (RGOB, 2014)
Water quality A rapid assessment of rural drinking water quality in 2012 indicate that 17% of the stream water sources and 28% of the spring water sources are safe for consumption (RCDC, 2012). The test is conducted through assessment of microbiological parameters.
According to NECS assessment for the stretch of Wangchu in Thimphu, pollution load peaks near the vegetable market area. The data also suggests deteriorating water quality around the core city area to high anthropogenic contamination. The water quality along the upstream Wangchhu is relatively better than downstream of town areas (Figure 27).
Vulnerability to glacial lake outburst flood Based on remote sensing analysis, 25 of the 2,674 glacial lakes in Bhutan are identified as potentially dangerous glacial lakes (Mool et al. 2001). Additional studies are ongoing to ground truth and validate the number of dangerous glacial lakes.
Table 6 Basins and Flow Calculations. (Source: NEC, 2016)
Management Basin Area (km2) River Basins Area (km2) Annual flow (MCM)
Amochhu 3252 Jaldakha 942
9,375.07 Amochhu 2310
Wangchhu 4596 Wangchhu 4596 5,209.06
Punatsangchhu 11582 Punatsangchhu 9645 19,129.79 Aiechhu 1937 6,989.14
Mangdechhu 7380 Mangdechhu 7380 11,797.24
Drangmechhu 11584
Drangmechhu 8457 13,569.14 Nyera amachhu 2348
4,50 6.57 Jomori 642 Merak - Sakteng 137
Total 38394 Total 38394 70,576.01 Population 746,773 Per Capita Water Available 94,508.04 m3/Annum
Flow 2,238.0 m3/s
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After the 1994 glacial lake outburst flood events from Lugge tsho, the latest GLOF event was outburst of Tsojo Glacier in 2009 and breaching of Lemthang Lake in 2015. Both events did not cause major destruction in the downstream areas.
Figure 27 Water quality trend for different sections of Wangchhu from 2009 to 2012. (Source: NEC, 2012
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Image 9: Remote sensing analysis identified 25 glacial lakes in Bhutan as potentially dangerous. Thorthormi Lake. Photo: Chencho Norbu, 2010
5.3 Impact
Water scarcity Water availability and demand have been calculated in order to establish monthly water balances at the level of basins, sub-basins and dzongkhags (NEC, 2016). The results are summarised ranked in decreasing order of potential water scarcity as shown in Table 7:
The assessment was based on 80% dependable water generated within the dzongkhags. If inflow from upstream areas is taken into account, all dzongkhags have adequate water supply to meet additional water demand for domestic, irrigation and industrial use until the year 2030.
Water user conflict According to NIWRM 2016, seven cases of water related dispute were recorded in 2012– 2015 period, of which three are related to drinking water and four to irrigation.
Water borne diseases The National Health Survey, 2012 reports that the proportion of population with access to improved drinking water source is 97.7%. Cases of water-borne diseases (diarrhea and dysentery) are also declining (figure 28). This is largely attributed to improved sanitation.
Table 7: Summary of dzongkhags with potential water shortage by 2030. Source: (NEC, 2016)
Method Basin Dzongkhag JANUARY MAY JUNE Falkenmark Punatsangchhu Thimphu Scarcity - -
Water balance Wangchhu Haa Stress - - Punatsangchhu Thimphu Absolute scarcity Scarcity Stress Aiechhu Zhemgang Scarcity Stress -
Demand ratio Amochhu Samtse Ok** --
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Figure 28 Incidences of water-borne diseases (2011-2015). Source: MoH, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015
Increased run-off and landslides Landslides and landslips are also a common feature during the monsoons. The areas that are most prone to these geo-environmental hazards are found in heavily fractured and weathered rocks of phyllites, slates and schist that contain high amounts of clay minerals occurring mostly in the southern part of the Lesser Himalayas (SNV-WMD, DoFPS, 2011). Post-disaster survey of GLOFs have also indicated extreme erosion and landslides resulting in increased sediment loads. The sediments that settle along the river reduces the flow rate during the lean season, and increases the flash flood hazards during the next monsoon, resulting in higher risk of river damming and backwater flooding.
5.4 Response
Polices and legal instruments Policies and legal instruments governing water resources and related issues are discussed under Policy response in Annexure II.
National integrated water resource management plan The National Integrated Water Resource Management Plan, 2016, was prepared to ensure that the water resources are protected, conserved and/or managed in an economically efficient, socially equitable and environmentally sustainable manner.
The Bhutan Water Security Index (BWSI) was developed in 2015. The index has five key dimensions, each with set of indicators. The five key dimensions are 1) Rural drinking water supply, sanitation and hygiene, 2) Economic water supply for agriculture, industries and hydropower, 3) Urban water supply, sanitation and drainage, 4) Environmental water security, and 5) Disaster and climate change resilience. Efforts will be made to integrate BWSI into the national key result areas in the 12th FYP and programmes.
Formation of River Basin Committee As per the relevant provisions of the Water Act of Bhutan, 2011, NECS initiated constituted the first River Basin Committee (RBC) by forming Wangchhu Basin Committee (WBC). The RBC role is to ensure proper management of water resources within the basin.
National water resources inventory Work to prepare Water Resources Inventory for Bhutan is still ongoing. The inventory will provide technical and quantitative assessment of water use patterns, the water sources and water scarcity.
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Watershed management plans The Watershed Management Division, under the Department of Forests and Park Services has assessed the watersheds in Bhutan and identified critical watersheds that need immediate attention. Wetlands management program was also created to strategize wetlands conservation or management as a strategic area for overall watershed management and water resources management.
Civil society initiatives CSOs are taking initiatives to address water pollution. Clean Bhutan Initiative has one of its main strategies as, "clean rivers and tributaries" where the activities are focussed in removing sold waste that are illegally dumped in the river and stream channels.
The Bhutan Water Partnership, established in 2001, addresses some element of the governance and the management of water resources. The Partnership supports financing community initiative on water source protection and exploring alternative water sources.
Maintaining water quality and quantity through payment of ecosystem services Alternative financing of watershed management through payment for ecosystem services (PES) has been explored in Bhutan. There are currently three pilot schemes initiated by the DoFPS and Local Governments (LG). All the PES schemes in the country are set up to link the upstream and downstream communities to enhance the maintenance of the water quality and to manage water resources through a watershed lens.
Climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction Implementation of National Adaption Program of Action are discussed under cross cutting issues, Climate Change.
5.5 Recommendations
Adopt Bhutan Water Security Index as a key result area of FYP Adopt Bhutan Water Security Index (BWSI) as a key result area in the successive five year plans starting with 12th FYP. The BWSI should serve as an indicator, as appropriate, to stimulate coordination, planning, and monitoring the progress of water security in the country.
Establish successive river basin committees (RBCs) and preparation of river basin management plan
Establish RBC in all the river basins with the view to prepare river basin management plan (RBMP) to ensure coordinated development and management of water resources in the country. Experiences and lessons from the Wangchu Basin Committee (WCB) should facilitate future RBC formation.
Expand water monitoring stations Expand water monitoring station both to capture water availability and its quality. Strengthen data management system.
Ground water resources assessment Carry out detailed assessment of the potential ground water resources along the southern foothills and valley of Punakha and Paro to explore alternative water sources.
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800kW windmill installed at Rubesa, Wangdue Phodrang: a clean source of energy. Photo: Tshering Tashi, 2016
6. Air
Air quality in Bhutan has long been regarded as pristine. However, recent rapid development is placing pressure on air quality in the major urban centers and at several industrial area with relatively heavy industries. Today, air pollution is becoming one of the emerging issues that has a serious risk to human and environment health.
6.1 Pressure
Increasing vehicle numbers Increasing number of motor vehicles contributes to local air pollution. Besides tailpipe emissions, other related emissions include particulate matter from tire and brake wear-out, and re-suspended road dust. In 2015, there were 76,118 number of vehicles out of which light vehicles comprise 63.96% and is mostly privately owned. Taxis account for only 5.17% while the heavy and medium vehicle combined together account for only 13.20%, including public transport buses and freights. This number excludes vehicles owned by armed forces, diplomatic missions and foreign construction companies.
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Figure 30 Types of vehicles in Bhutan (Source: RSTA, 2016)
Figure 31: Proportion of light and medium vehicles imported with quota exemption between July 2014 - June 2016. Source: RSTA, 2016 & DRC,
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Despite fiscal measures like revision of taxes such as import duty and green tax, there was minimal impact on the number of vehicles imported. The number of vehicles in the country has almost doubled from 40,532 to 76,118 in 2008 and 2015. The increase in vehicle population also contributes to the increase in greenhouse gas emissions as evident from the figure 29. In between 2012 – 2013, there was pause in growth of vehicle numbers due to the ban on import of vehicles issued to address the shortages of Indian Rupee in economy.
The provision of vehicle quotas for import of vehicles exempts payment of customs and sales tax for eligible individuals and institutions is in conflict with measure to curb the increase in vehicle numbers. In between 2008 and 2015, a total of 6,134 vehicle import quotas were issued, of which, 939 were issued to government agencies, CSOs, Corporations and diplomatic missions while 5,194 were issued for personal import. Since the lifting of vehilce import ban in July 2014, untill May 2016, a total of 3,649 vehicle quotas were utilized (DRC, 2016) out of 11,157 new vehicles (light and medium) registered in the same time period (RSTA, 2016). This translates to one third of total new vehicles exempted from the fiscal measures to control vehicle imports.
Trans-boundary air pollution There is a significant issue of trans-boundary air pollution in the South Asian region (UNEP 2013) and this issue also affects Bhutan. The image above shows air pollution level from the Indo-Gangetic plains moving into Himalayan range. Visual observation of hazy pollution level along the southern belt of the country, especially during winter months, confirms presence of this phenomenon.
Image 10: Satellite image of Atmospheric Brown Clouds Over the southern belt of Bhutan. (Source: http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn10722-brown-haze-over-india-harming-rice-harvest.html)
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Road resurfacing and re-suspended road dust Dust generated from re-suspended road dust from unpaved roads in the country contributes to air pollution. Of the total length of road network of 10,717.4 km, about 70% the road network still remains to be paved in 2014. Activities such as burning of bitumen and asphalts for road resurfacing also contributes to air pollution. Between 2009 - 2014 the total length of blacktopped roads has increased by more than three times (MoWHS 2015).
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Image 11: Haze in southern border of Bhutan observed in winter season. Photo: Thinley Namgyel, 2016
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Industrial and mining/quarrying activities Manufacturing industries and mining activities are also a source of local air pollution. The number of manufacturing and production industries has increased by 103.2% from 1,389 in 2008 to 2,823 in 2014. Industries also contributes to GHG emissions, which has increased by 44.74% between 2008 and 20132. The emissions from the industries are primarily from metal, chemical and mineral based (cement) industries.
Mining and quarrying activities generate significant dust pollution within the local area due to excavation and loss of vegetation.
Construction activities Windblown dust particles from the construction sites are source of dust pollution. Rapid urbanization has fueled a boom in the construction industry in the past decade. The construction industry accounted for about 16.86% of the GDP in 2010. Exposed ground area due to removal of vegetation for construction purpose makes it susceptible to wind.
Similarly, construction phase of the hydropower plants generates dust and other air pollution due to vegetation removal and other related activities such as increased traffic flow and fuel combustions (Image 12).
2 The GHG emission figures are preliminary estimates. The figure will be updated upon completion of 3rd GHG inventory
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Image 12: Construction phase of hydropower projects entails removing large vegetation and also a source of dust pollution. PHPA I dam site. Photo. Tshering Tashi, 2016
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2 The estimated total emission for 2010 are preliminary. The figures will be updated through the 3rd GHG inventory.
Forest fires and fire hazards Forest fires contributes to local air pollution. From 2008-2015, incidences of forest fires damaged about 47,792.62 Ha of forest area. Most forest fires are human induced, commonly from burning of agricultural debris, careless smokers, road workers, electricity short-circuits, lemon grass harvesters and children playing with matchsticks).
Fuel wood and kerosene for heating and cooking Use of fuel wood and Kerosene for household heating and cooking contributes to air pollution. Household space heating, in the higher region, coupled with thermal inversion is making air pollution worse during the winter months. Fuelwood is a primary source of household energy ans Bhutan has the higest per capital consumption of fuelwood at 1.2 metrc tons per year.
6.2 State
State and trend in particulate matter (PM) levels Air pollution in Bhutan has been monitored with varying degrees of reliability since the early 2000. The longest data available is for measurement of particulate matter of less than 10 micrometers in diameter (PM10) in Thimphu. PM10 is generally understood as “repairable dust” that is inhaled by humans.
Figure 34 shows an increasing trend in the level of PM10 concentration over the period 2004-2015 in Thimphu. Although, the levels are still within the national permissible limits for mixed area, it is exceeding the WHO guidelines and EU directives for annual average levels of PM10 emissions.
Image 123: Smoke from heating and cooking in Sakteng. Photo: Chencho Norbu, 2014.
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Figure 35 Annual average level of PM10 at Pasakha Industrial Estate
Figure 34. Annual average PM10 µg/m3 for Thimphu (NECS Station)
Figure 36 Annual average PM 10 levels for various stations
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The levels of PM10 at the Pasakha industrial estate have already exceeded the national permissible annual average PM 10 limits for industrial area (Figure 35). Deteriorating air quality in Pasakha was a factor in the relocation of a local school.
Annual average PM10 levels for Rinchending has exceeded the national permissible annual average limits for a mixed area (60 µg/m3) for all the years for which data is available (Figure 36).
Similarly for Bajothang, the annual average levels have exceeded the national permissible limits for mixed area for all the years for which data is available (Figure 36).
Annual average PM10 levels at Kanglung is within the permissible annual average national limits (50 µg/m3) for sensitive area (Figure 36). However, the levels have exceeded the permissible limits in 2013. The increased incidences of exceeding the permissible national limits indicate deterioration of overall air quality over the years.
Trends in greenhouse gas emissions As shown in the figure 37, the estimated total national GHG emissions have increased by 45% from 1,549.64 Gigagrams of Carbon dioxide Equivalent (GgCO2e) in 2000 to 2,253.333 GgCO2e in 2010. The emissions are highest from the agriculture sector due to relatively lower levels of emissions from the other sectors. The emissions from agriculture are predominantly from subsistence farming and therefore termed “survival emissions”. Moreover, the emissions from the sector have remained fairly constant over the years.
On the contrary, emissions from the other sectors have been increasing rapidly over the years. The emissions from the industrial processes have increased by 118.29% from 237.76 GgCO2e in 2000 to 519.00 GgCO2e in 2010. Emissions from the energy sector have increased from by 139.50 % from 260.31 GgCO2e in 2000 to 623.44 GgCO2e in 2010. Since 2009, the combined emissions from Energy
3 The estimated total emission for 2010 are preliminary. The figures will be updated through the 3rd GHG inventory.
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and industrial process have already exceeded the emissions from agriculture. The emissions from waste increased from 46.27 GgCO2e in 2000 to 118.60 GgCO2e in 2010
6.3 Impact
Human health According to WHO, air pollution has direct impact both on health of human and environment. PM 2.5, particulate matter of less than 2.5 micrometers in diameter, is among one of the most harmful air pollutants. Although particulate matter can cause health problems for everyone, certain groups of people are especially vulnerable. These sensitive groups include children, the elderly, exercising adults, and those suffering from asthma or bronchitis. There has been no study conducted for assessing the impact of air pollution in Bhutan to date.
Crop productivity Air pollution affects crop productivity. A pilot study conducted by Sherubtse College through support from Malé Declaration indicated that ground level ozone impact on the biomass of the Spinach in Kanglung.
Several media reports claims decreasing yield of fruits and vegetable to the increasing particulate matter concentration in the local area due to mining and industrial activities. A proper scientific study has to be conducted to ascertain the reports.
6.4 Response
Policies and strategies There are a number of existing Policies, Strategies, Standard and Legislations to promote cleaner modes of transport and industrial growth as detailed under Annexure II.
Fiscal measures and import restriction on vehicles As per the “Sales Tax, Customs and Excise Act of the Kingdom of Bhutan, 2000,” import of used or secondhand vehicles, machinery and equipment are restricted in the country. Import of two-stroke engine vehicles have also been banned. The minimum permissible engine standards are Euro III and Bharat III.
The revised customs duty and sales tax of June 2011, imposes differentiated duties and taxes on the import of vehicles based on the engine capacities. Higher cylinder capacity vehicles are liable for higher duties and taxes. Since June 2012, vehicles imports are also subject to a “green tax”. Electric vehicles and bicycle are exempted from all forms of taxes while hybrid vehicles are liable for green tax only. This is also to enhance energy security with improved air quality as co-benefit.
However at the same time, the system of providing vehicle quota which exempts import duty and other tax exemptions to those entitled to such quotas negates the efficacy of fiscal measures to manage congestion and pollution, in addition to balance of trade issues arising from increasing vehicle numbers.
Air pollution monitoring The NECS and competent authorities conduct periodic compliance monitoring of development activities in accordance with relevant provisions of Environment Assessment Act 2000 and NEPA
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2007. Monitoring of air pollution level at the workplace constitute core component of the environmental monitoring activities.
To monitor ambient air quality, automated monitoring stations have been established at Thimphu and Pasakha. An additional station is being constructed in Darla gewog, Chukha dzongkhag. All these stations will have capabilities to monitor other parameters in addition to particulate matter. In future, a station to monitor air quality in remote site will be established Chelela, between Haa and Paro.
Promotion of mass transit The government provides subsidy for operating the city bus services in Phuentsholing and Thimphu. Proposals are being developed to improve the efficiency and reliability of urban transport systems for Thimphu. The focus of the proposals are to increase fleet size of the city bus, frequency and to improve the bus stops and incorporate Intelligent Transport System measures to promote modal shift to public transport.
Electrification As of December 2015, almost the entire country has connected to the on-grid electricity supply scheme (BPC, 2015). This was achieved through accelerated rural electrification program. Since mid-2013, 100 units of electricity is provided free of cost in the rural area. The aim is to reduce the high fuel wood consumption in the rural homes.
Promotion of improved cook stoves and alternate source of energy The Department of Renewable Energy (DRE), with financial support from Global Environment Facility (GEF), Bhutan Trust Fund for Environmental Conservation (BTFEC) and United Nations Development Program (UNDP) has distributed about 8,000 numbers of improved efficient cooking heating stoves. Efficient cooking and heating stoves will reduce consumption of firewood and kerosene. In addition, DRE has distributed more than 2,000 numbers of solar water heating system and solar home lighting systems. A 300 kW wind power plant is also installed at Wangdue Phodrang.
Regional cooperation on trans-boundary air pollution Recognizing the concerns of trans-boundary air pollution in the region, the seventh meeting of the Governing Council of South Asia Cooperative Environment Programme (SACEP) in Malé, Republic of Maldives on 22 April 1998; the Malé Declaration on Control and Prevention of Air Pollution and its Likely Trans-boundary Effects for South Asia was signed by the Environment Ministers of Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Iran, Pakistan, Maldives, Nepal and Sri Lanka.
UNEP has also started a Joint Forum that brings together all the trans-boundary air quality management networks in Asia. Bhutan has regularly participated in the forum since 2010.
6.5 Recommendations
Revise air quality standard, strengthen its implementation and improve data management system
Revise appropriate existing air quality related standard, reflecting changing socio-economic conditions and strengthen its implementation.
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Strengthening regional cooperation to curb trans-boundary air pollution Strengthen regional cooperation under the Male’ declaration and other regional environmental initiatives to help curb impact of trans-boundary air pollution.
Increase coverage and parameters for air quality monitoring Install additional automated air quality monitoring stations to ensure adequate geographical representation of air quality status in the country. The parameters for air quality monitoring should be increased to accommodate at least primary air pollutant.
Promotion of vehicle emission control measures Measures such as eco-driving techniques and maintenance for efficient vehicle operation must be introduced within the curriculum of the vocational training institutes. Awareness campaigns and capacity building on eco-driving should be provided to general public and private driving training schools as well.
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Broadleaf forest constitutes 62.43% of total forest cover. Photo: Chencho Norbu
7. Biodiversity
Bhutan is endowed with rich biological diversity due to its geographical location and topography in the Eastern Himalayas. Bhutan has a wide range of ecological zones ranging from sub-tropical forests to alpine meadows and permanent snow and ice and has one of the highest species density (richness per km2) in the world.
7.1 Pressure
Extensive use of non-wood forest products The Forestry Facts and Figures 2015 lists more than 24 wild plants in use for food, medicine and other purposes as non-wood forest products (NWFPs). In general, NWFPs that generate income for the rural people are cordyceps, wild mushrooms, bamboo, lemongrass, medicinal plants and natural vegetable dyes (APFSOS II, 2009). In 2014, 113.4 MT NWFPs was collected and the amount increased to 653.7 MT in 2015.
Forest fire Forest fires have many implications for biological diversity. At the regional and local level, they lead to change in biomass stocks, air pollution, alter the hydrological cycle with subsequent impact on plant and animal species. The repeated burning is detrimental because it is a key factor in the impoverishment of biodiversity. Trends and figures on forest fire are discussed under Land section.
Habitat fragmentation In between 2011-2012, 152.7 ha of State land was allotted from protected areas and 2,561.40 ha of land from other State land area for development purposes (FRMD, DoFPS, MoAF, 2013). Trends, figures and indicators on increasing developmental activities are discussed under Land Section.
Infrastructure development Infrastructural development is a major threats to biodiversity. As socio-economic activities progress to meet the demand of rapidly increasing population and urbanization, farmlands and forests are lost to infrastructure development every year. Many hydropower projects, construction of transmission (high, medium and low voltage) lines, road construction and minerals and quarrying poses serious threat to both flora and fauna of the country. Trends, figures and indicators related to infrastructure development are described under Land Section.
Human wildlife conflicts Livestock depredation and crop damage are two major problems caused by wildlife, posing serious threats to livelihood and agro-biodiversity. Records show about 55% of the crop damage in Bhutan is attributed to wildlife and livestock killed by predators from 2002 to 2012 is 2,035. Figure 38 shows crop depredation, property damages and human casualty from human wildlife conflict for the period 2013 – 2105. The tedious guarding of crops (on average 110 nights in year) from wildlife have deleterious impacts on rural livelihood and quality of life (WCD, 2013).
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Figure 39 Forestry related offenses. (Source: MoAF, 2015
Forestry offenses Forestry offenses constitute extraction, conversion, possession, utilization, transportation, trade and disposal of forest resources (DoFPS 2011). The forest offenses starting from 2007 to 2011 indicates a decline in number of cases over the years (Figure 40). There were 230 cases in 2011 and 851 in 2014. In 2014 the cases comprised of 127 fishing, 420 timber related, 46 wildlife and 258 others. However, in 2015 the total number of offenses reported were 489 cases (DoFPS, 2014).
7.2 State
Annual average change in forest area Forest area is largely stable in Bhutan with minor local level changes. For details, refer Land Section.
Export of forestry products The main export of NWFPs in terms of revenue are Cordyceps and matsutake mushrooms. From 2008 to 2011, export of Cordyceps and mushroom fetched Nu. 324 million and Nu. 18 million (MoAF 2013). From 2012, Cordyceps exports were 198 kg, 874 kg in 2013, 666 kg in 2014, earning
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Nu. 101.59 million, Nu.258.81 million, and Nu.375.34 million, respectively. For mushroom, export volumes were 1,260 kg in 2012, 2,160 kg in 2013, and 3,280 kg in 2014 fetching Nu. 6.28 million, Nu. 7.02 million and Nu. 11.38, respectively (MoAF,2015).
Protected forest area The total land area under protected areas is 16,396.4 km2, accounting to 51.40 % of the country. It is made up of protected areas (42.70 %), biological corridors (8.60%) and the royal botanical parks (0.10 %). There are eight biological corridors, five national parks, four wildlife sanctuaries and one strict nature reserve (DoFPS 2011).
Threatened animal species There are 24 globally threatened mammal species in Bhutan of which one is critically endangered, 11 endangered and 12 vulnerable. The threatened mammal species found in the country is listed below. In terms of avifauna, 18 threatened species are found in Bhutan of which 4 are critically endangered and 14 vulnerable. There are 182 species of butterflies categorized as rare and threatened species (IUCN, 2016).
Table 8: List of Globally Threatened mammals’ species in Bhutan. Source: IUCN Redlist & NTWGP on Biodiversity , 2011 # Species Common Name Global Threat Category 1 Sus Salvanius/Porcula salvania Pygmy Hog Critically Endangered 2 Trachypithecus geei Golden Langur Endangered 3 Trachypithecus pileatus Capped Langur Endangered 4 Cuon alpinus Dhole/Wild Dog Endangered 5 Panthera tigris ssp. tigris Bengal Tiger Endangered 6 Panthera unica Snow leopard Endangered 7 Elephas maximus Asian elephant Endangered 8 Bubalus arnee Asiatic water Buffalo Endangered 9 Caprolagus hispidus Hispid Hare Endangered 10 Platanista gangetica Ganges River Dolphin Endangered 11 Lutrogale perspicillata Smooth-coated Otter Endangered 12 Prionailurus viverrinus Fishing Cat Endangered 13 Ailurus fulgens Red Panda Vulnerable 14 Rhinoceros unicornis One-horned Rhinoceros Vulnerable 15 Melursus ursinus Sloth Bear Vulnerable 16 Ursus thibetanus Himalayan Black Bear Vulnerable 17 Moschus chrysogaster Himalayan Musk Deer Vulnerable 18 Pardofelis marmorata Marbled cat Vulnerable 19 Neofelis nebulosa Clouded Leopard Vulnerable 20 Cervus duvaucelii Swamp Deer Vulnerable 21 Bos gaurus Gaur Vulnerable 22 Capricornis sumatraensis Serow Vulnerable 23 Budorcas taxicolor Takin Vulnerable 24 Myotis sicarius Mouse-eared Bat Vulnerable
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Image 14: Himalayan Monal (Lophophorus impejanus), above (female) and below (males). Photo: Bhutan Birding and Heritage Travels.
Wetlands/marshes According to Inventory of High Altitude Wetlands in Bhutan conducted by UWICE, there are 10,231 Ha of high altitude wetland/marshes comprising of supra-snow lake covering 5.23 ha, supra-glacial lake 2,855.48 Ha, glacial lake with 2,323.06 Ha, lakes 4,997.33 Ha and marsh covering of 49.733 Ha (Table 9). Such wetland are important migratory bird habitat. Phobjikha valley in Wangdue Phodrang and Bumdeling in Trashi Yangtse are important wintering ground for Black Necked Crane (Grus nigricollis).
Table 9 High Altitude wetland type and areas. Source: UWICE, 2010 Wetland type Lake Area subtotal (sqm)
Supra-snow lake 110 52,327 Supraglacial lake 495 28554801.3
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Glacial lake 637 23,230,604.6 Lake 1772 4,99,732,772.8
Marsh 63 497,334.4
Net trade in wildlife and captive bred species The net trade in form of revenue collected as fines for engagement in illegal forestry activities have increased from Nu.8.57 million in 2008-2009, Nu. 8.88 million in 2009-2010 to 10.19 million in 2010-2011 (DoFPS, MoAF 2011). Based on the wildlife products that were seized by the DoFPS from 2008-2012, the estimated value of these products were around Nu. 1.02 million and Nu. 29.3 million and Nu. 45.03 million in 2014 and 2015 respectively (DoFPS, 2015).
7.3 Impact
Extraction and exploitation of resources According to the report by UWICE, collection of cordyceps also results in environmental degradation through degrading shrub lands, littered landscapes, changing grasslands and associated forest degradation. Due to the increasing number of cordycep collectors, sustainability of the resource is also becoming an issue of great concern.
Loss of habitat Hydropower poses the greatest threat to the conservation of the White Bellied Heron. Roads and infrastructure facilities are concentrated along the river, increasing human settlements and related economic activities that threatens habitat of this endangered bird. The report also mentions that the herons were abandoning their habitat along Punatsangchhu in Wangdue Phodrang after it had been mined (RSPN, 2011).
Overall Black Necked Cranes arrival in Bhutan has remained consistent. However, Phobjikha saw an increasing trend, while arrival in Bumdeling has been declining steadily (RSPN, 2011).
Image 13: Phobjikha valley. Winter habitat for black necked crane. Photo: Chencho Norbu, 2015
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Deteriorating quality of forest The Forest Management Units (FMUs) located near the urban centers of Thimphu, Paro and Haa are under heavy pressure to meet the demand of timber and firewood for the population of these dzongkhags.
Observations made as per the report of Dhital and Tashi (2010), indicate that most of the hardwood stands have been removed for meeting the demand of firewood and was substituted by conifers. This has resulted in change in species composition of the areas. The report also states that interlines are supposed to be operated in the subsequent pass periods are disappearing as it is harvested for meeting rural timber demand. This has resulted in poor quality, sparsely populated stands for future passes.
Fragmentation of habitat Habitat fragmentation from installation of transmission lines, construction of hydropower plants and roads impacts the wildlife and aquatic habitat.
For instance, construction of 10,000 MW hydropower plants by 2020 would entail additional transmission lines of 1,416 KM of 400kV lines; 120 Km of 220kV lines; 110 km of 132kV lines; 10 km of 66kV lines.
Increasing demand for electricity and road services are discussed under Land Section.
Image 14: Installation of power transmission lines entails clearing large corridor of forests. Photo: Thinley Namgyel.
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Figure 41 Map of medium voltage power transmission lines passing through protected areas and biological corridors. Data Source: BPC, 2016
Ecological imbalance Invasive plant, animal, bird and fish species are of concern for ecological imbalance. Tithoniadiversifolia (tree marigold), Ageratina adenophora, Chromolaenaodorata and Eupotorium spp., climber Michenia sp., whitetop weed (Parthenuim sp.), Spanish Flag or LAVA (Lantana camara) and climbers like Bitter Vine (Mikania micarantha) causes damage to the favored plant species by suppressing their growth in plantations. Frequent weeding and removal entails heavy expenditure for the Government (Climate Summit 2011, Dhital 2009). Bark beetle (Ips scmuzinhoferin) attacks spruce and blue pine trees. According to NBSAP, 2014, Bhutan has a record of 46 global invasive species of which 11 are alien invasive.
7.4 Response
Implementation of policies and legal instruments Environmental Policy and legal instrument governing biodiversity are attached as Annexure: II.
Education and awareness Many government agencies, civil society organizations, schools and institutes carry out education and awareness activities on environment. Events like International Day for World Wildlife Day, March 3, Biological Diversity on May 22, World Environment Day, June 4 & 5, International Tiger Day, July 29, International Snow Leopard Day, October 23, and national events like Rhododendron
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festival, Social Forestry Day, June 2, Matsutake festival in third week of August are observed in the country. Most schools in the country has nature club and school agriculture program.
Exploring alternatives to timber usage in construction A two year Common Fund for Commodities (CFC) funded pilot project on bamboo value chain development for construction products was signed between International Network for Bamboo and Rattan (INBAR) and MoAF. The project aims to develop a bamboo sector that will provide a sustainable source of timber and promote as a suitable alternative for wood-based construction materials products. A number of residential and office space in the south are constructed of Bamboos by Department of Forest and Park Services.
Regeneration/afforestation As of December 2015, 17,485.66 Ha of plantation were created. Department of Forest and Park Services has created 632.44 Ha of plantation throughout the country in 2015. Bhutan also entered Genius World record by planting 49,672 tree seedlings in one hour by 100 people on June 2, 2015 during the commemoration ceremony of His Majesty 4th King (DoFPS, 2015)
Increased surveillance As of June 2012, DoFPS has 1475 personnel of which 733 works in territorial/regional areas, 269 in Park, 241 in Dzongkhag and the remaining 232 work at the head office (Bhutan RNR Stats 2012).
Human wildlife conflict In order to address the human-wildlife conflict, the DoFPS has developed the “Bhutan National Human Wildlife Conflict Management Strategy 2008”. An endowment fund is also established that provides some compensation to the farmers for the loss of their properties to wildlife and prevent retaliatory killing. The total fund generated as of December 2011 is Nu. 1,960,179.
Community based sustainable funding mechanism for wildlife depredation of crops and livestock is initiated. An endowment fund was established on eighth April 2011. As of 2015, a total of 56 gewogs have Trust Fund established with amount between Nu. 300,000 to 500,000 each.
Image 17: Chendibji village in Trongsa. Most settlements in Bhutan occur inside the forest, where human-wildlife conflict are the main issues. Photo: Chencho Norbu
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7.5 Recommendations
Incorporate biodiversity concerns into the EIA and SEA Incorporate biodiversity concerns in the environmental assessment process through incorporation of biodiversity into Environmental Assessment Act 2000 amendment. The terms of reference for carrying out the Environmental Impact Assessment must reflect need to consider biodiversity aspects.
Maintain minimum e-flows for aquatic life Strengthen implementation of relevant provision Water Ac of Bhutan, 2011 reflects legal requirement of to maintain minimum environmental flows in the rivers, mainly for hydropower projects.
Update list of flora and fauna and invasive alien species (IAS) DoFPS should periodically update list of flora and fauna database. Currently used data are from 1990s. Carryout comprehensive inventory of IAS and its ecological value and update the list accordingly.
Baseline information for aquatic species Baseline information on aquatic species should be collected for main river system in the country with particular focus on the river that has planned for hydropower plants by MoAF/DoFPS.
Demarcation boundaries for all protected areas All protected areas should have demarcation boundaries on the ground by the end of 11th YFP.
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Waste is emerging as major environmental issue. Photo: Thinley Namgyel.
8. Cross-cutting issues: Waste Management
Waste management is a major emerging environmental issue for Bhutan. Poor waste management practices threaten public health and the natural environment through pollution of water, air and the emission of greenhouse gas.
8.1 Pressure
Increasing waste generation The most extensive study on solid waste in Bhutan was conducted by the Ministry of Works and Human Settlement in 2008 and covered 10 municipal areas (Thimphu, Phuentsholing, Samste, Paro, Mongar, Gelephu, Damphu, Samdrup Jongkhar, Trashigang and Bumthang). The study found that municipal per capita waste generation was 0.53 kg/day. With rapid urbanization, increasing affluence, population growth the total amount of waste generated will increase.
The increasing availability of pre-packaged products with disposable bags and containers also leads to increased non-degradable wastes. A sign of the increasing affluence and disposable lifestyle is the observation of increased amounts of drinks and snack food packaging and disposable diapers appearing in litter and waste (Personal communication with Clean Bhutan, May 2016).
8.2 State
Municipal solid waste According to the first National Solid Waste Survey in the urban areas (MOWHS, 2008) the bulk of municipal solid waste is composed of organic matter at 58% (figure 42) followed by paper waste (17.21%) and plastic materials (12.73%). In most dzongkhags the common practice of waste management is open burning or dumping in open landfill. Waste segregation and recycling is minimal in most dzongkhags and collection of recyclable materials takes place on an informal basis. Recently in Thimphu, waste management has been outsourced under a public private partnership arrangement with segregation and recovery of recyclable and compostable materials. A brief on waste management in Thimphu City is described in Annexure IV.
0.67
58.05
3.694.72
0.37
2.56
17.21
12.73
Metals Organics Glasses Textiles/Leathers
Electrical & Electronics Others Paper/paper boards Plastic materials
Figure 42: Average composition of MSW from all sources. Source, MOWHS, 2008
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Image 18: Open landfill at Memelakha. Photo: Chencho Norbu, 2016
Collection of recyclable waste is slowly picking up across the country. According to information provided by Clean Bhutan, Sarpang collects 5-6 truckloads (approximately 25 MT) of cardboard, PET bottles and plastics on a monthly basis. Trongsa and Bumthang collects two truckloads (approximately 9 MT) of recyclable waste every month (Clean Bhutan, 2016)
Sewage management Septic tanks are the most prominent sewer management system for houses and buildings which are cleaned and emptied when it reaches its maximum capacity. Recently, there has been an introduction of eco-friendly wastewater treatment plant across many of the dzongkhags. The Eco-line bio film technology has been installed in the following places (Table 10):
Table. 10 Waste water treatment plant installed and under construction. Source: Sangsel Ecotrade, 2016
Areas Capacity (No. of people) 1. Trashigang 800 2. Wamrong 800 3. Gyalposhing 1,500 4. Samdrupjongkhar (LAP 1) 3,000 5. Sarpang (VTI) 1,000 6. Damphu 1,500 7. Trongsa (MHPA dam colony) 1,000 8. Trongsa (MHPA Residential) 1,000 9. Trongsa (MHPA Office colony) 400
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10. Bajo town 3,000 11. Ministers Enclave 500 12. Khuru town (under construction) 3,000 13. Samdrup Jongkhar (LAP 2) under construction 4,000
Medical waste Health facilities across the country generated 83,387 kgs of non-infectious waste and 2,655kgs of infectious wastes (Business Bhutan, March 26, 2016). Deep pit burial is the predominant method of disposal of health care wastes throughout the country. Infectious waste are autoclaved before disposal and the final waste is dumped into pit. There are four waste autoclaves in the country each in Thimphu, Mongar, Phuentsholing and Gelephu.
E-waste In 2007, electrical and electronic wastes formed only 0.37% of the total municipal wastes and it consisted mostly of printer cartridges from the offices (MOWHS 2008). A survey carried out by NIIT estimated that e-waste generated in Bhutan ranged from 1,105 – 1,810 metric tonnes in 2014 (Kuensel, January 2, 2016). The current practice of managing e-waste from government offices is by surrendering non-functional electronics/appliances to the Department of National Properties, while the e-waste generated by the private sector is usually repaired and reused and those beyond repair are sold to scrap dealers (Kuensel, January 2, 2016).
Industrial waste Pasakha Industrial Area (PIA) was established in 2003 and by 2010 there were 37 registered industries of which 11 are not operational (NTNU 2010). These industries manufacture TMT bars, ingots, billets, ferro alloys, calcium carbide, marble slabs, liquid oxygen, nitrogen, bitumen, beer, soap, and carbonated drinks.
There are 5 ferro alloys industries located in PIA which generate slag and micro silica as waste. The marble processing unit generates marble slurry and some marble chips as waste. Earlier the marble slurry was bought for brick and idol making in India but due to unfavourable market conditions this has discontinued and now the waste slurry is accumulated in the factory premises (NTNU 2010).
The common practice of industries had been to stockpile the waste in their premises and the Pasakha industrial landfill has been under operation only since July 2015. As per the report from the Compliance Monitoring Division (CMD), NECS, 1,476.37 tons of waste has been collected from July 2015 - March 2016.
8.3 Impact
Poor waste management and low civic sense has led to increased littering of road sides, trails, and other open areas leading to visual eyesore and lowering of the image of “Brand Bhutan”.
The difficult and steep terrain makes identification waste management sites such as landfills and dumping areas very difficult. This means that land fill sites are often not in the ideal locations in terms of geology or proximity to communities.
The non-biodegradable waste and other waste including hazardous materials from households and industrial areas has the potential to contaminate and pollute the surrounding environment
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including water bodies. Leachate management from the Thimphu municipal dump has been a challenge. In terms of e-waste; most modern electronic equipment such as television and computers became popular only recently in Bhutan and are expected to be used to its full life. Since there is no data and information on the number of electronics imported to the country, it is difficult to estimate the amount of e-waste generated and subsequently manage it.
8.4 Response
Policies and legislation Policy and legislation on waste management is detailed as Annexure II.
The recommendation from the National Conference on Sustainable Solid Waste Management (MoWHS, 2014) has identified requirement of strict enforcement of existing rules and regulations on waste management followed by adequate monitoring. The conference also noted that cleaning campaigns were not an effective and sustainable solution for waste management and it should only be used as an awareness initiative.
Some of the recommendations for specific dzongkhags/Thromdes from the National Conference on Solid Waste Management held in Thimphu in 2014 have been summarized in Annexure III.
Civil society and community mobilisation Clean Bhutan is a relatively new civil society organization that has been working to advocate and sensitize the citizens about behavior and habits to manage waste and to help reduce waste generation. Clean Bhutan works on mobilizing volunteers and focuses on clean rivers and tributaries, clean trekking routes and highways, and zero waste communities, villages and towns.
The Samdrup Jongkhar Initiative (SJI) under the Lhomon Society is working to develop a potential model to raise living standards in Samdrup Jongkhar dzongkhag. As part of its key focus areas, SJI is actively promoting zero waste strategies that are significantly reducing waste, building awareness and empowering communities.
The NECS in collaboration with schools under Thimphu Thromde, launched a program on Youth Action for 4Rs. The program aims to build a lasting and sustainable partnership in waste management with the schools; establish a conducive environment for fostering environmentally friendly thinking in our youth; and instill civic responsibility and good ethics in waste management in families and society by making our youth goodwill ambassadors in waste management. The Youth Action for 4Rs program has 10 schools from Thimphu Thromde, one monastic schools from Thimphu, six schools from outside Thimphu and Bhutan Archery Federation as a partner.
8.5 Recommendations
Provision of adequate support towards implementation of Waste Prevention and Management Act, 2009 and its Regulation, 2014
Provide adequate financial, technical and capacity building support to the implementing and collaborating agencies to effective implementation of Waste Prevention and Management Act, 2009 and its Regulation 2014
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Operationalization of the National Integrated Solid Waste Management Strategy, 2014
Implementing and collaborating agencies should prepare and implement action plan towards attaining “Zero Waste through maximizing resource recovery for creating sustainable waste management systems and protect the natural unique ecology of Bhutan” as reflected in the NISWM, 2014.
Promote public-private partnership Continue to encourage and incentivize private entities in carrying out waste management initiatives.
Landslide at Reldri School, Phentsholing. Climate change will intensify risk from such hazards. Photo: Tshering Tashi, 2015
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9. Cross-cutting issues: Climate Change
Bhutan is highly vulnerable to the adverse impacts of climate change. In addition to being a land locked and least developed country with a fragile mountainous environment, high dependence of the population on agriculture and the significant role of hydropower for economic development increases the vulnerability. Bhutan also faces increasing threats from climate hazards and extreme events such as flash floods, glacial lake outburst floods (GLOF), windstorms, forest fires and landslides.
9.1 Pressure
Global warming and climate change is a global phenomenon that has been attributed to human activities since the start of the industrial revolution (IPCC 2014). In Bhutan climate change is viewed as largely driven by global level activities but is affecting all sectors in Bhutan.
The emission of greenhouse gases from Bhutan is largely negligible at a global level and in fact Bhutan’s vast forests absorbs more CO2 than total GHG emissions indicating that the country is a net sink of greenhouse gases (NEC 2011).
9.2 State
In terms of GHG emissions, the emission of greenhouse gases from Bhutan are increasing with increasing socio-economic development but are still within the sink capacity of the forests and is further discussed under Air Section.
The current vulnerabilities to climate change are highlighted in the National Adaptation Programme of Action (NEC 2005) and the Second National Communication to the UNFCCC (NEC 2011). Bhutan is vulnerable in all key sectors of water, agriculture, human health, energy (hydropower), forests and biodiversity and natural disasters. Some of the observed vulnerabilities and possible impacts are seen in dwindling water sources, increasing pests, increasing incidences of forest fires and changing monsoon patterns as described in the other sections in this report.
The rapid melting of glaciers and increasing risk of GLOF is of particular concern in Bhutan. Glaciers are reported to be melting at rates of 30-40m per year for debris covered glaciers and 8-10 meters per year for debris-free glaciers (NEC 2011).
9.3 Impact
Biodiversity It is anticipated that there will be a general northward/upslope migration of Bhutan’s forests in the future under rising average temperatures (NECS 2011). There has already been observations of Blue pine (Pinus wallichiana) encroachment into spruce/maple/birch forests and decline of Abies densa forests on the mountain tops in the 1980s due to moisture stress (Gratzer et al., 1997).
The Montane cloud forests of Bhutan which occur around 2,500 masl located in the inner deep valley slopes of Dochula-Bajo series is also vulnerable to increased incidence of moisture stress from rising temperature (Wangda and Ohsawa, 2010). This could lead to habitat loss for some important relict plant species like Taxus, Magnolia, Tetracentron and endangered bird species such as hornbills (MoAF 2014).
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A study by Wangchuck Centennial Park (2011) on the vulnerability in Wangchuck Centennial Park indicates considerable loss of habitats for the snow leopard and other endangered and globally significant birds under future climate. Habitats of Black Necked Crane and White Bellied Heron are likely to be at additional risk. Intensity and incidences of pests and diseases is also likely to increase.
Water resources Climate change causes glacial retreat, glacial lake outburst floods and reduction of water resources. The fifth Assessment Report of IPCC states with high confidence that glaciers are continuing to shrink almost worldwide. Projections from the SNC 2011 also indicate glacier retreat rates of 78.2 m to 168 m for the period 2010-2039 for debris covered glaciers and of 20.1 m to 43.2 m for the period 2040-2069 for debris free glaciers. As a result of its impact on water, climate change threatens hydropower for clean energy and other socio economic activities (NEC 2011).
The climate scenarios in the SNC (2011) project a moderate increase in mean total annual rainfall for the period 2040-2069 period, with the wet monsoon season getting wetter and the dry winter season getting warmer and drier. There may be more incidences of water shortages especially during the dry winter season. More specifically, rainfall is expected to particularly increase in the south of the country especially during the monsoon period when water is already abundant (NEC 2016).
Air quality Projected climate change could exacerbate respiratory disorders associated with reduced air quality in urban and rural areas. Studies have indicated that high temperatures are an enabling condition for high ozone concentrations at ground level (IPCC 2007), which causes adverse public health and ecosystem impact.
Higher temperatures, decreased soil moisture, extended periods of drought due to climate change enhances risk of wildfires, leading to air pollution. Climate change will also affect aeroallergens which are pollens of specific seasonal plants. Studies have indicated that there will be earlier onset
Image 19: High altitude glacial lakes of Lunana. (Left to right: Bechung, Raphstreng and Thorthormi lake). Thorthormi lake was identified as one of the most dangerous glacial lakes in Bhutan and was the subject of
the first NAPA project to reduce risk of GLOF. Photo: Chencho Norbu, 2010
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of pollen season, possibly enhanced seasonal pollen loads in response to higher temperature and longer growing season (Kinney 2008).
Land use and land use change Climate change is likely to exacerbate soil erosion, cause floods and landslides leading to further reduction in biomass, physical and chemical degradation of land (UNCCD 2015). For example, extreme precipitation can reduce productivity of land by washing off top soil. Climate change and land degradation has potential to disrupt ecological and land use systems which in turn affect food and water supplies leading to negative impacts on livelihoods and adaptive capacity. 9.4 Response
Institutional arrangements The National Environment Commission is the highest level climate change committee. A Multi-Sectoral Technical Committee on Climate Change (MSTCCC) was established by the NEC in 2010 with members from line agencies including representatives from private and civil society organizations and serves as the technical level body for coordinating climate change activities. A Climate Change Division was established within the NECS in 2009.
Carbon neutral declaration The Constitution of Kingdom of Bhutan mandates a minimum of 60% of Bhutan’s total land area to be kept under forest cover for all times. This mandate forms the cornerstone of Bhutan’s commitment to remain carbon neutral, where emissions from Bhutan will be kept below the sink capacity of the forests. The carbon neutral commitment was initially declared in 2009 at the 15th Conference of Parties to UNFCCC, and again included in Bhutan’s Intended Nationally Determined Contribution to towards the finalization of the Paris Agreement in 2015.
Low emission development strategies and action plans Efforts are underway to build capacity towards achieving the carbon neutral commitment under various projects, and two Low Emission Development Strategies (LEDS) and three Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions (NAMAs) are being developed. These strategies are action plans geared towards reducing emission from industrial, transport, waste and building sectors.
Other national initiatives that contribute to mitigation of climate change include sustainable land management, livestock improvement, reforestation programmes and alternative renewable energy sources wherever feasible.
Implementing adaptation action Adaptation to climate change in Bhutan is being undertaken under several projects and programs, through implementation of the National Adaptation Program of Action (NAPA). The first NAPA project successfully reduced risks and vulnerabilities from glacial lake outburst floods in the Punakha and Wangdi and Chamkhar valleys” (NECS, 2012). The second NAPA project currently under implementation will enhance national, local and community capacity to prepare for and respond to climate induced multi hazards to reduce potential lossees of human lives, national economic infrastructure, livelihood and livelihood asset (NEC, 2016).
Other adaptation action is being taken by the Ministry of Agriculture and Forests through a Sectoral Adaptation Program of Action (SAPA) to enhance the resilience of Bhutan’s rural households to the
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effects of climate change. The Ministry of Health also implemented a pilot project on health adaptation to climate change to assess risk and develop an integrated surveillance to enhance effective management of climate sensitive health risks, improve capacity to respond to climate-sensitive health risks and emergency preparedness and disease prevention measures.
An Ecosystem Based Adaptation (EbA) project for Thimphu is being developed to strengthen the adaptive capacity by raising public awareness of the impacts of climate change and the benefits in urban areas through EbA interventions.
National adaptation plans Adaptation in the medium to long run will be addressed through the planning and implementation of national adaptation plans (NAP). The NAP process was established at COP16 of UNFCCC and the primary objectives of NAPs are to reduce vulnerability to the impacts of climate change and to integrate climate change adaptation into policies, programmes and plans. A proposal has been drafted to develop Bhutan’s first NAPs and the NAP process in Bhutan will be synchronized with the five year development planning cycles and also the reporting cycles of the Paris Agreement.
REDD+ Bhutan is preparing to participate in the REDD+ program under the under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). REDD+ mechanism is designed to reduce emission from deforestation and forest degradation and enhance carbon sequestration through sustainable management of forest resources, using market and financial incentives. The Department of Forest and Park Services is leading the readiness program. REDD+ mechanism has potential to generate carbon revenues as well as non-carbon co-benefits and contributes to Bhutan’s sustainable development through improved management of forest resources, forest law enforcement and governance.
Image 20: Climate smart agriculture practice. Photo Chencho Norbu
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9.5 Recommendations
Develop a climate change policy or a long term comprehensive strategy Develop a climate change policy or a long term comprehensive strategy that covers mitigation, adaptation and means of implementation. The strategy should also look at ways to integrate climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction, mitigation with health, gender and all other cross cutting issues.
Increased coordination for access to climate finance Improve coordination mechanism to access climate finance. The financing options and strategy should align with the national priorities as set out by the various national documents that reflects local needs and priorities. Information on such sources should be made available by the various focal agencies of the different climate funds and donors to sectors and other implementers.
Enhance knowledge generation on the impact of climate change Improve knowledge generation process, which will provide the scientific basis for climate actions. Research capacity of the national institutions, especially within Royal University of Bhutan, should be enhanced through systematic transfer of knowledge to empower local experts.
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Implementation of Recommendations in Bhutan Environment
Outlook 2008
10. Implementation of Recommendations in Bhutan Environment Outlook 200810.1 Land
# Recommendation Responsible Agency
Implementation Status If not Implemented
(why? Reason/s) 1 Formulate integrated land use policy and legislation
to ensure a multi-disciplinary and coordinated approach to land use, and to ensure that inappropriate land use does not take place and that land use is based on land capability and carrying capacity.
Land Commission in coordination with other stakeholder Ministries.
Land policy (2010) is still in draft form with NLC.
2 Develop land capability classification and land use and management guidelines, in order to facilitate land use planning and management based on the capability of the land.
Land Commission in coordination with other stakeholder Ministries .
NSSC is in the process of working on digital soil mapping.
3 Develop a National Action Plan for Sustainable Land Management, for a more comprehensive coverage and scope of future sustainable land management initiatives.
Ministry of Agriculture and Department of Forest .
National Action Program to Combat Land Degradation was developed in 2010 and in 2014. The NAP was realigned to the UNCCD 10 year’s strategy.
4 Develop and implement sustainable land management techniques, enlisting experiences and lessons from the Land Management Campaign, Sustainable Land Management Project and other similar initiatives.
Ministry of Agriculture.
The Sustainable Land Management is now implemented as a regular program through the Land Management Unit at NSSC. SLM technologies and approaches developed and or adopted from
I
elsewhere after modification to suite our conditions are being promoted and implemented in the field in collaboration with farmers, Dzongkhag and Gewog extension and regional research centres. Bhutan is now one of the 82 countries to join the UNCCD/GM LDN Target setting program to be implemented from 2018 till 2030.
5 Enact a Grazing Act, which among other things provides for management and improvement of grazing lands through physical interventions.
Ministry of Agriculture
Chapter 10 of Land Act contains specific chapter on Tsamdro
6 Develop and implement community-based forest fire management approaches as a strategy to address the recurrent phenomenon of forest fire using community structures and social mobilization mechanisms. Pilot activities on community-based forest fire management have been initiated at two sites in eastern Bhutan. These activities will need to be closely monitored and lessons enlisted to develop and scale up community based forest fire management approaches across the country.
Department of Forestry, Ministry of Agriculture, Ministry of Home and Cultural Affairs
CFMG has been established Community Forest Management Plan Prescription in place. Risub/Mesub under community initiative. Forest Fire volunteer program initiated.
7 Strengthen the implementation of environmental codes of practice for various infrastructure
National Environment Commission
II
development activities through training of engineers, both in the government and private sector.
Secretariat and Ministry of Works and Human Settlement
8 Improve solid waste management by means of introduction of waste segregation system at the collection points and employment of proper landfill management practices. There is also need to develop adequate infrastructure and facilities for management of health care waste. Solid waste surveys should be carried out in all the major urban centers to derive data on all types of solid waste and consequently aid development of solid waste management system in the urban centers.
Ministry of Works and Human Settlement.
SWM for Thimphu considered under PPP with Greenerway. Reclamation of Memelakha Landfill in Thimphu completed yet the landfill still is over capacity. National solid Waste Survey in the urban areas conducted in 2008
Funds lacking for full implementation of ISWM and its awareness.
9 Formulate an anti-littering Act, providing for regulatory measures to curtail littering, including imposition of fines and penalties.
National Environment Commission in coordination with municipal authorities.
Waste Prevention and Management Act, 2009 enacted. Conducted nationwide sensitization workshop. Waste Regulation 2012 developed.
10 Promote the concept and practices of reduce, reuse and recycle. A detailed assessment of existing and potential opportunities to reduce, recycle and reuse various types of waste should be carried out and recommendations made for integration in the solid waste management programme.
National Environment Commission in coordination with Ministry of Works and Human Settlement, municipal authority.
Waste Regulation contains provision of promoting 3 Rs.
As a concerted effort in reducing the use of plastic bag, the RSPN has initiated sale of cotton and jute bag project
III
under Clean Bhutan Program. The project is implemented by private entrepreneur Happy valley.
Youth Action for 4 Rs initiated with Thromde schools in Thimphu (as of May 2016, it has 10 schools from Thromde, One Monastic School from Thimphu and six schools from outside as partner to program)
Municipal waste segregated and collected by Greenerways.
11 Expand waste recycling initiatives. A first step would be to enhance the capacity of the existing PET bottle recycling unit at Thimphu and then to set up PET bottle recycling units in additional towns such as Paro, Wangduephodrang, Bumthang, Gelegphu and Samdrup Jongkhar where there are significant number of hotels and restaurants. Another possible step would be to establish a paper recycling unit in Thimphu, where the huge numbers of offices belonging to government, private and international agencies potentially generate tons of scrap office paper every day. Incentives/subsidies should also be provided for recycling initiatives/ activities
National Environment Commission Secretariat in coordination with private sector companies, Ministry of Finance.
Installed PET shredding plant through a joint collaboration of Clean Bhutan Project- RSPN and TCC, for Thimphu, Gelephu, Phentsholing, PET shredding plant started in Paro and Trashigang (Dejung’s initiatives) by hotels and resorts in the Dzongkhags;
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In Thimphu. Greenerways and Jungshina Paper are recycling paper. Athang has initiated reuse/refill of printer cartridges. The composting plant in Serbithang is fully functional since Nov 2010 for the organic wastes produced from the centenary vegetable market.
12 Conduct forest resources assessment to determine the nature and extent of deforestation, and forest cover by density class. This will give a picture of the forest quality.
Department of Forests, Ministry of Agriculture.
National Forest Inventory project initiated in 2012 and will be completed in December 2016.
13 Reduce timber use. With high consumption of timber in Bhutan, including out-of-plan harvesting, forest management units can be degraded rapidly. The use of less timber intensive construction practices for Bhutanese architecture should be explored and encouraged. This may require encouragement of innovations to replace or reduce wood with modern materials for decorative and structural elements in modern Bhutanese buildings
Department of Forests - MOA, Ministry of Works and Human Settlements
Studies done by DUDES for timber shuttering replacement by steel plates. Bhutan Green Building Guideline 2013 in place.
14 Funds for reforestation and afforestation. Since present budget amounts are inadequate to ensure survival of forest plantations, adequate financing must be provided for planting and maintenance of forest
GNH Commission, Ministry of Finance,
Forestry CDM not viable. Hydropower project as carbon offset project.
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plantations. Small scale CDM and other carbon offset projects may also be explored.
Department of Forests - MOA
10.2 Water Sl No
Recommendation Responsible Agency
Implementation Status If not Implemented (why? Reason/s)
1 Establish water quality standards for domestic use based on field research and keeping in view existing criteria and standards used by other countries and the World Health Organization.
National Environment Commission incoordination with Ministry ofHealth.
Bhutan Drinking Water Quality Standard, 2016 developed. Ambient Water Quality S tandard and Industrial Effluent Discharge Standard developed and in place.
2 Formulate an integrated water resources management plan using a holistic perspective that takes into account the multiple uses and functions of water resources.
National Environment Commission Secretariat incoordination with Ministries ofAgriculture, Economic Affairs, Works and Human Settlement, and Health.
National Integrated Water Resource Management Plan 2016, developed.
Water Regulation of Bhutan 2014 developed River Basin Management Plan 2016, developed.
3 Water Resources Management vs. Climate Change Impacts: Climate change will have serious impacts on Bhutan’s water resources. The apparent threats due to GLOFs triggered by the fast-melting glaciers in the Himalayas are more prominent as our understanding of the science of climate change due to global warming is becoming well established. GLOFs will have serious
National Environment Commission and other Ministries and Agencies related to Water.
Water Act of Bhutan 2011 enacted WRCD established in NEC.
Adaptation Priorities prepared under SNC,
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impacts on life, properties and infrastructure development in the country. Climate change can also have serious implications on the natural flow-regulating capacity of glaciers thereby affecting the water resources in general and the sustainability of our hydropower plants in particular. Therefore, a coordinated approach to water resources management is more pertinent now than ever before.
and , priorities are also identified under Bhutan Climate Summit, National Thematic Papers.
4 Strengthen water quality monitoring and analysis capacity. This should include establishment of a network of water quality monitoring units throughout the country in a phased manner. To build on existing capacity and optimize use of limited resources, an option worth exploring would be of combining these units with the existing hydrometeorology stations managed by the Department of Energy. If this option is chosen, collaborative linkages between the NECS and DoE will need to be institutionalized for technical backstopping, data sharing and analysis. Another recommendation related to strengthening of water quality monitoring and analysis capacity is to expand the existing network of river sediment recording stations to cover more locations and rivers.
National Environment Commission Secretariat in coordination with Department of Energy.
Hydromet services division upgraded to DHMS, MoEA in 2012.
5 Carry out river water quality baseline survey in the southern stretches. This is required to establish a comprehensive national river water quality baseline.
NECS.
6 Declare a stretch of river basin or sub basin as totally protected to keep it free from any kind of intrusive development such as road construction, industrialization and hydropower development. Such a river basin will be useful for ecological research and
National Environment Commission Secretariat, Nature
Pilot river (Aii chu and Chamkhar chhu identified and submitted to NEC for approval.
Not done
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comparative assessments of protected and non-protected river basins/ sub-basins to aid future decision-making.
Conservation Division, National biodiversity Centre.
7 Expansion of Sewerage System in Thimphu and Phuentsholing. In order to minimize pollution of river water, the sewerage system in Thimphu and Phuentsholing should be expanded to cover more areas of the cities. For instance, in Thimphu, the coverage of the sewerage system currently is only 19% whereas, a study conducted by ADB suggests that the population of Thimphu is expected to grow to 130,000 people by the year 2016. Therefore, the above trends indicate increasing pressure on our water resource and expansion of the sewerage system is a must, in order to cater to the needs of the rapidly expanding areas of the cities.
Ministry of Works and Human Settlement, City Corporations of Thimphu and Phuentsholing.
ADB has agreed to support for the construction of a new sewerage plant in principle and will be implemented by TCC. The site is located at the downstream of the existing Babesa sewerage plant. Installation of new sewer lines of approx. 1 km at the main core areas of Thimphu completed No plans for expansion of Phuentsholing sewerage system.
8 Introduction of waste water treatment and sewerage management facilities in additional urban centers. Apart from Thimphu and Phuentsholing, other urban centers do not have waste water treatment and sewage management facilities. There is a need to introduce these facilities in other urban centers based on criteria such as population size, severity of water pollution problem and techno-economic feasibility.
Department of Urban Development and Engineering Services, Ministry of Works and Human Settlement, Dzongkhag Municipal Authorities.
Eco-line plant has been implemented in various Dzongkhags (Trashi Gang, Wamrong, Gyalposhing, Samdrup Jongkhar, Sarbang, Damphu, Trongsa (MHPA residential, dam and office colny), Bajo Town, Khuru Town,
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Minister’s enclave (Thimphu). , Open Effluent treatment plant installed for Tala colony in Gedu.
9 Formulate and enact legislation and regulations pertaining to water pollution. In order to provide legal and regulatory framework for the implementation of water quality standards and mediation or litigation of disputes/ damages arising from water pollution, there is the need to enact legislation and regulations related to water pollution. Ongoing work on Bhutan Water Act, the 2002 draft of which incorporated a chapter on water pollution, needs to be expedited and at the same time the chapter on water pollution needs to be strengthened.
NECS Water Act of Bhutan, 2011, adopted. Water Regulation of Bhutan 2014 developed Ambient and Effluent discharge standards developed.
10.3 Air Sl No
Recommendation Responsible Agency
Implementation Status If not Implemented (why? Reason/s)
1 Improvement of mass public transport system. While the overall scope of developing mass public transport system in the country is restricted by the small number of commuters and geophysical constraint, there may be the possibility to expand the existing city bus service in Thimphu and introduce a new one in Phuentsholing.
Road Safety and Transport Authority, Thimphu City Corporation, Phuentsholing City Corporation and Bhutan Post
Existing City Bus Service expanded to Chamgang, Khadsarapchu, Boegana and Hongthso. A Study on Urban Transport of Thimphu done by DUDES and presented to Bhutan Post. Bus rapid transit proposal for Thimphu by MoIC and IFC.
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City bus service started in Phuentsholing by Bhutan Post. Installed bike lane along Royal Boulevard, (swimming pool road). Transport Master plan, and Transport Vision 2040.
2 Introduction of electric passenger buses and cabs. There is the need to look at the possibility of introducing electric buses and cars in view of the affordability and abundance of electricity in our country. Introduction of electric buses may be possible along routes with relatively gentle gradient, e.g. Babesa-Jungshina route in Thimphu. Introduction of electrical cabs may be possible through state subsidy.
Road Safety and Transport Authority, Thimphu CityCorporation, and Bhutan Post.
Proposal made, but not implemented (reviewed under BRT) Electric car introduced. Thunder Motors exploring feasibility of battery charging and swapping stations. Charging stations installed by GNHC in collaboration with BPC in Thimphu and plans to extend it on Thimphu – Paro Highway.
Lack of fund
3 Explore the possibility of alternative fuels. The possibility of introducing alternative fuels such as compressed natural gas, biogas, wind energy, hydrogen fuel, and solar energy may also be explored.
National Environment Commission Secretariat, Department of Trade, and Department of Energy.
Pilot Biogas plant established in Paro and Samtse; 2,800 biogas systems promoted by 2013 with support from ADB. Pilot wind energy project installed (800 Kw) at
Not feasible for CNG as per the surface transport master plan.
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Rubesa, Wangdue Phodrang by DRE. Bioenergy Need Assessment, 2011, PPD, MoAF. Solar and Wind Potential assessment by NREL, 2009.
4 Develop a comprehensive network of pedestrian walkways in the urban centers, starting with Thimphu and Phuentsholing, to promote walking and reduce use of vehicles.
Ministry of Works and Human Settlements, Thimphu and Phuentsholing City Corporations
No comprehensive network as such but footpaths has been constructed by TCC.
Budget constraints, land issues and lack of proper planning for construction of footpaths.
5 Full enforcement of vehicular emission standards. Production of vehicle emission test certificate should be made mandatory during annual vehicle road worthiness inspections. Furthermore, traffic police should be required to check vehicle emission test certificate when checking driving license, vehicle registration certificate and insurance certificate.
Road Safety and Transport Authority and Royal Bhutan
Traffic Police Department.
Ongoing and data reporting issues from RSTA and private. Testing centers. Vehicle Emission Standard enforced. Conducted capacity building of Traffic Personnel and handed over Equipment to Traffic Police.
6 Introduction of fiscal instruments to discourage vehicle import. At the present, soft taxation and easy bank loans aid acquisition of motor vehicles. Heavier taxation structure for vehicle import and higher interest on motor vehicle loans would deter acquisition of motor vehicles.
National Environment Commission, Ministry of Economic Affairs, Ministry of Finance and
Revised rate of sale tax and custom duty on the import of vehicles 2013 Banned import of luxury cars from May 2009. Introduced green tax in 2012.
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various financial institutions.
7 Establishment of regular ambient air quality monitoring and reporting system. There is an obvious need to establish a network of regular ambient air quality monitoring units covering all major urban and industrial centers. Where such centers are expansive, more than one unit will be required to capture site-related variations. For instance, in Thimphu there could be at least two additional units—one at Changzamtog Industrial Estate and the other in the city center—besides the one existing in Tashichhoe Dzong premises. Similarly, monitoring stations should also be established in Phuentsholing and Pasakha Industrial Estate. Once a network of regular monitoring units has been established, NECS could launch a “Pollution Watch” reporting system in association with the Bhutan Broadcasting Service Television to inform the public about the pollution levels in major industrial and urban centers on a regular basis and issue public alerts whenever pollution levels cross permissible limits. In India, the Eureka Forbes Institute of Environment is implementing such a public reporting system in association with the NDTV television network.
National Environment Commission Secretariat in coordination with Bhutan Broadcasting Service.
Monitoring station established in Sherubtse College representing rural, CST, Rinchending for sensitive area, Pasakha Industrial estate for industrial area, Gomtu (PCA) for urban areas. In addition to existing monitoring station at NEC rooftop, additional station installed at City Police office.
Air quality index broadcasted daily on BBS television and NEC website.
Climate Observatory stations installed at Thimphu in Thai Pavilion and Hel Dara at Geddu.
8 Environmental performance reporting by industries. There is a need for industries to integrate environmental performance reporting in their regular reporting system. Larger industries with potentially significant environmental impacts may need to produce separate environmental performance reports.
Ministry of Economic Affairs and National Environment Commission Secretariat.
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Such reports should specifically outline the performance of the industries against the various environmental standards and norms set by the NECS and MEA. Besides catering to NECS environmental reporting requirements, industries showing good environmental record can enhance their public image and use it for marketing purpose. In addition, industries should be encouraged to apply for international standards such as the ISO certification.
9 Formulate and enact a Clean Air Act and supporting regulations. This is needed to provide a legal and regulatory basis for enforcement of emission standards and norms and for mediation or litigation of disputes/ damages that occur as a result of air pollution.
NECS Provisions covered under
NEPA, 2007.
Provision covered under NEPA, 2007
10.4 Biodiversity Sl No
Recommendation Responsible Agency
Implementation Status
1 Revise the totally protected species list, based on a set of national, regional and international criteria including the Red List of Threatened Species and CITES Appendices. The revision is ongoing but it needs to be expedited.
DoF, MoA Annex to FNCR 2010 revised. Joined CITIES. Became Member of IUCN in 2012.
2 Develop and implement human-wildlife conflict management strategies, using an integrated approach that combines fiscal (e.g. monetary compensation), social (e.g. community mobilization and awareness) and technological (e.g. planting of chilly along the periphery of agricultural fields to ward off elephant raids) interventions.
DoF, MoA Strategies developed and under implementation. Trust Fund/Endowment Fund for human wild life conflict established even at Gewog level.
3 Operationalize the conservation management of Khaling Wildlife Sanctuary and Torsa Strict Nature Reserve, beginning with the instatement of staff,
DoF, MoA KWS under operation Toorsa SNR renamed as Jigme Khesar SNR
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development of conservation management plans, and construction of basic infrastructure such as park management office and warden posts.
Rapid Biodiversity Survey completed for Torsa SNR. Office established in Haa. Reserve in operation from 2011.
4 Strengthen the Agro Biodiversity Conservation Programme, through increased national funding, staff training and improved coordination between NBC, RNR Research Centers, and regional and dzongkhag agriculture and livestock sector programmes.
National Biodiversity Center, Ministry of Agriculture.
Increased funding through , BUCAP, Coordination amongst various centers of the ministry and Dzongkhag RNR sectors have been improved. Animal gene bank upgraded in 2009 Plant gene bank.Strengthened Strong information dissemination though biodiversity fair, expos and publications, documents.
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5 Formulate legislation for biosafety. If such an Act is not considered viable at the present, then it is vital to ensure that all necessary biosafety needs are fully incorporated in the rules and regulations for implementation of the Biodiversity Act of Bhutan 2003, the formulation of which is underway at the present.
National Environment Commission Secretariat and National Biodiversity Center, Ministry of Agriculture.
Biosafety Act of Bhutan 2015
10.5 General Recommendations Sl No
Recommendation Responsible Agency
Implementation Status
1 Introduce integrated rural-urban planning, to address the issues of rural-urban migration and balanced regional urban development.
Planning Commission Secretariat, Ministry of Home and Cultural Affairs, Ministry of Agriculture, and Ministry of Works and Human Settlement.
Introduced guidelines for construction in rural areas EDP in place. National Human Settlement Policy in place. Valley development plan under implementation in Bumthang.
2 Discourage further expansion of Thimphu and Phuentsholing urban centers, and focus on developing other urban centers especially those in the central and eastern regions of the country to bring about a more regionally balanced urban development process.
Ministry of Works and Human Settlement in coordination
National Urbanisation Strategy, 2008. Regional centers have been identified in Gyalpozhing, Samdrup Jongkhar, Gelephu and
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with Dzongkhag Administrations.
Bumthang by DUDES/MoWHS The Gelephu Regional Centre is ready for implementation.
3 Develop human resources for environmental assessment and monitoring. In close coordination with the Royal Civil Service Commission, develop human resources for environmental assessment and monitoring with the aim to appoint a Dzongkhag Environment Officer and an assistant in each dzongkhag, who can be fully dedicated to monitoring development activities, implementation of environmental assessment and clearance process and procedures and provide advisory services to the Dzongkhag Administration and Dzongkhag Yargye Tshogdu on environmental matters concerning development programmes and activities at the dzongkhag and geog levels. A beginning could be made with the strategic assessment of 10th Five Year Plan.
Planning Commission in coordination with NECS and Royal Civil Service Commission Secretariat.
Dzongkhag Environment Officer appointed in all the 20 Dzongkhags.
Capacity building of DEO in various field and in Environmental Assessment ongoing.
4 Establish institutional mechanisms for implementation of SEA. A starting point would be to create a SEA unit within the Planning Commission with trained staff (at least two) seconded from NECS or with new staff trained in SEA. Concurrently, SEA training should be conducted for planning officers in the line ministries and Dzongkhag Administrations and SEA responsibilities should be incorporated in their job description.
National Environment Commission Secretariat in coordination with Planning Commission Secretariat and Royal Civil Service Commission Secretariat.
The NEC in collaboration with NLC and GNHC has conducted SEA for Dhadum Industrial Estate at Samtse and Hydro Power Project in Basin II of Punatsangchhu.
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Annexes
Annexure I: DPSIR Framework
Drivers In general, the Drivers, or indirect forces, are defined as fundamental processes in society (which include demographic changes and economic and social processes) that cause more concrete Pressures on the environment (such as changes in land use, resource extraction, pollution and waste production, and the modification and movement of organisms). Key drivers include: demographics; consumption and production patterns; scientific and technological innovation; economic demand, markets and trade; distribution patterns; institutional and social-political frameworks and value systems. The characteristics and importance of each driver differ substantially from one region to another, within regions and within and between nations. For example, in the area of population dynamics, most developing countries are still facing population growth while developed countries are faced with a stagnant and ageing population. The resource demands of people influence environmental change.
Pressures Key pressures include: emissions of substances which may take the form of pollutants or waste; external inputs such as fertilizers, chemicals and irrigation; land use; and resource extraction. Human interventions may be directed towards causing a desired environmental change such as land use, or they may be intentional or unintentional by-products of other human activities, for example, pollution. The characteristics and importance of each pressure may vary from one region to another, but it is often a combination of pressures that leads to environmental change. For example, climate change is the combined result of emissions of different greenhouse gases, deforestation and land-use practices. Furthermore, the ability to create and transfer environmental pressures onto the environment of other societies varies from one region to another. Affluent societies with high levels of production, consumption and trade tend to contribute more towards global and transboundary environmental pressures than the less affluent societies which interact in more direct fashion with the environment in which they live.
State and Trends Environmental state also includes trends, which often refers to environmental change. Environmental change may be natural, human-induced or both. Examples of natural processes include solar radiation, extreme natural events, pollination, and background levels of erosion. Key forms of human induced environmental change include, for example, climate change, desertification and land degradation, biodiversity loss, and air and water pollution. Different forms of natural or human-induced changes interact. One form of change, for example, climate change, will inevitably lead to ecosystem change, which may result in desertification and/or biodiversity loss. Different forms of environmental change can reinforce or neutralize each other. For example, a temperature increase due to climate change can, in Europe, partly be offset by changes in ocean currents triggered by climate change. The complexity of the physical, chemical and biological systems constituting the environment makes it hard to predict environmental change, especially when it is subject to multiple pressures. The state of the environment and its resilience to change varies greatly within and among regions due to different climatic and ecological conditions.
Impacts The environment is directly or indirectly affected by activities in the social and economic sectors, contributing to change (either negative or positive) in human well-being and in the capacity/ability to cope with environmental changes. Impacts, be they on human well-being, the social and
I
economic sectors or environmental services, are highly dependent on the characteristics of the drivers and, therefore, vary markedly between developing and developed regions.
Responses Responses address issues of vulnerability of both people and the environment, and provide opportunities for reducing human vulnerability and enhancing human well-being. Responses take place at various levels: for example, environmental laws and institutions at the national level, and multilateral environmental agreements and institutions at the regional and global levels. The capacity to mitigate and/or adapt to environmental change differs among and within regions, and capacity building is, therefore, a major and overarching component of the response options.
The GEO framework has been used in the analyses of issues in all the chapters, both explicitly and implicitly. Its utility is in integrating the analyses to better reflect the cause-and-effect relationships, and ultimately society’s response in addressing the environmental challenges it faces.
II
The DPSIR Framework (Driver-Pressure-State-Impact-Response)
PRESSURES Stresses that human activities place on the environment
• Land use • Resource Extraction • release of substances • modification of organisms
STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT The condition of the environment
• Ecosystem health • Biodiversity Change • Pollution
DRIVING FORCES Socio-Economic and Socio-Cultural forces driving activities to meet human needs
• demographics • consumption • production • technology
RESPONSES Responses by the Society to the environmental situation
• Polices • Laws and Regulations • Community Activities
IMPACTS Effects of Environmental Degradation
• Changes in wellbeing (Health) • Changes in Ecosystem
Services
III
Annexure II: Policy Responses
Water
Water Act and Regulation The Water Act of Bhutan 2011 and Water Regulation of Bhutan 2014 is an important milestone in the development of the legal framework regarding the water resources management in the country. The scope of the Act and regulation covers water management in all its aspects: surface water and groundwater, both in quantitative and in qualitative terms. It also concerns the infrastructure dimension: river basins, irrigation systems, dams, water supply systems, etc.
Bhutan Drinking Water Quality Standards The Bhutan Drinking Water Quality Standard 2016 describes the quality parameters set for drinking water and the maximum permissible limit for each of the set parameters. Such primary standards protect public health by limiting the levels of contaminants in the drinking water.
Environmental Standards An environmental standard 2010 was developed for maintaining a clean, healthy environment. An environmental standard specifies the maximum permissible concentration and it seeks to regulate and reduce the amounts and/or complexity of wastes discharged and pollution to the environment and to keep emission levels below the set standard.
Wetland Regulation The Wetlands regulation under DoFPS restricts any significant conversion of wetlands areas and has provided the required standards and guidelines for the protection of our water resources.
Air
Policies and Strategies There are a number of existing Policies and strategies that are geared towards promoting low emission and efficient development in the transport sector. The key strategies include promotion of mass transport, non-motorised transport and cleaner modes of transport such as alternative fuels, electric cars and hybrid cars. Some of the key policies and strategies are listed below.
• National Transport Policy, 2006 • Road Sector Master Plan (2007-2027) • Surface Transport Development Plan 2007 • Economic Development Policy (2010) • Bhutan’s Second National Communication to the UNFCCC (2011) • Transport 2040: Integrated Strategic Vision (2011) • National strategy and action plan for low carbon development, 2012 • Bhutan’s Intended Nationally Determined Contribution (2015) • Bhutan’s National Environment Strategy for Sustainable Development (2015)
Emission Standards & Road worthiness certificate The national standards for vehicle emissions were set in 2004 for improving the efficiency of the vehicle fleet in the country. Environmental standards covering industrial emissions, ambient air quality, and workplace emission have been set by the National Environment Commission in 2010. Roadworthiness certificates for the vehicles are required to be renewed on an annual basis.
IV
Biodiversity
Implementation of Policies and legal instruments Following are some of the Policies and Acts supporting biodiversity conservation and use:
The Forest Act of 1969 was the first legislation related to the conservation of biodiversity. Later, the National Forest Policy was formulated in 1974 which highlighted biodiversity conservation in Bhutan. Subsequently, the Plant Quarantine Act 1993 was enacted to prevent the introduction of pests not already present or widespread in the country; control those pests already present by restricting their spread and by endeavoring to eradicate them; provide facilities for services for import of plant products; and extend cooperation in the prevention of movement of pests in international trade and traffic.
The Forest and Nature Conservation Act of Bhutan, 1995 lists a total of 30 species of wild animals and plants in Schedule I as totally protected species. These include 17 species of mammals, 1 species of fish, 5 species of birds and 7 species of trees. The list was further revised and approved by the Cabinet in February 2012 whereby 6 species of birds were included under Schedule I as totally protected. The Plant Quarantine Act 1993 and Seed Act of Bhutan 2000 were enacted to regulate import and export of plants and seeds and to prevent invasive species.
The Environmental Assessment Act 2000 directs the government to ensure that environmental concerns are taken into account when formulating, renewing, modifying and implementing any policy, plan or program. It requires the issuance of environmental clearance as a prerequisite to the approval of any development activity.
The Seed Act of Bhutan 2000 regulates the import and export of agricultural seeds and prevents introduction of unwanted plants and diseases. It also promotes the seed industry with the aim to enhance rural income and livelihood.
The Pesticide Act of Bhutan 2000 encourages the practice of organic agriculture and integrated pest management with centralized system that controls and limits the import, sale and use of pesticides.
The Biodiversity Act of Bhutan 2003 ensures regulating access to genetic resources in the country and promoting sustainable and use of biodiversity resources through benefit sharing and protecting local knowledge and interests related to biodiversity. The National Environment Protection Act of Bhutan 2007 has an entire chapter dedicated to the protection of forest, biodiversity and ecosystem integrity.
The National Environment Protection Act 2007 calls for conservation of natural resources to be based on a participatory approach aimed at achieving an equitable sharing of the costs and benefits of conservation among resources users. It also promotes the use of clean energy and alternative technologies in order to reduce use of fuel wood/timber from primary forests. It also calls for conservation and protection of wetlands, alpine regions, watersheds, and other vulnerable ecosystems in addition to the existing protected areas.
The Constitution of the Kingdom of Bhutan 2008 decrees that the country maintain a minimum of 60 percent of the total land under forest cover for all times to come. The government is tasked to conserve and improve the environment and safeguard the country’s biodiversity.
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The National Forest Policy 2011 ensures that Bhutan’s forest resources and biodiversity are managed sustainably to provide a wide range of social, economic and environmental benefits while maintaining the constitutional requirement of a minimum of 60% of the country’s total area under forest cover.
The Water Act of Bhutan 2011 establishes water resources as a state property and ensures that it is protected, conserved and/or managed in an economically efficient, socially equitable and environmentally sustainable manner.
Cross Cutting (Waste Management and Climate Change) The Waste Prevention and Management Act 2009 extends to all forms of waste whether solid, liquid, or gaseous, hazardous or non-hazardous, organic or inorganic, from residential, agricultural, commercial, medical or industrial sources, produced by any person, including materials being stored for recycling or in the process of recycling, including the transportation of waste in any form, and import and export of waste in Bhutan.
The Waste Prevention and Management Regulations 2012 identifies roles and areas of implementation of the implementing agencies for the purpose of establishing a sound waste management system including monitoring procedures at every organization level, through efficient collection, segregation, treatment, storage, transportation, reduction, reuse, recycling and safe disposal of solid, liquid and gaseous wastes.
In keeping with the requirements of the legislation and regulation of waste management, an Integrated Solid Waste Management Strategy was developed in 2014 to operationalize and institutionalize a comprehensive set of planning approach and practices for integrated solid waste management.
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Annexure III: Recommendation of Waste Management Conference # Dzongkhag/Thromde Waste
Generated (kgs/day)
Current Waste Management Practices
Status/Recommendations for Waste Management from Conference
1. Mongar 1332 - Wastes are collected and transported to landfill.
- SWM is only limited within the municipality
To extend SWM practices in gewogs and villages of Mongar. Recognizing the potential of Gyalposhing town to expand, there is a need to promote the involvement of private firms to take up the SWM services.
2. Gasa 50 - Open Dumping and burning of waste
To identify landfill site and construct landfill in collaboration with MoWHS To develop a sustainable waste management plan.
3. Samdrup Jongkhar 2500-3000 - Landfill - Compost plant
non functional - SamdrupJongkhar
Initiative is piloting and implementing waste management activities in Deothang
Segregation and outsourcing of waste collection encouraged.
Compost plant should be made operational and used. To act as the recyclable waste collection hub of the eastern Dzongkhags.
4. WangduePhodrangPhodrang
4800 (Bajothang)
- Pilot Project on ISWM in Bajothang
To work with PHPA I and II on SWM as they have some funds allocated for waste management.
5. Sarpang 4000 (Gelephu)
- Gelephu has a controlled sanitary landfill with HDPE lining.
- Door to door collection of waste
To continue advocacy and awareness programs to strengthen ongoing system.
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Annexure IV: Waste Management in Thimphu City
Thimphu Thromde has the highest population among urban centers in Bhutan at around 116,012 of the total 757,042 population in 2015.
Till December 2014 Thimphu Thromde was responsible to collect and dispose waste at the landfill without any segregation done at source and site. In 2010, Greener Way a private firm started collection of recyclable waste like plastic bottles and paper. Only as recent as 2015, Thimphu Thromde has outsourced collection and segregation of waste to Greener Way and with privatization the main focus has been on waste segregation at source. Other than this formal entity, there are several non-formal scrap collectors/dealers in Thimphu and other Urban Centers. Greenerway handles on average, 20–22 tonnes of PET bottles, 40–45 tonnes of waste paper and 18–20 tonnes of HDPE (mixed waste) per month (UNDP 2012).
The Thimphu Thromde inaugurated a composting plant in October 2010 at a cost of Nu. 8.1 million. The Ministry of Economic Affairs, Ministry of Agriculture and NEC coordinated efforts in establishing this plant. The compost plant in Serbithang receives about four tones (4,000kgs) of organic waste daily, except on Sundays. This is a threefold increase compared with previous years. The plant received 226 truckloads (141,259kgs per month) of wet organic waste from Greener Way (contracted to collect and segregate waste within Thimphu) within the last 4 months (Kuensel, 6 May 2015).
The landfill of Thimphu was built in 1994 within an area of 3.41 acres, with a capacity for 10 years but the landfill reached its capacity in 6 years. It is used more as a dumping ground because it does not fulfill the requirements of a landfill as it lacks concreting and plastic lining to prevent leakage of leachate and ducts to collect methane. Due to leakage of leachate and waste overflow, Thimphu Thromde now has plans to build a semi-aerobic landfill in Memelhakha which will also include a leachate collection facility.
The national waste survey 2008 has indicated a per capita waste generated of 0.53 kg/day and is estimated to generate 61486kg/day (61.48 tonnes/day) by the total population of Thimphu in 2015. The graph below shows the municipal waste generation projections of Thimphu till 2030. The population growth rate of Thimphu is 2.2% and solid waste management facilities will need to cater to the growing waste.
An interview with Clean Bhutan, a local Non-governmental Organization with a vision of zero waste Bhutan by 2030 stated that on an average; people living in Thimphu generate 0.3kg of waste per person per day. In particular, the dumping ground located between Taba and Lanjophakha saw a waste collection of approximately 8MT (8000kgs) per day in 2016. This is due to people living in Dechencholing, Taba and Thimphu Thromde bringing their waste to this dumping ground when they miss the collection truck and over weekends to throw waste collected over the week (Clean Bhutan May 2016 interview). Subsequently; 4-5 truckloads (approximately 20 MT) of recycling waste of cardboards and PET bottles are collected from Paro and Thimphu (Clean Bhutan May 2016 interview).
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Annexure V: Ecological footprint of Bhutan Report 2014
Another approach to assessing environmental sustainability and the state of the land is the ecological footprint (EF) method. Bhutan’s Ecological Footprint Report 2014 (GNHC & Otago Polytechnic, 2014) assesses the ecological footprint in terms of local (Bhutan) hectares (bha) and global hectares (gha). The two approaches uses bottom up assessment using national data to determine bha, and top-down global data sets to determine gha on the biocapacity of the land and demands on the available land.
The report states that using local data, Bhutanese are using less than half of the country’s biocapacity, which means that the ecological footprint (1.8bha/capita) is less much lower than what the land can support (4.7bha/capita) and 61% of the biocapacity is still available. Cropland EF is the only category not within biocapacity and is overconsumed by 51%. The report also states that using a global approach, the Global Footprint Network (GFN) has calculated Bhutan to be living within its biocapacity but found that it was firewood EF that was not within biocapacity and the EF of firewood was more than 50% of the forestland biocapacity.
Source: “Ecological Footprint of Bhutan and its Regions”, GNHC, Royal Government of Bhutan and Otago Polytechnic, New Zealand, July 2014
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Acronyms and Glossary of Bhutanese Terms Acronyms
AAC Annual Allowable Cut BEO Bhutan Environment Outlook BHU Basic Health Unit BLLS Bhutan Living Standard Survey BSER Bhutan State of the Environment Report BTEFC Bhutan Trust Fund for Environmental Conservation BWP Bhutan Water Partnership CBD Convention on Biological Diversity CCD Climate Change Division CFT Cubic Feet CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Fauna and Flora CMD Compliance Monitoring Division CO2 Carbon dioxide CTEM Clean Technology and Environmental Management DHMS Department of Hydromet Services DITT Department of Information Technology and Telecom DoE Department of Energy DoFPS Department of Forest and Park Services DoR Department of Roads DPSIR Driver-Pressure-State-Impact-Response DRC Department of Revenue and Customs DRE Department of Renewable Energy EC Environmental Clearance ECHAM European Center Hamburg Model EFRC Environment Friendly Road Construction EIMS Environmental Information Management System EU European Union FDI Foreign Direct Investment FFF Forest, Facts and Figures FMU Forest Management Unit FRMD Forest Resource Management Division GDP Gross Domestic Product GEF Global Environment Facility GHG Greenhouse gas GIS Geographic Information System GLOF Glacial Lake Outburst Flood GNH Gross National Happiness GNHC Gross National Happiness Commission HadCM Hadley Centre Coupled Model ICIMOD International Center for Integrated Mountain Development IPCC Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature JDNP Jigme Dorji National Park JDWNRH; Jigme Dorji Wangchuck National Referral Hospital
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JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency LDC Least Developed Country LCMP Land Cover Assessment Project MCM Million Cubic Meter MDG Millennium Development Goal MoAF Ministry of Agriculture and Forests MoEA Ministry of Economic Affairs MoIC Ministry of Information and Communication MSTCCC Multi Sectoral Committee on Climate Change MT Metric ton MW Megawatt NAP National Action Program to Combat Land Degradation NAP National Adaptation Plan NAPA National Adaptation Program of Action NBC National Biodiversity Center NBSAP National Biodiversity Strategic Action Plan NCD Nature Conservation Division NEC National Environment Commission NECS National Environment Commission Secretariat NEPA National Environment Protection Act of Bhutan, 2007 NFI National Forest Inventory NIIT National Institute for Information and Technology NIWRMP National Integrated Water Resource Management Plan, 2016 NSB National Statistical Bureau NSSD National Strategy for Sustainable Development Nu Ngultrum (Bhutanese currency) OECD Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development ORC Out Reach Clinic PES Payment for Ecosystem Services PHCB Population and Housing Census of Bhutan PHPA Punatsangchhu Hydropower Project Authority PIE Pasakha Industrial Estate PM Particulate Matter PM10 Particulate matter of 10 μm or less PSR Pressure-State-Response RCDC Royal Center for Disease Control RGoB Royal Government of Bhutan RNR Renewable Natural Resources RSPN Royal Society for the Protection of Nature RSTA Road Safety and Transport Authority SEA Strategic Environment Assessment SFD Social Forestry Division SLMP Sustainable Land Management Project SNC Second National Communication SoE State of the Environment SPM Suspended Particulate Matter SYB Statistical Year Book
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TOE Tonnes of Oil Equivalent TMT Thermo Mechanically Treated UNCCD United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification UNDP United Nations Development Program UNEP United Nations Environment Programme UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change US-EPA United States Environmental Protection Agency UWICE Ugyen Wangchuck Institute of Environment and Conservation WCD Wildlife Conservation Division WHO World Health Organization WMD Watershed Management Division WRCD Water Resource Coordination Division WWF World Wildlife Fund
Glossary of Bhutanese Terms
Cham Chhuzhing Drashing Dzongkhag GewogLhakhang Kamzhing Lag thram Sokshing Thromde Tsamdo Tseri
Timber for sawing post/pillar Irrigated land Standing tree for sawing Dzongkhag Administrative block made up of few to several villages MonasteryNon-irrigated agricultural land Land ownership certificate Woodlot for production of leaf litter City Registered grazing land Slash-and-burn cultivation
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