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First published in February 1999

National Pollutant Inventory

Emission EstimationTechnique Manual

for

Concrete Batching

and Concrete Product

Manufacturing



EMISSION ESTIMATION TECHNIQUES

FOR

CONCRETE BATCHING AND CONCRETE PRODUCT MANUFACTURING

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.0 IN TRODUCTION .....................................................................................................1

2.0 PROCESSES AN D EM ISSIONS ............................................................................22.1 Process Description .......................................................................................22.2 Emission Sources and Control Technologies...........................................3

2.2.1 Emissions to Air ........................................................................ ...42.2.2 Emissions to Water .......................................................................52.2.3 Emissions to Land ..................................................................... ...6

3.0 EMISSION ESTIMATION TECH NIQ UES ..................................................... ...73.1 D irect Measu remen t ......................................................................................8

3.1.1 Sampling Data ........................................................................... ...83.1.2 Continuous Emission Monitoring System (CEMS) Data .... .103.2 Mass Balan ce ................................................................................................113.3 Engineering Calculation s ...........................................................................133.4 Emission Factors ..........................................................................................15

3.4.1 Industry-wide Emission Factors ............................................. .163.4.2 Emission Factor Tables for Concrete Batching Activities ... .173.4.3 Pred ictive Emission Mon itor ing (PEM)...................................19

4.0 EMISSIO N ESTIMATION TECHN IQUES: ACCEPTABLE RELIABILITYAN D UN CERTAIN TY......................................................................................... .20

4.1 D irect Measu remen t ....................................................................................20

4.2 Mass Balan ce ................................................................................................204.3 Engineering Calculation s ...........................................................................214.4 Emission Factors ..........................................................................................21

5.0 REFERENCES ......................................................................................................... .22



CONCRETE BATCHING AND CONCRETE PRODUCT MANUFACTURING

LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES

Figure

1. Basic Process Steps for Concrete Batchin g ......................................2

Table

1. The Range of Concrete Products Manufactured in Austra lia ......3

2. Concrete Product Manufactu ring Process Material Inpu ts andPollu tant Outp uts .................................................................................4

3. NPI-Listed Substances Emitted to Air by the Concrete ProductsIn dustry. .................................................................................................5

4. List of Variables and Symb ols ...........................................................9

5. VOC Content of Common Surface Coatings.................................14

6. Particu late Matter (PM 10) Emission Factors for Con creteBatchin g ................................................................................................16

7. Emission Factors for PM 10 for Con crete Batchin g Activities ......18



1.0 In trod uction

The pu rpose of all Emission Estimation Technique (EET) Manuals in this series is toassist Australian manufacturing, industrial and service facilities to report emissionsof listed substances to the National Pollutan t Inventory (NPI). This Manu al describes

the procedures and recommended approaches for estimating emissions fromfacilities engaged in concrete batching and concrete prod uct man ufacturing .

The activities covered in this Manual app ly to facilities primarily engaged in thefollowing activities:

- Concrete Batching

- Concrete Product: Concrete boxes, posts, poles, railway sleepers, roof Man ufactu rin g an d floor tiles, sin ks an d tu bs, trou gh s, tan ks, p ots,

blocks, bricks, build ing board s, concrete/ styrofoam

comp osite prod ucts, autoclaved aerated prod ucts, andterrazzo produ cts.

EET MANUAL: Concrete Batching and Concrete Product Manufacturing

HANDBOOK: Concrete Product Manufactu ring

ANZSIC CODES : 2633, 2634, and 2635

This Manual was drafted by the NPI Unit of the Queensland Department of Environment and Heritage on behalf of the Comm onwealth Government. It hasbeen developed through a process of national consultation involving State and

Territory environmental authorities and key indu stry stakeholders.



2.0 Processes and Emissions

The following section presents a brief description of the Concrete Batching andConcrete Produ ct Manu factur ing Indu stry and identifies likely sources of emissions.

2.1 Process D escrip tionThe concrete batching and concrete product manufacturing activities covered in thisManual includes facilities primarily engaged in the mixing of cement and aggregateinto concrete, as well as concrete prod ucts, includ ing aerated and concrete compositeproducts.

The term concrete refers to a product formed by two principal components:aggregate and slurry. Aggregate, which can be either natural or man-mad e, consistsof various grades of sand, gravel, crushed stone, or slag. The slurry is composed of cement, water, and sometimes, entrained air. The cement slurry makes upapp roximately 25 to 40 percent by volum e of concrete.

Figure 1 shows the concrete batching p rocesses and likely emission points. As eachfacility in Australia is likely to be unique, operators are strongly ad vised to develop aflow diagram for their own facility that details the input of materials and NPI-listedsubstances, as well as the waste sources and emissions resulting from the operationof each p rocess:

PMAggregate

UnloadingCement Unloading

Pneumatic or bucket

elevator transfer

PM Sand, aggregate

stockpileElevated storage silo PM

Front end loader,

clam shell crane,

belt conveyor orbucket elevator

PMElevated storage

bins

Particulate Matter

(PM)

Water Weigh hoppers Water

PM Truck mixed productPM

Mixer PM

PMOpen bed dump

truckAgitator truck PM

Figure 1. Basic Process Steps for Concrete Batch ing(Source:USEPA AP-42, 1995)

Some concrete m ixtures include hyd rochloric acid, acetone, styrene, glycol ethers, orbuty l benzyl phthalate as additives. Manu facturers utilise d ifferent combinations of pastes and aggregates to produce grades of concrete that vary in terms of cost,strength, durability, and rigidity.

The many types of products fashioned from concrete include bricks, architecturalblocks, columns, pav ing m aterials, found ations, curbing, storage tanks, roofing-tiles,and p ipes. Facilities covered in this Manu al produce both ready-mixed concrete



which is unhard ened concrete material, and a m ultitude of concrete prod ucts, suchas those listed above. Table 1. indicates the wide variety of concrete products, andthe range of produ ction activities involved.

Table 1. The Range of Concrete Products Manu factured in Au stralia

Concrete Product Concrete Product

Box culverts Concrete mouldingsConcrete pipes (including pre-stressed) Ornamental concrete or terrazzo productAutoclaved aerated products Prefabricated panelsConcrete blocks Concrete posts and polesConcrete bricks Concrete railway sleepersBuild ing boards Concrete roof tilesConcrete cisterns Concrete roof componentsMonu ments and grave markers Concrete sinks and tubsFloor and wall tiles Concrete troughs and tanksFlower pots Terrazzo productsMeter boxes Concrete tilesConcrete/ styrofoam comp ositeproducts

Wall fittings and terrazzo

Source: Queensland Departm ent of Environm ent an d Heritage, 1998.

Concrete batching p lants store, convey, measu re, and d ischarge concrete constituen tsinto concrete mixers for transport to the job site. The raw m aterials can be deliveredto a batching plant by road or by rail, and are then transferred to elevated storagesilos pneum atically, or by bucket elevator. The sand and coarse aggregate aretransferred to elevated bins by front-end loader, clam-shell crane, belt conveyor, orbucket elevator. From the elevated bins, the constituen ts are fed by gravity, or screwconveyor, to weigh hopp ers that combine the prop er amou nts of each m aterial.

The constituents are then fed from the weigh hopper to agitator trucks, where the

concrete is mixed on the way to the site where it is to be used . Central mix facilitiesmix the concrete on site and then transfer it either to an open bed dump truck or aconcrete mixer for transport to the job site. Shrink mixed concrete is par tially m ixedat the central mix plant, then completely mixed in the concrete mixer on the way tothe job site. Dry batching, where concrete is mixed and hauled to the constructionsite in dry form, is seldom u sed in Australia.

2.2 Emission Sou rces and Control Techn ologies

Concrete batching and product manufacturing generates emissions of particulatematter (PM10). Product manufacturing may also generate emissions of paint wastes,

and plant maintenance wastes - the latter two often contain listed NPI substances.Table 2 illustrates some of the raw materials used in production processes, andhighlights the likely emission p oints.



Table 2. Concrete Produ ct Man ufacturin g Process Material Inp uts andPollutant Outp uts

Process MaterialInput

Air Emiss ions * Water or LandEmissions

Other Wastes& Emissions

ConcreteBatching andProduct

Manufacturing

Cement,sand , lime-

stone, gravel,aggregatematerial,acetone,glycol ethers,hydrochloricacid, styrene,solvents inpaints andclean-up

Cement d ust,sand and

gravel du st,constituentsfrom fuelburning, VOCsfrom paint andsolventapplicationand cleaning

Wastewaterscontaining

residualsolvents,other VOCs,acids, andparticulates

Equipmentand repair

emissionsand w astes,paint slud gescontainingresiduesolvents

Adapted from: USEPA Sector Notebook Project , 1995.*For more detail on Air Emissions, please refer to the EET Manua l for Combustion in Boilers.

2.2.1 Emissions to Air

Air emissions may be categorised as :

Fugitive Emissions

These are emissions that are not released throu gh a vent or stack. Examples of fugitive emissions include dust from stockpiles, volatilisation of vapour from vats,open vessels, spills, and m aterials handling. Emissions emanating from ridgelineroof-vents, louvres, and open doors of a building, as well as equipment leaks, andleaks from valves and flanges are also examples of fugitive emissions. Emissionfactor EETs are the u sual method for determ ining losses throu gh fugitive emissions.

Fugitive emissions from the concrete ind ustry includ e part iculate matter (PM10) fromvehicular movements, and the storage, unloading and conveying of aggregates, andother material inputs. (Emissions from concrete product manufacturing may alsoinclude various volatile organic compounds (eg., xylenes), from solvent and paintusage.)

Point Source Emission s

These emissions are exhausted into a vent or stack and emitted through a singlepoint source into the atmosphere. Table 3 highlights the most commonly emittedsubstances from the United States Concrete Product Manufacturing Industry.



Table 3. NPI-Listed Substances Emitted to Air by the Concrete ProductsIndustry.

Listed Substance Listed Substance

AmmoniaFormaldehyde

PhenolStyrene

Hydrochloric acid Sulphuric acid

Hydrogen fluoride TolueneMethanol Xylenes (mixed isomers)Particulate matter (PM10)

Adap ted from: USEPA, Sector N otebook Project , 1995.

Air emission control technologies, such as water sprays and fabric filters arecommonly installed to reduce the concentration of substances in venting air streamspr ior to emission. Where such emission abatement equipm ent has been installed ,and where emission factors from uncontrolled sources have been used in an emissionestimation, the collection efficiency of the abatement equipment needs to beconsidered. Guidance on applying collection efficiencies to emission factor equationsis provided in later sections.

With regards to emission controls for PM10, in the absence of measured data, orknowledge of the collection efficiency for a particular piece of equipment, anefficiency of 90% should be used in the emission factor equation to calculate actualmass emissions. This default shou ld on ly be used if there is no other available controlefficiency.

2.2.2 Emissions to Water

Manufacturers who apply finishes to concrete products generate various paintwastes. When solvent-based paints are used, the spray gun s and app lication

equipment must also be cleaned with solvent, thereby producing spent solventwaste. These wastewaters can also contain listed substan ces, such as ethanol, ethylacetate, and other volatile organic compou nd s.

Emissions of substances to w ater can be categorised as d ischarges to:

• Sur face waters (eg. lakes, rivers, dams, and estuaries)• Coastal or marine w aters• Stormwater.

Because of the significant environm ental hazards posed by emitting toxic substances

to water, most facilities emitting NPI-listed substances to waterways are required bytheir relevant State or Territory environment agency to closely monitor and measurethese emissions. This existing sampling data can be used to calculate annualemissions.

If no w astewater monitoring d ata exists, emissions to p rocess water can be calculatedbased on a mass balance or using emission factors. The most appropriate method fordetermining emissions to the environment via wastewaters is to use directmeasurement, how ever, you m ay use other EETs for the p urp ose of reporting to theNPI.

The discharge of listed substances to a sewer or tailings dam does not require you toreport to the N PI (See also Section Three of The NPI Guide).



2.2.3 Emissions to Land

Emissions of substances to land on-site include solid wastes, slurries, sediments,spills and leaks, storage and distribution of liquids and may contain listedsubstances. These emission sources can be broad ly categorised as :

• surface impound ments of liquids and slurr ies• un intentional leaks and spills.



3.0 Emission Estimation Techn iqu es

Estimates of emissions of NPI listed substances to air, water and land should berepor ted for each substan ce that triggers a threshold. The repor ting list and detailedinformation on thresholds are contained in The NPI Guide at the front of this

Handbook.

There are four types of emission estimation techniques (EETs) that may be used toestimate emissions from your facility.

The four types described in The NPI Guide and in this Manual are:-• sampling or direct measurement• mass balance• fuel analysis or other engineering calculations• emission factors

Select the EET (or mix of EETs) that is most app ropriate for your p urposes. Forexample, you might choose to use a mass balance to best estimate fugitive lossesfrom pumps and vents, direct measurement for stack and pipe emissions, andemission factors when estimating losses from storage tanks and stockpiles.

If you estimate your emission by using any of the EETs described in The NPI Guideand in this Manual, your data will be displayed on the NPI database as being of ‘acceptable reliability’. Similarly, if your relevant environmental authority hasapp roved th e use of emission estimation techniques that are not ou tlined in The NPI Guide and in this Manual, your data will also be displayed as being of ‘acceptablereliability’.

This Manual seeks to provide the most effective emission estimation techniques forthe NPI substances relevant to this industry. However, the absence of an EET for asubstance in this Manual does not necessarily imply that an emission should not bereported to the NPI. The obligation to report on all relevant emissions remains if reporting thresholds have been exceeded.

You are able to use emission estimation techniques that are not outlined in thisdocument. You mu st, how ever, seek the consent of your relevant environmen talauth ority. For examp le, if your comp any has developed site specific emissionfactors, you m ay use these if app roved by your relevant en vironmental au thority.

You should note that the EETs presented in th is Manual relate pr incipally to averageprocess emissions. Emissions resulting from non-rou tine events are rarely discussedin the literature, and there is a general lack of EETs for such events. How ever, it isimportan t to recognise that emissions resulting from significant op erating excursionsand / or accidenta l situations (eg: spills) will also need to be estimated. Emissions toland, air and water from spills must be estimated and added to process emissionswh en calculating total emissions for repor ting purposes. The emission resultingfrom a spill is the net emission, ie., the quantity of the NPI reportable substancespilled, less the qu antity recovered or consumed du ring clean u p operations.

3.1 Direct Measu remen t

You may wish to undertake direct measurement in order to report to the NPI,particularly if you already do so in order to meet other regulatory requirements.



However, the NPI does not require you to undertake additional sampling andmeasurement. For sampling data to be adequate and able to be used for NPIreporting purposes, it would need to be collected over a period of time and berepresentative of operat ions for the whole year.

3.1.1 Sampling Data

Stack sampling test reports often provide emissions data in terms of kg per hour orgrams per cubic meter (dry standard ). Annu al emissions for NPI reporting can becalculated from this data. Stack tests for NPI reporting should be performed underrepresentative (ie. norm al) operat ing conditions. You shou ld be aware that some testsundertaken for a State or Territory license condition may require the test be takenund er maximum emissions rating, where emissions are likely to be higher than wh enoperating und er normal operating conditions.



Table 4. List of Variables and Symb ols

Variable Symbol Units

Concentration C parts per million volume dry

Molecular weight MW kg/ kg-mole

Molar volume @ STP V 22.4 m 3 / kg-mole @ 0°C and 101.3 kPa

Flow rate Qa actual cubic metres per second (m3 / s)

Flow rate Qd cubic metres per second (m 3 / s)

Emissions Ei typically kg per hou r of pollutan t i

Annual emissions Ekpy,i kg per year of pollutant i

Filter catch Cf gram s (g)

PM 10 concentration CPM g/ m 3

Metered volum e at standardtemperature and pressure

Vm, STP cubic metres (m 3)

Temperature T

o

CActivity rate A tonnes per year (t/ yr)

Annual operating hours OpHrs hours per year (hr/ yr)

Specific gravity of coating SG kilograms per litre (kg/ L)

Evaporation rate Evap percentage (%)

Control efficiency CE percentage (%)

Annual volume of coating A litres per year (L/ yr)

Content of VOC species S percentage (%)


Estim ating Emissions to Air

Because vent or stack testing is relatively uncommon for Australian concrete prod uctmanufacturers, emissions test data for these facilities are typically in the form of worker exposure monitoring results conducted for compliance with WorksafeAustralia exposure standards. This gas concentration data may be used inconjunction with exhaust system flow rates to calculate fugitive emissions from aroom, floor, or building. Equation (1) calculates these emissions.

Ekpy,i = (Q * 3 600 * OpHrs * Ci * 0.0858 * Mi) / 1 * 106

(1)

where:

Ekpy,i = emissions of VOC or PM10 species i, kg/ yrQ = flow rate throu gh exhau st ventilation system , m 3 / s3 600 = conversion factor, s/ hrOpHrs= exhaust system operating hou rs, h r/ yrCi = concentration of VOC or PM10 species i, ppm v

0.0858 = m olar volu m e of gas at 20 °C, mole/ m 3

M i = m olecu lar w eight of VOC or PM10 species i, kg/ kg-mole

1*106

= 1*106

, million m3

The following example illustrates the ap plication of Equat ion (1).



Examp le 1. - Using Sam plin g Data

This example shows how Equation (1) is used to calculate fugitive emissions of xylenes from a building where concrete roof-tiles are being coated. The following

da ta is given:

• the bu ilding exhau st flow rate (FR) is 10.1 m3 / s• the exhaust system operates for 7 920 hr/ yr, OpHrs• occup ational hygiene da ta ind icates that the concentration of mixed isomer

xylenes in the building (Cit) is 0.1 pp mv

• the m olecular w eight of mixed xylenes (M i) is 106 kg/ kg-mole

Xylenes emissions are calculated as follows:

Ekpy,i = (FR * 3 600 * OpH rs * C it * 0.0858 * Mi) / 1 * 106

= (10.1 * 3 600 * 7 920 * 0.1 * 0.0858 * 106) / 1 * 106

= 262 kg xylenes/ yr

Estim ating Emissions to W ater

Because of the significant environm ental hazards posed by emitting toxic substancesto water, most facilities emitting listed NPI substances to waterways are required bytheir relevant State or Territory environment agency to closely monitor and measurethese emissions. This existing monitoring data on pollutant concentrations in watercan be used to calculate annu al emissions by th e use of Equation (2).

Ekpy,i = Ci *V * OpHrs / 1 000 000 (2)

where:

Ekpy,i = em issions of p ollu tant i, kg/ yrCi = concentrat ion of pollu tan t i in wastewater ,

mg/ LV = hourly volume of wastewater, L/ hrOpHrs = operating hours per year for which data

apply, hr/ yr1 000 000 = conversion factor, mg/ kg

In applying Equation (2) to water emission calculations, monitoring data should beaveraged and only representative concentrations used in emission calculations. Thetotal emissions of a listed substance should equal the am ount used du ring the year,minus the amount incorporated into products, minus the amounts destroyed in on-site treatment or transferred off-site for d isposal by another facility. In estimatingemissions of metals, it is particularly helpful to first estimate the amountincorporated into products before proceeding to individual emission estimates, asthis will provid e a reference point.

3.1.2 Continuous Emission Monitoring System (CEMS) Data

A continu ous emission monitoring system p rovides a continuou s record of emissionsover time, usually by reporting pollutant concentration.



Once the pollutant concentration is known, emission rates are obtained bymultiplying the pollutant concentration by the volumetric gas, or liquid flow rate of that pollutant.

It is important to note that prior to using CEMS to estimate emissions, you shoulddevelop a protocol for collecting and averaging the data in order that the estimatesatisfies your relevant environmental authority’s requirement for NPI emissionsestimations.

3.2 Mass Balance

A mass balance identifies the quantity of substance going in and out of an entirefacility, process, or piece of equipment. Emissions can be calculated as the differencebetween inpu t and output of each listed substance. Accum ulation or d epletion of thesubstance w ithin the equipm ent should be accounted for in your calculation.

Estimating emissions of listed substances from concrete product manufacturingactivities can be undertaken across a process or entire facility using a mass balance.Using industry-wide emission factors will not necessarily provide an accuratereflection of the actual emissions from any facility because of the wide range of possible operat ional practices within the industry.

The opera tional activities that are p rocess or facility sp ecific, and need to be factoredinto a mass balance equation, includ e:

• the range and mix of process activities and product manufacturing that occur atany facility;

• the amoun t of paint, solvents, and acid solu tions used at the facility;

• the volatile organic compound (VOC) content, volatility and weight percentage of listed substances in the pain ts and solvent cleaning solutions used;

• the amou nt of material that is recovered and recycled, but not reused within thefacility; and

• the control equipm ent used, and th e control efficiency of this equipm ent.

The mass balance approach requires the addition of all materials containing NPI

pollutants received at the facility and then the subtraction of all the known losses ortransfers of the material off-site, includ ing finished produ ct and waste materials. Thedifference is assumed to have been emitted to air, water, or land. The quantityreceived, and the quantity lost or used shou ld be for the same time period , typically 1July to 30 June (the NPI repor ting year).

Equation (3) can be used for calculating emissions using the mass balance app roach.

Ekpy,i = Q r - Qp - Q rec - Qw - Q i (3)

where:

Ekpy,i = emissions of VOC or PM10 species i, kg/ yr



Q r = quantity of VOC or PM10 species i tha t is received as rawmaterial, kg/ yr

Qp = quantity of VOC or PM10 species i that is contained in thefinal product or article, kg/ yr

Q rec = quantity of VOC or PM10 species i that is recovered on-site by all methods (such as solvent recovery), kg/ yr

Qw

= quantity of VOC or PM10

species i that is contained in allwastes (such as wastewater, sludge, dru m residu e)generated during the NPI reporting year, kg/ yr

Q i = quantity of VOC or PM10 species i tha t rem ains on-site inthe raw material inventory or stock pile, kg/ yr

The following example shows th e application of Equation (3).



Example 2. - Usin g a Mass Balan ce

This example shows how total xylene emissions for a concrete roof-tileman ufacturing facility can be calculated using Equation (3). Given d ata is as follows:

•

In a given year, a concrete tile facility receives 70 000 kg of xylenes (Qf ) containedin 140 000 litres of concrete roof-tile paint.• Based on the total amount of product shipped off-site, and records of product

composition, the facility estimates that the amount of xylenes shipped off-sitecontained in roof tile coatings is 21 000 kg.

• The amount of xylenes that were recovered by the facility’s distillation system(Q rec) is 20 000kg.

• Based on waste composition analyses, the amount of waste transferred off-site,and wastewater discharge rates, the facility estimates that the amount of xylenesfound in all wastes generated du ring the year (Qw) is 5 000kg.

• The amount of xylenes contained in the facility’s paint inventory at the end of therepor ting year (Qi) is 15 000kg.

Emissions of xylenes are calculated as follows:

Ekpy,i = Q r - Qp - Q rec - Qw - Q i

= 70 000 - 21 000 - 20 000 - 5 000 - 15 000= 9 000 kg xylenes/ yr

3.3 Engineerin g Calculations

An engineering calculation is an estimation method based on p hysical/ chemical

properties (eg. vapour pressure) of the substance, and mathematical relationships(eg. ideal gas law).

Estim ating VOC Emissions

The methodology for calculating volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions fromcoating or sealer application to concrete product or concrete mixing operations isquite straightforward. For each type of coating, sealer, or paint fluid used, thequantity of total prod uct used is multiplied by th e VOC content and evaporation rateof the coating, sealer, or paint to obtain the total VOC emissions from the u se of thatproduct.

If any type of air pollution control equipment is in use, then the VOC emissionsestimate is reduced by the effectiveness of the equipmen t to reflect the effects of thecontrol device. To report individual listed VOCs, (eg., toluene or xylenes), the samemethod is applied, only the quan tity of coating used is mu ltiplied by the ind ividu alcontent of the VOC being m easured . The method ology is expressed by Equation (5).



EVOC = Σi [(A i * SGi) * (SVOC,i / 100) * Evap * (1 - (CE/ 100))] (4)

where:

EVOC = total emissions of VOCs from concrete productoperations, kg/ yr

A i = total volume of coating, sealer , or paint type i used in thereporting year, L/ yrSGi = specific gravity of the coating, sealer, or paint type i,

kg/ LSVOC,i = content of individually listed VOC substance for coating,

sealer, or pa int type i, %Evap = evaporat ion rate of VOC for coat ing, sealer , or pain t

typ e i, fractionCE = control efficiency factor, %i = coating type, paint, release-agent, concrete-sealer,

thinner, primer

The quantities of each type of coating used are usually available in litres. Materialand Safety Data Sheets (MSDS), or paint and coating manufacturers and suppliers,should be consulted to obtain the VOC content, VOC speciation profile, and theevaporation rate. Some default VOC content va lues are provided in Table 5.

Tab le 5. VOC Con ten t of Common Surface Coatings

Surface Coating VOC Content(kilograms/litre)

Paint (solvent based) 0.672Paint (water based) 0.156Enamel 0.420

Concrete-Sealer 0.732Primer 0.792Varnish and Shellac 0.396Thinner 0.883Adhesive 0.528


The following example illustrates the use of Equation 4:



Examp le 3. - Calculating VO C Emissions

50 000 litres of a concrete coating/ sealer is used in a roofing tile manufacturingfacility over a report ing year. A solvent recycling system operates at an efficiency of 60 % for the recovery of xylene. From th e MSDS, the percentage of xylenes in the

sealer is 50 %. The evaporation rate of the sealer is 0.7. The specific gravity of thesealer is 1.0.

Using Equation (4), emissions of xylenes can be calculated as follows:

EVOC = Σi [(A i * SGi) * (SVOC,i / 100) * Evap * (1 - (CE/ 100))]

Exylene = (50 000L/ yr * 1 kg/ L) * (50/ 100) * 0.7 * (1 - (60/ 100))= 7 000 kg xylenes/ yr

3.4 Emission Factors

An emission factor is a tool that is used to estimate emissions to the environm ent. Inthis Manual, it relates the quantity of substances emitted from a source, to somecommon activity associated with those emissions. Emission factors are obtainedfrom US, European, and Australian sources and are usually expressed as the weightof a substance emitted, divided by the unit weight, volume, distance, or duration of the activity emitting the substance (eg. kilograms of su lfur d ioxide emitted per tonneof aggregate handled).

Emission factors are used to estimate a facility’s emissions by the general equation:

Ekpy,i = [A * OpHrs] EFi * [1 - (CEi / 100)] (5)

where :

Ekpy,i = emission rate of pollutant i, kg/ yrA = activity rate, t/ hrOpH rs= operating hours, hr/ yrEFi = uncontrolled emission factor of pollutant i, kg/ tCEi = overall control efficiency of pollutant i, %.

Emission factors developed from measurements for a specific hopper, aggregateloader, or other process may sometimes be used to estimate emissions at other sites.For example, a concrete batcher m ay have several units of similar mod el and size, sothat if emissions were measured from one hopper or mixer, an emission factor couldbe developed and applied to similar hoppers or mixers at other sites. It is advisableto have the emission factor reviewed and approved by State or Territoryenvironm ent agencies pr ior to its use for NPI estimations.



Example 4. - Calculating PM 10 Emissions

Table 6 shows that 0.05kg of PM10 are emitted for each tonne of truck-mix concreteproduced from all process sources. The emission factor is from a plant with noemission abatement or control technologies in p lace. The concrete plant operates for

1 500 hours per year.

EFPM10 = 0.05 kg/ tConcrete production rate = 50 t/ hr

PM 10 emissions = EFPM10 * produ ction rate * OpHrs= 0.05 kg/ t * 50 t/ hr * 1 500 hr/ yr= 2.5 kg/ hr * 1 500 hr/ yr= 3 750 kg PM10 / yr

3.4.1 Industry-Wide Emission Factors

Table 6. Particulate Matter (PM10) Emission Factors for Concrete Batchin g

Process UncontrolledParticulate Emission

Factor 1

(kg/tonne)

EmissionFactor

Rating Code

Sand and aggregate transfer to elevatedbin

0.014 E

Cement u nloading to elevated storage siloPneumatic

Bucket elevator

0.13

0.12

D

EWeigh hopper loading 0.01 E

Mixer loading (central mix) 0.02 E

Truck loading (truck mix) 0.01 E

Vehicle traffic (unpaved roads) 4.0 (kg/ VKT)a C

Wind erosion from sand an d aggregatestorage p iles*

3.9 (kg/ ha/ day) D

Total process emissions (truck mix) 0.05 E

Units are kg of PM10 emitted per tonn e of material handled.Emissions are uncontrolled unless otherwise specified.1 USEPA Document AP-42 (1995).a VKT= Vehicle kilometres travelled.* It should not be assumed that wind erosion emission factors are the same for concrete batching asthey are for coal mining. The emission factors provided in this handbook for wind erosion referspecifically to overall PM emissions from concrete batching plants. Aggregate used by concretebatching plants is very different from coal mining particulates. The wind erosion emission factors inthe mining handbook relate largely to studies undertaken at Hunter Valley coal mines in 1988. Therelevance of this data to concrete batching plants, or indeed any other mining activity, requiresclarification.



Speciat ing PM 10 Emissions

PM10 emissions containing listed metals may require speciation into individual metalspecies where report ing thresholds for the metal have been triggered. Speciated PM10

emissions are calculated using Equation (6).

Ekpy,i

= QPM10

* (EWi / MW

PM10) (6)

where:

Ekpy,i = total emissions of PM10 species i, kg/ yrQPM10 = amount of PM10 emitted by the facility, kg/ yrEWi = elementa l weight of substance i, kg/ kg-moleMWPM10= molecular weight of PM10, kg/ kg-mole

* QPM10 in Equation (6) = Ekpy,i in Equation (5)

The app lication of Equation (6) is illustrated in the following example.

Example 5. - Speciating PM 10 Emissions

This example demonstrates how speciated PM10 emissions from total concretebatching processes at a facility may be calculated using the quantity of PM10

emissions calculated from Example 4 and Equation (6):

QPM10 = 3750 kg Zn O p er year em itted as PM10

Ci = 80% Zn in ZnO

Ekpy,Zn = QPM10 * Ci / 100= 3750 * 80/ 100= 3000 kg Zn per year

3.4.2 Emission Factor Tables for Concrete Batchin g Activities

Table 7 illustrates Emission Factors for PM 10 for Concrete Batching Activities(kg/ tonne m aterial un less otherwise specified).



Tab le 7. Em ission Factors for PM 10 for Con crete Batchin g Activities

Component/Activities PM 10 Emission Factors(kg/tonne)

1. Materials Handling a) unenclosed

Default formu la for PM10 EPM10 = 0.75 * 0.001184 * [(U/ 2.2)1.3 /

(M/ 2)

1.4

]NB For materials where M = 0, usedefau lt of 0.0036 kg/ t hand led

Redu ction Factors (RF)- wind breaks 0.7- water sprays 0.5- chemical suppression 0.2- enclosure (2 or 3 walls) 0.1- covered stockpiles 0.0

b) bag filters venting outside EPM10 = 12mg/ m 3 * m 3 / hr (flow) * hr/ yr(OpHrs) * 10-6

(12mg/ m 3 = 80% * und iff. (15mg/ m 3))

c) enclosed 0.02. Materials S torage - wind erosionfromactive stockpiles (kg/ ha/ hr-area of base)

Default 0.3Redu ction Factors (RF)- wind breaks 0.7- water sprays 0.5- chemical suppression 0.2- enclosure (2 or 3 walls) 0.1

- covered stockpiles 0.03. Equipment Traffic - greater than 5tonnesgross (kg/ VKT on unsealed road s)

Option 1 0.0019 * (# wheels)3.4 * (road surfacematerialsilt content (g/ m 2 as p er AS3638))0.2

Option 2 Default 1.5 (75% of undiff. (2.0))Redu ction Factors (RF)- watering (to eliminate visible dust) 0.25- chemical spraying (rate) 0.2

4. Fuel Preparat ion & Drying - coalfiringwith dust collector As per Section 1 b) bag filters5. Lim estone/Raw Material Crushing -material through crusher (kg/ tonne)

- uncontrolled 0.017- fabric filter 0.0002- wet or chemical suppression 0.0005- wet scrubber 0.004



Tab le 7 Em ission Factors for PM 10 for Concrete Batchin g Activities (con t’)

Component/Activities PM 10 Emission Factors(kg/tonne)

6. Kiln a) wet process

- electrostatic precipitator 0.3

b) preheater kiln- fabric filter 0.1- electrostatic precipitator 0.1

c) precalciner process kiln- fabric filter 0.1- electrostatic precipitator 0.1

7. Clinker Processing- fabric filter 0.001- electrostatic precipitator 0.01- gravel bed filter 0.03

8. Finished Cement Grinding- uncontrolled 0.3

- fabric filter 0.003- electrostatic precipitator 0.004

(Assumes a default factor of 60mg/ m 3

split into 40mg/ m 3 PM10 and 20mg/ m 3

> PM10)Source: The Cement Indu stry Federa tion Limited, 1998.

3.4.3 Predictive Emission Monitoring (PEM)

Predictive emission monitoring is based on developing a correlation betweenpollutant emission rates and process parameters. A PEM allows facilities to developsite-specific emission factors, or emission factors more relevant to their particularprocess.

Based on test data, a mathematical correlation can be developed which predictsemissions using various param eters.



4.0 Emission Estimation Techn iques: Acceptable Reliability andUncertainty

This section is intended to give a general overview of some of the inaccuraciesassociated with each of the techniques. Although the NPI does not mandate one

emission estimation techniqu e over another, this section does attempt to evaluate theavailable emission estimation techniques with respect to accuracy.

Several techniques are ava ilable for calculating emissions from concrete batching andconcrete product manufacturing facilities. The technique chosen is dependent uponavailable data, available resources, and the d egree of accuracy sough t by the facilityin undertaking the estimate. In general, site-specific data that are representative of normal operations are more accurate over industry-averaged data, such as theemission factors p resented in Section 3.4.1. of this Manu al.

4.1 Direct Measu remen t

Use of stack and / or w orkplace health and safety sampling data is likely to be arelatively accurate method of estimating air emissions from concrete batching andconcrete product manufacturing facilities. However, collection and analysis of samples from facilities can be very expensive and especially complicated where avariety of NPI-listed substances are emitted and where most of these emissions arefugitive in nature. Sampling d ata from one specific process may not be representativeof the entire manufacturing operation and may provide only one example of thefacility’s emissions.

To be representative, sampling data used for N PI reporting purp oses wou ld need tobe collected over a period of time covering all aspects of produ ction of concreteproducts.

In the case of CEMS, instru men t calibration d rift can be p roblematic and un captureddata can create long-term incomplete data sets. However, it may be misleading toassert that a snapshot (stack sampling) can better predict long-term emissioncharacteristics. It is the respon sibility of the facility operator to p roperly calibrate an dmaintain monitoring equipment an d the corresponding emissions data.

4.2 Mass Balance

Calculating emissions from a concrete product manufacturing facility using massbalance appears on the surface to be a straightforward approach to emissionsestimations. However, few Australian concrete product manufacturing facilitiesconsistently track material usage and waste generation with the overall accuracyneeded for application of this method. Inaccuracies associated with individualmaterial tracking or other activities inherent in each material handling stage oftenaccumulate into large deviations of total facility emissions. Because emissions fromspecific materials are typically below 2 percent of gross consumption, an error of only ± 5 percent in any one step of the operation can significantly skew emissionsestimations.

4.3 Engineerin g Calculations

Theoretical and complex equations or models can be used for estimating emissionsfrom concrete product manufacturing, however, their use is a more complex and



time-consuming process than the u se of emission factors. Emission equat ions requiremore detailed inputs than the use of emission factors but they do provide anemission estimate that is based on facility-specific conditions.

4.4 Emission Factors

Every emission factor has an associated emission factor rat ing (EFR) code. Thisrating system is common to EETs for all industries and sectors and therefore, to allIndustry Hand books. They are based on rating systems developed by the UnitedStates Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), and by the EuropeanEnvironment Agency (EEA). Consequently, the ratings may not be directly relevantto Australian indu stry. Sources for all emission factors cited can be found in Section5.0 of this docum ent. The emission factor ratings w ill not form p art of the public NPIdatabase.

When using emission factors, you should be aware of the associated EFR code andwh at that rating imp lies. An A or B rating ind icates a greater degree of certaintythan a D or E rating. The less certainty, the more likely that a given emission factorfor a specific source or category is not representative of the source type. Theseratings notwithstanding, the main criterion affecting the uncertainty of an emissionfactor remains the degree of similarity between the equipm ent/ process selected inapp lying the factor, and the target equipment/ process from w hich the factor wasderived.

The EFR system is as follows :

A - ExcellentB - Above Average

C - AverageD - Below AverageE - PoorU - Unrated

In addition to the EFR code, the accuracy of emission factors is thoroughlydependent upon the degree of similarity between the reference source and theemission source being estimated .



5.0 Referen ces

USEPA. January 1995. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, Volume 1:Stationary Point and Area Sources, fifth edition, AP-42. Section 11, Mineral Products

Industry, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air Quality

Planning and Standards. Research Triangle Park, NC, USA.

USEPA. September 1995. EPA Office of Compliance Sector N otebook Project. Profile of theStone, Clay, Glass, and Concrete Products Industry.. United States EnvironmentalProtection Agency, Office of Enforcement and Compliance Assurance. Washington,DC, USA.

Written Comm un ication from The Cement Indu stry Federation Limited, St Leonard s,NSW, to the Queensland Environmental Protection Agency, Brisbane, QLD, Augu st1998.

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