bentuk teks dan ciri-cirinya

Text Forms and Features

November 10

2010 This resource is intended for use as a reference for teachers, but not as a curriculum guide. It is to be used in conjunction with other documents supporting the essential academic learning requirements. However, the information is not definitive, nor is it specific to any particular level. Teachers will need to delete and add according to the competencies of their students and the nature of the current lesson or task.

A Resource for Intentional Teaching

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Text Forms and Features A Resource for Intentional Teaching

This material is available in alternative format upon request. Contact Program Development, 360/586-1486 or TDD 360/664-3631. The Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction complies with all federal and state rules and regulations and does not discriminate based on race, color, national origin, sex, disability, age, or marital status.

Authors: Dr. Terry Bergeson

Publisher: Umbrella Corporation Press

This book is protected by trademark and other pending or existing intellectual property rights in Indonesia and other countries.

Signed by,

Rachmat Wahidi CEO Umbrella Corporation

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Table of Contents

Table of contents ......................................................................................................... iii

Introduction ................................................................................................................. 1

An Overview of the Main Categories of Text Forms .............................................. 5

Text Forms ................................................................................................................... 7

Text Features ................................................................................................................ 92

Examples of Techniques Authors Use to Engage Readers ..................................... 108

Bibliography ................................................................................................................. 111

Notes

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Introduction

This document is designed for use by K12 teachers. It is authored in response to teachers questions about the attributes and characteristics of various forms of writing. This resource has been developed to provide easily accessible information about text forms and features referenced in the reading and writing sections of the Essential Academic Learning Requirements Technical Manual (July 17, 1998) and A Framework for Achieving the Essential Academic Learning Requirements in Reading Grades K6 (Draft).

It is anticipated that the resource will have several uses by providing guidelines for:

Reassessing material already available; Extending the range of material available for classroom use; Identifying teaching points to help students understand the nature of a

specific text form and how this affects the rate and style of reading or its function as a vehicle for written communication;

Assisting teachers and students to establish rubrics for assessing writing and reading tasks and accomplishments;

Identifying common targets and vocabulary within buildings or districts.

This resource is intended for use as a reference for teachers, but not as a curriculum guide. It is to be used in conjunction with other documents supporting the essential academic learning requirements. However, the information is not definitive, nor is it specific to any particular level. Teachers will need to delete and add according to the competencies of their students and the nature of the current lesson or task.

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The number in parentheses after each item refers to the grade at which it is introduced in A Framework for Achieving the Essential Academic Learning Requirements in Reading K12 (Draft). It is emphasized that this grade denotes the suggested level of introduction. Teachers will need to make their own decisions about the most appropriate time to introduce a form or feature. Once introduced, an item will need continued focus in subsequent grades with students receiving frequent opportunities and guidance to extend their understanding and use of the form or feature in an increasing range of contexts.

The suggested level of introduction does not mean that all of the features should be taught at that time. For example, expository texts are first introduced at kindergarten. The list of features goes well beyond simple forms appropriate for this level. On the other hand, dictionaries are introduced at the second grade. This does not mean that the children will not have been using dictionaries before that time. Some forms are introduced twice (for example, diaries at kindergarten and third grade) reminding teachers of the fictional and non-fiction function of many forms.

The general format for each entry is why, what, and features. However, all three are not necessarily included.

The first part of this document deals with text forms, which can loosely be thought of as genres of text. It is followed by a section on text features. These form the bulk of the document.

They are followed by examples of links between text forms and show how a text form introduced at one level can be the springboard for introducing other forms at later levels. It is emphasized that the introduction is only the beginning and further teaching and practice will be necessary at subsequent stages.

The final section reminds teachers of the breadth and depth of intentional teaching required in order to implement the essential academic learning re-quirements in reading through examples of some of the techniques authors

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employ to engage their readers and ways in which knowledge about one text form can lead to learning about another.

The entries or items within entries are not listed in hierarchical order. The number and order in which any are introduced or are emphasized in the classroom will be determined by the teacher or the teacher and the student.

As with all parts of this resource, the content here is as applicable to writing as it is to reading. It is strongly recommended that students should first have experiences with the various text forms and features through hearing then read and through reading them in supported and independent situations before being expected to write them on their own. Text and form features identified during and following the reading experiences can then form a foundation for frameworks and rubrics to be extended or used for reflection during further reading and/or writing activities. In one classroom, for example, after reading fables to the students and providing opportunities and materials for the students to read some on their own, the teacher and students identified the following five features as essential elements of all fables.

The animals are always animals. The animals act and talk like humans. There is always some trickery in the story. A fable always has a moral. Fables tell about one incident.

Each student then made a rubric choosing three of the above features to guide their planning and reflection when writing their own fables.

My mark My Ts mark

My characters are animals.

The animals talk.

My fable tells a moral.

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This resource is intended to be a working document for teachers to add to and amend as necessary. Space is provided for teachers to list titles and to make notes on skills and strategies introduced, as well as notes on writing opportunities and assignments related to each form of text. This resource is not intended to be a stand-aloneit needs to be used alongside other manuals, guides, and references and always matched with the competencies, interests, and experiences of the students.

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An Overview of the Main Categories of Text Forms

There are many genre charts presenting different ways of categorizing text forms. This document will be able to be adapted to most, if not all, such classifications. Although Text Forms and Features: A Resource for Intentional Teaching has been based on the following umbrella classification, there will be some overlap between the various groups of text. It is recommended that there should be some flexibility when classifying or assessing material.

Writing can then be further categorized into subgroups with recipes, game rules, or manual examples of procedural texts.

Recount Report Narrative Procedural Expository Interactive

Fiction Non-fiction

Realistic Fantasy Science

Historical Contemporary

Technical Science The Art

Social Studies Health and Fitness

Mathematics

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Students can be helped to understand the key elements of the main groups through prioritizing why, what, how, when, where, and who. The following table is an example of how this might be recorded for the students continuous reference.

Procedural What When How What if

Narrative Who What

happened When or

where

Recount When What Who Where

Report What Where Who Why

Expository What How Why Where

It is emphasized that the priority order will change according to the content and/or the audience and, sometimes, within any one piece of writing. The students could make their own small cards and a grid showing beginning, middle and end, moving the cards as the sequence or priority changes within a piece. For example, the what may become most important at the climax of a narrative.

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Text Forms

Analytical Expositions

Analytical exposition is a text that elaborates the writers idea about the phenomenon surrounding. It is used to persuade the reader that something is the case. Therefore, sometimes it is called a persuasive text. Text organization:

Statement of position or thesis, this stage includes a preview of arguments. It introduces topics and indicates the writers position.

Arguments, this stage consists of a point and elaboration sequence. The number of points may vary, but each must be supported by discussion and evidence (which is elaboration of the point). Points are ordered according to the writers choice, but it is usual to discuss the strongest points first.

Reinforcement of the statement of position (reiteration), the last stage restates the position more forcefully in the light of the arguments presented.

Language features:

The use of words that qualify statements, e.g. usually, probably; The use of compound1 and complex2

1 A compound sentence is composed of two simple sentences joined together by a comma and a coordinating conjunction. The comma is sometimes omitted in short compound sentences.

sentences;

Compare: she was so sad, and sometimes she did not eat her food. (compound sentence) she was so sad and sometimes she did not eat her food. (short compound sentence) 2 A complex sentence has two parts: independent and dependent clause. Example: If you are fat, your heart has to work harder. dependent clause independent clause

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The use of technical verbs, e.g. species; The use of words that link arguments, e.g. firstly, on the other hand, therefore; The use of present tenses; The use of actions and thinking verbs, e.g. believe, guess, feel; The use of modal verbs and modal adverbs, e.g. must, can, should, may; The use of connectives, e.g. firstly, secondly; The use of emotive3 or evaluative languages4

Read the text below. Pay attention to its text organization and its features.

.

Being Fat Matters

Do you know if you are too fat, you may have serious problems with your health? A group of doctors wrote a report about some of the effects of too much fat.

One important effect is on the heart. If you are fat, your heart has to work harder. This may lead to other heart problem.

In addition, extra fat can also change the amount of sugar in your blood. This can cause serious disease such as diabetes.

Furthermore, high blood pressure is another possible result of being fat.

3 Emotive language is used to add strong description to the facts and so helps to create extremely subjective tones to the text. 4 Evaluative language is another way that is used to persuade people agree with the writers opinion instead of emotive language. Some examples of evaluative language are:

it is true that it is important theres no doubt that I strongly believe that it is obvious that it is clear that In is undeniable that it is unavoidable that it is believe that

Thesis

Arguments

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More studies are needed about all these problems. However, one thing is clear, extra fat may make your life shorter.

(Adapted from: Lets Write English)

Anecdotes

Anecdote is a text, which retells funny and unusual incidents in fact, or imagination. Its purpose is to entertain the readers.

Text organization:

Abstract, this stage writer retells an unusual incident. Orientation, this stage writer sets the scene and introduces the participants. Crisis, this stage provides details of unusual incident. Incident, this stage shows reaction of crisis. Coda, the last stage shows reflection on or evaluation of the incident. This is

optional.

Language features:

The use of exclamation words; The use of imperative, e.g. listen to; The use of rhetorical question5

The use of action verbs;

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The use of direct speeches; ;

5 Author to ask audiences, knowing of course, there will be no direct answer, often uses rhetorical question. Example: Have you ever built a tree hut? 6 Action verbs refer to the verbs of doing and happening. Action verbs are also known as material process. Compare:

doing: create, build, make, develop, send, throw, pour, solve. happening: move, fall, rise, come, go, soften, harden, melt.

Reiteration

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The use of time connectives, e.g. then, afterward, while, a long ago, a year passed by, the next day, once, at the end of the story;

The use of past tenses.


Mrs. Brown and a Plumber

Mr. Brown was very good at fixing things around the house when they broke. One day, he went to another city to do some works there, and his wife was alone in the house. While Mr. Brown was away, one of the faucets on the bathtub broke. Mrs. Brown did not know much about fixing broken faucet, so she telephoned a plumber.

The plumber came to the house that afternoon and fixed the faucet in a few minutes. When he finished, he gave Mrs. Brown his bill for the work. She looked at it for several seconds and then said, Your prices are very high, arent they? Do you know? The doctor costs less than this when he comes to the house. Yes, I know, answered the plumber. I know that very well, because I was a doctor until I was lucky enough to find this job a few months ago.

(Adapted from: www.authorstream.com)

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Recounts

Recount is a text that retells events or experiences in the past. Its social function is either to inform the purpose and entertain or to retell the events to audience. There is no complication among the participants and that differentiates from narrative. Types of recount:

Personal recount, this recount usually retells an event that the writer was personally involved in.

Factual recount, this recount usually records an incident, e.g. a science experiment.

Imaginative recount, this recount usually writes an imaginary role and giving details of events.

Text organization:

Orientation, this stage provides the setting and introduces participants. Events, tells what happened, in what sequence. Reorientation, closures of events (it is optional).

Language features:

Focus on personal participant, e.g. I, my friend; The use of chronological connection, e.g. then, first; Sequence and time are important; The recount has a title, which usually summarizes the text; In a factual recount, details are selected to help the reader reconstruct the

activity or incident; In a imaginative recount, personal thoughts/reactions are included; Focusing on temporal sequences; Indicators in childrens books include days of the week, use of ordinal

numbers, characters acting in sequence, cumulative structures; Dialog and/or indirect speech may be interspersed throughout; No flashback;

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Joining the Traditional Dance Competition

I joined the Traditional Dance Competition in Jakarta last year. I represented my Junior High School. It was my biggest competition. I practiced hard with my teacher for a month. We also prepared the best costume we had.

We only had one day in Jakarta. We went there by plane. We left at 6 a.m. and arrived in Jakarta at 7 a.m. We took a taxi to take us to the place where the competition was held. It took an hour to get there. There were already some participants when we arrived. The competition would start in an hour.

First, my teacher and I went to the dressing room. My teacher helped me do the make-up and the costume. We spent almost an hour for the preparation. I told my teacher that I was nervous. I was not ready for this. However, she told me that everything was alright, and I felt better.

Then, the time came for me to perform on stage. There were five judges and about two hundred people watching me. However, I did not feel nervous anymore. I performed on the stage confidently. I really did the best I could. I was glad when it ended smoothly.

After that, we waited for the announcement of the result. It was 4 p.m. when the judges finished making their final decision. I was so impatient to hear the result. I still could not believe when they called my name as the first winner. I was so

Orientation

Events

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happy to be given the trophy. My teacher was also proud of my achievement. Finally, we went back to Yogyakarta in the evening. We were so tired. However, we were satisfied because our effort was not useless.

(Adapted from: Interlanguage: English for Senior High School Students X)

Reports

Report is a text which presenting information about something. Its function is to describe the way things are, with reference to a range of natural, man-made and social phenomena in our environment. It is because of systematic observation and analysis. Informative reports are written about living things like plants and non-living things like oceans. An information report is used when we talk and write about. When writing a description we only talk/write about one specific thing.

Text organization:

General classification, this stage states classification of general aspect of thing, such as animal, public place, plant, etc, which will be discussed in general.

Description, this stage tells what the phenomenon under discussion is like in terms of parts, qualities, if living; uses, if non-natural.

Language features:

Introducing group or general aspect, e.g. computers, orchids, plants, earthquake;

The use of present tense; No temporal sequence; Nouns and noun phrases are used rather than personal pronouns. The use of personal pronouns is limited;

Events

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Some reports use technical or scientific terms, e.g. oxygen, hydrogen, characteristics, features, criteria, divisions, types, members, formation, sorts;

The use of linking verbs, e.g. is, are, has, have, has, resemble, appear, look; The use of behavioral verbs7

May include numbering, subheadings, margin entries, bullets, asterisks, and references;

, e.g. feed, burrow, suck, perch, sunbathe;

Includes some prioritizing, summarizing, generalizing, and paraphrasing; Photographs, diagrams, maps, etc. usually accompany it.


Tornados

A tornado is a powerful, twisting windstorm. It is one of the most destructive storms in the world. A tornado is also called a waterspout.

A tornado is a long cloud that comes down from the sky. It is shaped like a funnel and consists of wind that whirls around and around extremely fast. In fact, the wind can reach a speed of more that 900 km/hour.

Most tornados form a long a front (boundary) between cool, dry air and warm, humid air. Weather scientists are unable to know exactly when tornado will occur. Fortunately, the tornado is not usually very big and it does not last long.

(Adapted from: Look Ahead 2)

7 Pay attention to the following sentences. They refer to physiological and psychological behavior of living things. Compare: deer feed on young leaves; bees suck honey from flowers; rabbits burrow in the ground; birds perch on trees.

General classification

Identification

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Spoofs

Spoof is a text that tells factual story, happened in the past time with unpredictable and funny ending. Its purpose is to entertain and share with the others a real story of which the ending is funny to amuse the audience or readers.

Text organization:

Orientation, this stage is opening of the story that sets the scene. Events, this stage shows the details of the events in the story. Twist, the funny or unpredictable ending of the story.

Language features:

Focus on people, animals, or certain things; The use of action verb; The use of direct speeches or verbal verbs; The use of adverbs; The use of time connectives; The use of past tenses.


Fluffy Bunny Rabbit

After a long day at the office, Chris came home one day and found his dog with the neighbors pet rabbit in his mouth. The rabbit was obviously dead. Chris panicked!

If my neighbors find out my dog killed their bunny, theyll hate me forever, he thought. Therefore, he took the dirty, chewed up rabbit into the house, gave it a bath, and blow-dried its fur. Chris knew his neighbors kept their backdoor

Orientation

Events

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open during the summer, so he sneaked inside and put the bunny back into the cage, hoping his neighbors would think it died of natural causes.

A couple of days later, Chris and his neighbor saw each other in the outside. Did you hear that Fluffy die? the neighbor asked.

Oh, Im sorry to hear that. What happened? Chris muttered. The neighbor replied, We just found him dead in his cage one day. But the strange thing is that the day after we buried him, we went out to dinner and someone must have dug him up, gave him a bath and put him back into the cage.

(Adapted from: www.webwombat.com.au)

Narratives

Narrative is a text focusing specific participants. Its function is to amuse, entertain, to gain and hold a readers interest, and to deals with problematic events which lead to a crisis or turning point of some kind, which in turn finds a resolution.

Narratives can also be written to teach or inform, to change attitudes/social opinions. Narratives sequence people/characters in time and place but differ from recounts in that through the sequencing, the stories set up one or more problems, which must eventually find a way to be resolved. Text organization:

Orientation, this stage sets the scene: where and when the story happened, introduces the participants of the story and what is involved in the story.

Evaluation8

8 Sometimes a writer puts his judgment on a certain participant or a certain event. This is also called evaluation. Example:

, is a stepping back to evaluate the plight, this stage is optional.

Once, there lived a girl named Snow White. She was a kind-hearted girl. evaluation

Twist

Events

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Complication, this stage describes the beginning of the problem that leads to the climax of the main participants, which the participants have to do with.

Resolution, this stage shows the way of participant to solve the crises, for better or for worse.

Reorientation, it is a closing remark to the story, and it is optional. It consists of a moral lesson, advice or teaching from the writer.

Language features:

The use of time connectives, e.g. a couple of days, fortunately, ever since then; The use of conjunctions, e.g. after, before, since, while, when, as, so that,

although, even though, because, in case, for, as if, as though; The use of adverbs and adverbial phrases, e.g. angrily, in horror, very badly; Specific nouns, strong nouns have more specific meanings, e.g. oak as

opposed to tree; Some dialogue may include, using present or future tenses; The use of the senses, where appropriate, that are used to describe and

develop the experiences, setting and character; The use of verbal verbs9

The use of noun phrases, e.g. a big old tree, a good story book; and action verbs;


Imagery of narrative:

Simile, a direct comparison, using likes or as or as though, e.g. the sea looked as rumpled as a blue quilted dressing gown.

Metaphor, an indirect or hidden comparison, e.g. she has a heart of stone. Onomatopoeia, a suggestion of sound through words, like crackle, splat,

ooze, squish, boom, e.g. the tires whir on the road.

9 Verbal verbs are also known as saying verbs. Ask, say, answer, reply, rebuke, mutter, speak, tell, whisper, boast, insist, demand, explain, stammer, inquiry, suggest, complain, snap, plead, and shout are some examples of saying verbs.

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Personification, giving non-living things living characteristics, e.g. the steel beam clenched its muscles.

Rhetorical questions, often the author asks the audience questions, knowing of course there will be no direct answer. This is a way of involving the reader in the story at the outset, e.g. have you ever built a tree hut?

Types of narrative:

They can be imaginary, factual or a combination of both. They may include fairy stories, mysteries, science fiction, romances, horror

stories, adventure stories, fables, myths and legends, historical narratives, ballads, slice of life, and personal experience.

To help students plan for writing of narratives model, focusing on:

Plot: what is going to happen? Setting: where and when will the story take place? Characterization: who are the main characters? what do they look like? Structure: how will the story begin? what is the problem? how is the problem

going to be resolved? Theme: what is the theme/message the writer is attempting to communicate?


Two Travelers and a Big Tree

Once, two men traveled on a dusty and rough road that had no trees on its sides. They were walking to a distant village during daylight to attend a wedding feast.

The summer sun was so hot that they were sweating a lot.

They looked for a shady tree for a shelter from the sun. After some time, they saw a big old tree with thick, green leaves

Orientation

Complication #1

Resolution #1

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and branches spread everywhere like a big umbrella. They made the tree for a shelter, put their small bundles on the ground, and stretched themselves out in the cool shadow of the tree. They felt relieved and rested for a while, talking about the wedding feast.

After about one hour, one of the travelers said to his friend, Look! What a useless ugly old tree. So big and yet it bears no fruit at all!

On hearing this, the tree felt insulted. Angrily, it yelled, You, ungrateful man! You are enjoying my cool shadow and using it for a shelter, yet you call me useless and ugly! Can you be a more wretched creature than you can? So now, get up and get away from here!

Feeling scared that a tree could talk, the two men ran away in horror.

(Adapted from: Look Ahead 2)

Hortatory Expositions

Hortatory exposition is a text that represents the attempt of the writer to have the addressee do something or act in certain way. Its social function is to persuade the reader that something should or should not be the case.

Text organization:

Thesis, this stage shows announcement of issue concern to the audiences. Arguments, this stage shows the reasons for concern and leads to

recommendation. Recommendation, this stage shows statement of what ought to or ought not

to happen.

Complication #2

Resolution #2

Reorientation

Resolution #1

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Language features:

Focus on generic human and non-human participants, except for speaker or writer referring to self;

The use of abstract noun, e.g. policy, advantage; The use of emotive verbs, e.g. alarmed, worried; The use of words that link arguments, e.g. firstly, however, on the other hands; The use of compound and complex sentences; The use of mental processes, e.g. feel, realize; The use of modal verb, e.g. must, can, should, must be, might, have to; The use of temporal connective, e.g. firstly, secondly; The use of evaluative words, e.g. valuable, trustworthy; The use of relational processes, e.g. does not, seem to, have been, is, are; The use of passive voice; The use of subjective opinions10

The use of present tenses. using pronouns I and we;


Indonesian People Should Value All the Different Cultures to Promote Unity of the Nation

Indonesia is a culturally diverse country. Many different religions and cultures from many provinces are now seen living side by side in many places. One of the biggest questions facing Indonesian today is how to deal with a culturally diverse citizenry and then promote unity. For that reason, Indonesians should appreciate differences among culture for the following reasons.

10 Compare:

Subjective opinion: I think that management could take a softer stance against our union. Objective opinion: Management could take a softer stance against the union.

Thesis

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Firstly, Indonesia is vulnerable to separation for its archipelago and culture diversity. Raising tolerance among people is the best way to maintain the unity among differences. Many ways or cultures of living are equally legal, even if some people do not regard them as normal. If a society claims to be tolerant of personal choice, then it must respect the personal choice to retain their heritage. Then, unity of the nation can be preserved.

Secondly, Indonesians must recognize that every culture has different customs and beliefs. Thus, people are forbidden to make judgments of comparative value, for it is measuring something unmeasured. A plurality of nations, especially in the modern era, can allow for cultural development and cultural exchange that benefits both parties. The cross-cultural understanding among cultures makes the world a better place and preserves the unity of the nation.

Lastly, raising nationalism is one way to preserve unity of the nation. It is a sense of fellow feeling between group members. This promotes cooperation and social cohesion within the group. The sense of social cooperation makes welfare, social security, and medical programs much more likely and stronger.

Cultural differences are sometime a sensitive matter for people. Indonesian people must teach younger generation about the importance of the cultural identity and nationalism to promote unity of the nation.

(Adapted from: www.idebate.org)

Arguments

Recommendation

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Discussions

Discussion is a text, which presentsat leastmany different aspects of an issue. This issue will be discussed from different viewpoints. Discussion is commonly found in philosophical, historic, and social text. Discussion is used to support ideas that presented in sequence to justify a particular stand or viewpoint that a writer is taking.

Text organization:

Statement of issue, this stage introduces the statement and previews of issue. Arguments for and against, this stage shows statement of different points of

view. Recommendation or conclusion, this stage states the writers

recommendation of the issue.

Language features:

Introducing category or generic participant; The use of comparison and contrast words, e.g. also, as, like, similar to,

although, differs from, however; The use of linking words, e.g. on the other hand, although, in contrast to, this

is supported by, in spite of, however; The use of present tenses; The use of repetition words, phrases and concepts deliberately for effect; The use of passive voices that help structure the text; The use of thinking verb, e.g. feel, hope, believe; The use of adverbial of manner.

Read the text on the next page. Pay attention to its text organization and its features.

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Mobile Phones: Good or Bad?

Everywhere you go currently, you see people using mobile phones. From schoolchildren to the people, you see them talking in the supermarket, on trains, in the street, everywhere! So what are the advantages of mobile phones?

First, they are very convenient because you can phone from nearly anywhere. Another advantage is that they are useful in emergencies.

For example, if you are alone in your car and it breaks down, you can get help quickly. In addition, you can also use your mobile to text your friends or connect to the Internet.

However, there are disadvantages such as the cost. Mobile phone calls cost more than normal calls. In addition, it can be annoying if you are on a train or a bus and you have to listen to someone elses boring conversation. Lastly, people can contact you anywhere, at any time, except you switch your phone off!

In brief, there are both advantages and disadvantages. Personally, I feel mobile phones are a good thing because they give us more freedom and make communication easier.

(Adapted from: Language to Go)

Statement of the issue

Arguments for

Arguments against

Conclusion

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Explanations

Explanation is a text to explain the processes involved in the formation or workings of natural or socio-cultural phenomena. Explanation text is to say why and how of the forming of the phenomena. It is often found in science, geography, and history textbooks.

There are two basic types of explanation, which focus on:

How, e.g. how does a pump work? Why, e.g. why is the ozone layer getting thinner?

Text organization:

General statement, this stage provides a general statement to position the reader.

Sequenced explanation, this stage tells a sequenced explanation of why or how something.

Closing.

Features of explanation:

Focus on generic participant; The use of action verbs; The use of linking verbs11

The use of action verbs; , e.g. seem, appear, sound;

Passive voice is commonly used; The use of temporal and causal circumstances; The use of non-human participant, e.g. the sea, the jungle; The use of conjunction, e.g. and, so, then, after this, so; The use of present tenses.

11 Linking verbs is so-called relational process. Some example of linking verbs are look, taste, smell, feel, become, remain, turn, grow, go, run, come, keep, act, represent, reveal, function, portray, refer to, indicate, weigh, stay, cost, measure, make, realize, and denote.

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Where Does Rain Come From?

Rain always comes from clouds. However, where do clouds come from? How does all that water get into the sky?

Think about your bathroom. There is hot water in your bath. Steam goes up from the hot water. The steam makes small clouds in the bathroom. These warm clouds meet the cold walls and windows, and then we see small drops of water on the walls and windows.

The world is like your bathroom. The water in the oceans is warm when the sun shines on it. Some of this water goes up into the sky and makes clouds. The wind carries the clouds for hundreds of kilometers. Then the clouds meet cold air in the sky, and we see drops of water. The drops of water are rain.

The rain falls and runs into rivers. Rivers run into oceans. Then the water from oceans makes clouds and more rain. So, water is always moving from oceans to clouds to rain to rivers to oceans.

Therefore, the rain on your head was on other heads before! The water in your garden was in other gardens in other countries.

(Adapted from: Junior Comprehension 1)

General statement

Sequenced explanation

Closing

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Procedures

Procedure is a text that shows a process in order. Its purpose is to describe how something is accomplished through a sequence of actions or steps.

Text organization:

Goal, this stage shows the purpose. Material, this stage tells the needed materials. This stage is not required for

all procedure texts. Steps, this stage shows a series of steps oriented to achieving the goal.

Language features:

The use of temporal conjunction; Focuses on generalized people rather than individuals; The reader is often referred to in a general way, e.g. pronouns you or one; The use of simple present tense, often imperative; Detail information on how; The use of action verb; The use of technical language; The use of adverb to tell how the action should be done; Begin with verbs and are stated as commands; The use of time words or numbers.

There are different procedure texts for different purposes:

Texts that explain how something works or how to use instruction or operation manuals, e.g. how to use the video;

Texts that instruct how to do a particular activity, e.g. recipes; Texts that deal with human behavior, e.g. how to live happily.


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How to Find Unusual Gifts

Giving gifts is a well-known way to show our attention toward somebody else. Moreover, giving gifts may be important for certain special moments. Unusual or even weird gifts would leave a sweet memory for the recipient and us. So, try these tips to find something unusual as your gifts.

Look for gifts wherever you find yourself, especially when you were on a trip, from a bazaar in Bandung to a tag sale in Berlin.

Use the Internet. Follow links until you find what you want. Track down items such as rare prints, out-of-print books, or antiques in the auction.

Give a welcome service. A massage, costume makeovers, a day at the spa, or romantic dinner will be a nice welcome gift.

Combine one or two things for a spectacular effect. The picture frame that you bought in Bali might provide the perfect background for showing off the portrait of the recipient.

Come to a handicrafts store and talk to the people that make unique pieces. Visit art supply stores, craft shops, art galleries, and factory stores for ideas.

(Adapted from: www.howabout.com)

Goal

Steps

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News Items

News item is a text that informs readers about events of the day, which are considered newsworthy or important.

Text organization:

Main event, this stage recounts the event in summary form. Background events, this stage elaborates what happened, to whom, in what

circumstances. Resource of information, this stage shows comments by participants,

witnesses to and authorities expert on the event.

Language features:

Focus on circumstances; The use of saying verb, e.g. said, asked, told; Passive voices may be used; The use of material process to retell the event; The use of projecting verbal processes in sources stages; Short, telegraphic information about story captured in headline; The use of simple past tense.


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Lohans Sentence to Visit Morgue

BEVERLY HILLS, CALIFORNIA: Lindsay Lohan is about to see dead people.

In June, the 21-year-old actress will visit the morgue as part of her punishment for misdemeanor drunken driving.

Shes going to see bodies. Well have anywhere from 20 to 50 people in the class and shes treated like any other individual, Los Angeles County Coroners Assistant Chief Ed Winter said Friday.

Lohan was arrested twice last year on DUI charges and pleaded guilty in August to misdemeanor drunken driving and cocaine charges.

The morgue visits include a walk-through of the service floor where autopsies are taking place along with the processing of the deceased. They also wind up seeing deceased people in our crypt, Winter said.

Its to show them what reality is.

(Adapted from: The Jakarta Post, January 21, 2008)

Main event

Background events

Resource of information

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Reviews

Review is a text that shows the critique an artwork, event for a public audience. Such works of art include movies, TV shows, books, plays, operas, recordings, exhibitions, concerts, and ballets.

Text organization:

Orientation, this stage places the work in its general and particular context, often by comparing it with others of its kind or through an analog with a non-art object or event.

Interpretative recount, this stage summaries the plot and/or provides an account of how the reviewed rendition of the work came into being (it is optional, but if present, often recursive).

Evaluative summation, this stage provides a kind of punch line, which sums up the reviewers opinion of the art event as a whole, and that is optional.

Language features:

Focus on particular participant; Direct expression of options through use of attitudinal epithets in nominal

groups, qualitative attributes and affective mental processes; The use of elaborating and extending clause and group complexes to package

the information; The use of metaphor language; The use of present tenses.


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One Child Translated into Indonesian Sheila: Cinta Yang Hilang

Reaching out at someone can make a world of difference on his or her future.

Torey L Hayden, she was a teacher who worked with kids who are emotionally disturbed. She made a big impact on a little girl named Sheila. A six-year-old who was put into her class, because of her disorder, and they thought that Torey could get through to her. She did not listen to anyone. This innocent little girl lived a hard life that no six years old should have to go through. She grew up in poverty and her mom abandoned her when she was too little to understand. She was left with her alcoholic father who always thought that spanking was the answer to everything. Kids do not know how lucky they are to have parents who care about them and their future, until they actually read this story.

A teacher who sacrifices a lot just to reach one child, Torey Hayden could fit under that category. She inspires teacher to keep on teaching. Even though they feel like giving up on their students, because they feel like they cannot reach them. Torey Hayden is faced with difficult decision, she could either stick with her principles or change the way she handles things. If she changes the way she handles things then she would have a higher chance of reaching out to Sheila.

Orientation

Interpretative recount

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Have you ever put your whole heart into something and then finally achieved it? In this book, the characters did the same. This book is very inspiring. It sits up good examples, to have compassion for other people, and you do not even have to know the person, personally to care about their well fair. This book is filled with many emotions; some parts of this book may make you cry a little. When you read this book, you actually feel like you are going through the same experience along with Sheila. It makes you want to reach out to her, and let her know that everything is going to be okay.

(Adapted from: www.buildingrainbows.com)

Evaluative summation

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Descriptive Texts

Descriptive text is usually used in all forms of writing to create a vivid impression of a person, place, object, or event. Its social function is to describe a particular person, place or thing.

Descriptive writing is usually used to help a writer develops an aspect of their work, e.g. to create a particular mood, atmosphere or describe a place so that the reader can create vivid pictures of characters, places, objects, and more.

Text organization:

Identification, this stage identifies phenomenon to be described. Description, this stage describes parts, qualities, and characteristic.

Language features:

Focus on specific participants; The use of noun phrase; The use of present tenses; The use of attributive and identifying processes; Frequent use of epithets (adjective or adjective phrase) and classifier in

nominal groups; The use of linking verbs; Relies on precisely chosen vocabulary with carefully chosen adjectives and

adverbs; Focuses and concentrates only on the aspects that add something to the main

purpose of the description; Sensory descriptionwhat is heard, seen, smelt, felt, tasted; Strong development of the experience that puts the reader there focuses on

key details, powerful verbs and precise nouns.


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Niagara Falls

Niagara Falls is a famous area of waterfalls. It is one of the most beautiful natural wonders of North America. It is on the Niagara River, about halfway between Lake Erie and Lake Ontario. The Niagara River forms part of the border between Canada and the United States. At Niagara Falls, Ontario, Canada is on one side of the river, and the U.S. state of New York is on the other side.

Niagara Falls really has two waterfalls. The Horseshoe Falls are in Canada, and the American Falls are in the United States.

The Niagara River drops into a steep gorge or canyon, at the falls. Most of the water flows over the Horseshoe Falls. They are not as high as the American Falls, but they are 2,600 feet (792 meters) wideabout 0.5 mile (0.8 kilometer). The American Falls are about 1,000 feet (305 meters) wide. Beyond the falls are the Whirlpool Rapids. There, the powerful swirling water has carved a bowl out of the rock.

At night, colored lights shine on the thundering falls. About 10 million people visit Niagara Falls each year.

(Adapted from: The World Book Student Discovery Encyclopedia)

Description

Identification

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Advertisements

Advertisement is a text that is used to develop loyalty to a cause, person, or product. Also, to tantalize, persuade, and invite, to circularize information; to promote an event, product, cause, or person; to endorse a product over that of a competitor; to correct actual or perceived misinformation; to generate good will; and to sell a service or product. Features of advertisements:

Uses concise language structures; Sometimes a third party is involved in sponsorship; Persuasive languagesuperlatives, comparisons with competitors; Abbreviated language and often abbreviationsthe latter are often

specialized or technical terms; Extensive use of graphicslayout, color, type font and size, and visual

images; Often emphasize price, quality, reliability, new or current product; Often designed to appeal to a specific audience or to extend audience; Elements of urgencylimited availability, special offer, sale, discount; Other vocabulary: trademark, retail price, guarantee, warranty, special

conditions apply, and ingredients; Most include contact information; Radio and TV ads may include jingle or song, or printed ads will probably

include a logo of the product or company; Excellence or superiority is often claimed rather than proven or backed by

research; Asterisk often refers to the fine print and the conditions or limitations or

warnings; Size or duration varies; Usually linked to revenue; Often uses metaphors.

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Examples of advertisements are billboards, fliers, circulars, pamphlets, poster packaging, blurbs, TV and radio spots, inserts or notices in magazines and newspapers.

Almanacs

Almanac is usually used to show organization of the year or a period of time; to highlight specific dates or rhythms within a period; to provide information in a quick and easily accessible form. Almanac is also a register or record of feast days, a record of astronomical information, a record of genealogies and statistics, and a book of reference material. Features of almanacs:

Layout consistent within document; Layout will vary according to purpose and origin (e.g. some weeks will begin

on Monday, others Sunday); Cultural influences determine the length and format of time periods; Often linked to a culture or religion; Determines introduction or amendments of laws, taxes, or holidays; Information categorized in some by topic.

Examples of almanacs:

A book or table that comprises a calendar of the year showing days, weeks, and months;

A table showing the rhythm of the sun and moon; A register or record of feast days; A record of astronomical information; A record of genealogies and statistics; A book of reference material.

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Atlases

Atlas is a collection of maps, each with a specific focus. Atlas is usually used to show location of a continent, country, or place within a country. Features of atlases:

Maps may show outlines, regions, typography, resources, political divisions, or the world;

Scale; Abbreviations; Links or overlaps between maps; Table of content; Index with grid reference; Longitude and latitude; Symbols; Use of color or shading for relativity.

Autobiographies

Autobiography is a first person account (usually narrative) of all or part of ones life. Diaries, memoirs, journals, and personal letters are autobiographical items but are not usually continuous narrative. Autobiography is usually used to share aspects and incidents of ones life through the printed word; to correct misinformation; to reflect on ones own life; to acknowledge those who have contributed to the authors life; and to explore a period of time. Features of autobiographies:

Offers insights into the attributes, personalities, interests, and opinions of the subject and of those close to the subject;

Offers insights into the conditions and times in which the person lives/d; Usually continuous narrative; Often unreliable as a record of facts;

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May be based on memory, or on other peoples impressions and memories rather than research or reference to factual records;

First person; Usually some emotive and reflective language; Usually includes feelings and opinions; Usually highlights ones better traits; Illustrations most likely to be photographs, grouped and presented in

signatures; Photographs usually grouped chronologically; May include flashbacks; Probably some direct and indirect speech; Index common; May have a ghostwriter; Chapter headings usually descriptive.

Biographies

Biography is a written account of a persons life that focuses on character and career or achievements. Biography is ideally an accurate history of a persons life (as perceived at that time) and a reflection of the time in place in which he/she lived.

Biography is used to highlight achievements; to dispel biased views; to publicize the subject; to perpetuate the memory of a person or achievements; and to reflect on aspects of historical interest. Features of biographies:

Detail may include family background, childhood experiences, education, personality traits, business ventures, comments by critics, contributions to his or her field of work or interest and the effects of these;

Usually well researched;

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Research base may include diaries, newspaper clippings, official documents, subjects letters and memos to or from others, memories of contemporaries, personal knowledge;

Illustrative material usually photographic; Photographs usually between signatures of book; Probably includes quotes or comments from other people; Usually shortcomings as well as virtues highlighted, or at least included; Usually organized chronologically; May be written while subject still alive or posthumously; Chapter headings usually descriptive.

Book Reports

Book report is a synopsis of a book, tailored for other potential readers, discussing noticeable features and new insights. Book reports are usually used to summarize reaction to a book, to influence other readers, and to promote or introduce a book. Features of book reports:

Note: Differs from book review, as a report focuses mainly on what is objectively observable. Format may be:

Title and author; Characters, setting, and point of view or purpose; Brief synopsis of content; Comment on the theme or perspective; Quotations from book to support statements; Recommendation on appropriate readership.

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Brochures

Brochure is single sheet, often folded, of promotional material advertising a product attraction or event. Brochure is used to inform, invite, persuade, attraction, market a product or event, and to create interest and good will. Features of brochures:

Symbols; Abbreviations; Directions; Color, font, type size and layout are important; Schedules and timetables; Language may vary within one brochure from concise and factual (especially

when giving information of price, responsibilities, reservations) to emotive and persuasive descriptions using superlatives and making comparisons with competitors;

Vocabulary (guarantee, reservations, responsibility, warranty, location); Contact informationaddress, phone, fax, Internet; Illustrative material often includes photographs portraying best aspects of

subject and maps.

Look at the brochure on the next page. Pay attention to its features.

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Cartoons

Cartoon is a pictorial reflection on a topical issue, event, or person; an illustrative exaggeration of characteristics or issues. Cartoon is used to entertain through satire or humor, to express an opinion, and to politically persuade. Features of cartoons:

Captions are often dialog; Inferential reading of illustrative material and caption required; Assumes background knowledge; Caricatures depicting peculiarities or defects; Often engenders congenial rather than derisive laughter; Often topical and only of interest to specific group (e.g. local or where

characters or issue are known); Speech bubbles.

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Classics

Classic is a work generally acknowledged as a model or example of a standard; a work of highest class among others in similar form; a work, which has been a long-standing favorite. Features of classics:

Usually several or many editions; Abridged versions common; Book language; Originals of older classics had little illustration; What is perceived as a classic at one time, might not be at another; Several works originally labeled as classics have been criticized for

stereotyping.

Cinquains

Cinquain is a five-line stanza, usually unrhymed, with a set syllabic pattern. Features:

Pattern of syllables: two, four, six, eight, two; Content usually related to nature; A single glimpse.

Read the text on the next page. Pay attention to its features.

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Listen...

With faint dry sound, Like steps of passing ghosts,

The leaves, frost-crispd, break from the trees, And fall.

(Written by Adalaide Crapsey)

Comics

Comic is a booklet or magazine containing one or more comic strips. Comics are usually used to entertain through humor and to tell a story through pictures and minimal dialog. Feature of comics:

Dialog and text describing setting or time minimal; Main action carried through illustration; All text within frames; Speech bubbles; Inferential reading required; Sequence of dialog within frame often left to reader to decide; Characters often have their own series; Main distinction between issues is number and cover illustration rather than

title; Contractions and idioms; Characters known through speech and action (no descriptive text); Some comics have become classics;

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Consumer Reports

Consumer report is evaluative surveys of goods and services for personal use rather that those used for the production of other goods or services. It is usually used to help potential buyers make an informed decision about a purchase; to maintain standards; and to show how one product or service is viewed in relation to others available. Features of consumer reports:

Uses comparison and contrast and cause and effect; Rating system often present using numerals, stars, letters, percentages, or bar

graphs; Usually prepared by independent group; Criteria known to readers; Field testing, clinical research, and/or consumer surveys; Often rated against national or international standards; Usually include summary and recommendations for purchase or use; Present and objective and impersonal tone; Uses third person point of view; Includes headings, graphs, charts, tables; This may include personal testimonies presenting positive or negative

experiences.

Read the text below. Pay attention to its features.

Dear reader,

I have always been frustrated by how hard it is to get across the many incredible health benefits of Consumer Reports on Health in our mail offers. After going through some very uplifting reader surveys, it finally dawned on me. Just show people the product!

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I hope you will see the value in this free sample edition. It reflects the broad range of contemporary health issues, boiled down to a dozen carefully organized pages written in a no-nonsense style.

We present it in summarized form to be easiest for you to consult, use, and save. However, the fact is, you get just as much benefit from what is not in here. We evaluate and distill the huge amounts of health news that floods the media.

A VALUABLE REFERENCE

We also consult with medical experts to help us sort through the news, the product claims, the wide range of opinions, and to decide what is safe, sensible, and best for your health.

As you will often see, we encourage you to explore further into the topics that we cover. You will often find one, or multiple, web sites to visit, and clear references to who the sources are for information and opinions.

If you are a saverand On Health is something worth savingwe make it easy to go back through the year and find the month and page of articles by specific topics, from allergies to weight control. Look at the back cover and you will see just what I mean. It comes in handy when you want to get specific information in a hurry.

The only thing that you cannot discover in this sample is my column! Each month I use page 2 to address a timely subject that I think you will find important.

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YOUR FREE SAMPLE

That is it. I will stop pitching and let this free sample edition speak for itself. I hope you decide you would like to get more every month.

(Adapted from: Consumer Report On Health)

Diaries

Diary is a book marked and arranged in calendar order in which to note appointments or keep a personal record of thoughts and activities. Diary is used to record events or thoughts day by day; to distinct purposesone as a planning record of appointments and the other as reflective and personal record; for reflective reading or planning or scheduling. Features:

Arranged sequentially, day by day, and sometimes by shorter periods; Personaloften notes rather than complete sentences; Personalemotive and descriptive language common; Personalinner thoughts revealed; Appointmentsusually only name and brief description of content; Abbreviations common; Personal diaries often for authors use only; Appointments diary may be kept on behalf of someone else; Conventional punctuation and spelling often not important in personal

diaries.

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Dictionaries

Dictionary is reference books, arranged alphabetically, listing words and their meanings, alternative spellings, and parts of speech, and often origins and pronunciation guides. Some dictionaries also use the word in a short sentence.

Another definition of dictionary is reference books, arranged alphabetically, giving a word of similar meaning in another language, reference books listing words for specific contexts or usea biographical or mathematical dictionary, dictionary of synonyms and antonyms, rhyming dictionary.

Dictionary is used to promote the correct or conventional use of language, to provide a common understanding of the spelling, meanings, use, and derivation of words. Features of dictionaries:

Alphabetical listing with consistent format for each entry within style or that edition;

Parentheses; Abbreviations; Symbols; Pronunciation guide; Sounds and stress marks in pronunciation guide for each entry; Derivations of words; May include encyclopedic entries; Guide words; Use of type for importance (bold, italics); Variants, inflections, parts of speech, and grammatical information usually

included.


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amnesty /mnsti/ (pl ies) general pardon, esp for political offences

amoeba (US also ameba) /mi:b/ n (pl ~s or ae /-bi:/) very small living creature consisting of one cell

amok /mk/ adv [IDM] run amok RUN1

(Adapted from: Oxford Learners Pocket Dictionary)

Directions

Direction is procedural texts giving systematic instructions. Direction often uses to direct action, give a sequence in order for something to be completed successfully, and to set out rules or parameters. Features:

Clarity is critical; Sequence is critical; Numbering of steps; Diagrams and figures are common; Layoutoften space between steps; Sequence may be indicated by arrows, especially in diagrams or when layout

is not vertical; Few adjectives; Often on a sheet of paper within package.

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Editorials

Editorial is a short persuasive essay, which expresses opinion or reaction to a news story or topical event, an informative outline of contents in a magazine. It is usually used to persuade others to have the same opinions as the editorial writer, to share opinions, to force public officials to reconsider decisions or priorities, to suggest alternative procedures, to influence readers, to bring current issues to the readers attention, and to entertain. Features of editorials:

Expresses opinion; sometimes biased; May be controversial; Anticipates counterarguments; Critical reading required for reader to make informed decision; Sometimes esoteric; May focus on negative; Consistent placement and length; Usually written by chief editor.


Editorial: Balis Example

Many Indonesians feel irritated when they find out that Bali is often more famous than Indonesia abroad, with foreigners even often asking funny question like, Is Indonesia part of Bali?

Bali is one of the worlds top tourist destinations. How did the tiny province with a population of about 3.34 million become so attractive to global tourists?

Many provinces in this country believe they are more exotic than Bali, but still they cannot compete in luring visitors,

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as they can practically offer only the natural beauty of their provinces, while Bali has moved far beyond geographical richness alone.

When terrorists bombed Bali in 2002 and in 2005, there was a global outpouring of sorrow and sympathy for the victims and for the Balinese who had to endure severe suffering because the terrorists barbaric acts.

Thursday (March 26) is a national holiday. Indonesia has 14 holidays this year, 12 of them are religious and tomorrow Balinese Hindus have their turn with the observation of Nyepi (Day of Silence) as part of the celebration to mark the Hindu Saka New Year. This Day of Silence is when our Hindu compatriots silently self reflect and contemplate the year past and the year ahead.

For other Indonesians this is also the right time to honestly acknowledge the great contribution the resort island makes not just to our economy, but also more importantly to enriching our culture and systems of values as a nation. We tend to take Bali for granted, as we do with other provinces outside of Java.

While Balinese Hindus are preparing for the observation of Nyepi, hopefully it is not regarded as offensive or ridiculous to ask a tempting question: Will Bali remain as magnificent as what it is now when Hinduism is not the largest religion there? There is no intention at all to offend other religions; this question is merely a matter of curiosity.

There is also no intention at all to say that Hinduism is better than other religions. What we want to say is that Hindus should have a central role in guiding Balinese people and that the world would benefit from such guidance. Indonesians,

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whatever their religion is, can learn a lot from the way and values of our comrades, while Balinese Hindus can also learn from other citizens of different religions to enrich Indonesia.

On Nyepi, the entire island of Bali will fall silent. The Hindus will constrain from lighting any fires or lights, working, traveling outside their family compound or partaking in any recreational activities.

Although only about 2 percent of the whole Indonesian population is Hindu, (mostly Balinese), their role and influence reaches much further beyond the statistical facts.

Not just Indonesians, but the world love Bali. Tomorrow, TV stations will report how deserted the island is, for one whole day. On this day of religious celebration, we want to thank our Balinese compatriots for their great contributions to our nation. Through their daily deeds, they also give us concrete examples of how to win the hearts and trust of the world.

(Adapted from: The Jakarta Post, March 25, 2009)

Encyclopedias

Encyclopedia is a book or collection of volumes containing brief articles or information on various topics, often arranged alphabetically, dealing either with a range of knowledge or with a specific focus. It is used to provide accessible reference material, and to give facts about a topic. Features:

Usually updated regularly, so editions are important; Preface to each edition noting reason for or summary of changes; Usually includes some illustrative material; Carefully researched;

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Usually objective with little or no bias; Detailed index with key reference usually in bold; Abbreviations; Often in columns with guidewords.

Epics

Epic is a long narrative story or poem set in a remote time and place and about heroic character/characters. It is used to present models of greatness of character, to reflect values of a culture, and to comment on a social issue of the period. Features:

Characters larger than life in strength, intellect, or bravery; Content important in history of a nation; Character reflects full range of virtues of the time; Many originally written in poetic form; Translations may lose rhythm and strength of emotion, bravery, or danger of

original; Many of the originals were sung or said to the accompaniment of a musical

instrument; Danger and a demonstration of physical strength common essential

elements.


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Hiawatha's Departure from The Song of Hiawatha

by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow

By the shore of Gitchie Gumee, By the shining Big-Sea-Water, At the doorway of his wigwam,

In the pleasant Summer morning, Hiawatha stood and waited.

Essays

Essay is a short, no exhaustive composition where ideas on a single topic or theme are explained or argued in an interesting manner. Types of essay are formal essays, informal essays, biographical essays, photo essays, narrative essays, and question responses. Essay is used to explain, explore, or argue ideas on a single topic. Features of essays:

Nearly always written in prose (note: photo essays); Maintains tight focus on topic; Most essays are relatively short; Follow clear organizational form; Directed toward a specific audience; May include cause and effect, analogies, opinion, persuasion, classification,

descriptions, reviews, comparison and contrast; Introductory sentence presents issue and perspective.

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Expository Texts

Expository text is explanatory writing, detailing or justifying information, ideas, and opinions. In short form as essays, articles. In longer form: travel books, research papers, informational texts. Expository is used to explain an idea, develop a thought, and prove a point or fact. Its social function is to explain the what, when, why or how of facts, ideas, and opinions. Features:

Usually non-fiction; Tells how, where, when, why, which things happen or have happened or are

as they are; Tells what things are likesize, color, shape, texture; Tells what things can domovement, use; Tells how many; Tells where things are found; Usually detailed and descriptive; Information organized logically; Systematic explanations or arguments; Often includes illustrative material, especially diagrams and tables; Longer expository texts usually have a table of contents and index and

descriptive headings; Many have a bibliography; Detailed reading is usually required.

Fables

Fable is a short and simple didactic story in prose or verse usually with animal characters acting as humans. It also a traditional form of story related to proverbs and folklore. Its social function is to demonstrate a moral.

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Text organization:

Exposition, this includes the characters and the setting of the story. Rising action, events lead up to the inevitable conflict. Conflict, there is typically a unique struggle in the tale. Falling action, these events occur because of the rising action and the

resulting conflict. Moral, the lesson that is to be learned from the story.

Features:

Anthropomorphic; Characters are impersonalcalled by generic name; Characters represent aspects of human nature, e.g. sheep represents

innocence; Usually one two or three characters; Element of trickery as turning point; Usually one incident; More complex than often thoughtconveying abstract truth in very few

words.


The Ox and the Frog

Oh, Father, said a little Frog to the big one sitting by the side of a pool, I have seen such a terrible monster! It was big as a mountain, with horns on its head, and a long tail, and it had hoofs divided in two.

Tush, child, tush, said the old Frog, that was only Farmer White's Ox. It isnt so big either; he may be a little bit

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taller than I, but I could easily make myself quite as broad; just you see.

So he blew himself out, and blew himself out, and blew himself out.

Was he as big as that? asked he.

Oh, much bigger than that, said the young Frog.

Again, the old one blew himself out, and asked the young one if the Ox was as big as that.

Bigger, Father, bigger, was the reply.

So the Frog took a deep breath, and blew and blew and blew, and swelled and swelled.

Then he said, Im sure the Ox is not as big as this.

But at that moment he burst.

(Adapted from: www.allaboutfrogs.org)

Folk Tales

Folktale is a form of narrative that has been handed down, example: epics, fairy tales, ballads, myths, legends, fables, and folk songs. Its purpose is to tell an entertaining story, to reveal human nature; to instill cultural beliefs, values, and practices; to explain natural and social phenomena; to kindle imagination; and to discover universal qualities of humankind. Features:

May not have been intended for children, but strong plot, quick action, and identifiable structure have attracted children through ages and cultures;

Usually reasonably short; Always end happily;

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The underdog usually triumphs or good overcomes evil; Wishes come true as a result of a test or struggle; Contain an element of magic; Every culture has its own folklore reflecting its history and values; Identifiable structure; Action quickly reflects direct plot; Characters, setting, and problem revealed early; Characters often opposite in personality and appearanceusually several

adjectives to describe each character; Quick ending contains resolutioninstant, painless death; lavish wedding

without apparent preparation; Repetition a basic elementrepetition often related to number of characters; Three is a common elementcharacters, main episodes, attempts to solve

problems; Chants or repeated verses are common; Always set in yesteryear; Many versions of same taleoften adapted to a culture but also many

versions within a culture; The same theme is reflected in different tales in different cultures.


At the edge of a forest, stood a big tree. Its branches spread out majestically and so did its roots. It shielded people from the sun under its shady leaves, and provided shelter to countless birds and other small creatures in its branches. It buzzed with activity all the time.

At the foot of the tree grew a little plant. The plant was willowy and delicate, and tended to keel over at the touch of the slightest breeze.

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One day, the two neighbors were having a little talk.

Well, little one, said the tree to the plant, why do you not plant your feet deeply in the ground, and raise your head boldly in the air as I do?

I see no need to do so, whispered the plant with a smile. Actually, I think I may be safer this way.

Safer! sneered to the tree. Are you suggesting that youre safer than I am? Do you know how deep my roots are buried, how thick and strong my trunk is? Even if two men hold hands, they would not be able to surround my trunk. Who could possibly pluck me by the roots or bow my head to the ground?

And the tree turned away from the plant in a great huff.

But the tree was to regret its words very soon. One evening a great hurricane arose in the region. It hurled the trees off their roots and almost completely destroyed the forest. It uprooted the neem tree and hurled it away with great force.

When the storm had passed, the villagers living nearby surveyed the damage. Mighty trees that had once almost touched the sky were now reduced to stumps or worse. The forest was littered with their carcasses.

But there was one exception, the little plant. The plant had been tossed and turned under the fury of the hurricane, and bent completely. But when the hurricane ended, it sighed and stood upright again.

No trace remained of its mighty neighbor though.

(Adapted from: www.pitara.com)

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Haiku

Haiku is a lyrical poem, with a definite structure, that focuses on a single moment. Features:

English: seventeen syllables arranged in three lines of five, seven, and five syllables;

Creates clear images; Written in present tense; Focuses on natural object or scene; First part focuses on some aspect of nature and the second on the engendered

mood or emotion; Often relates to seasons; Evokes emotion; Reader needs to add context and often create the setting.


As the wind does blow Across the trees, I see the

Buds blooming in I walk across sand

And find myself blistering In the hot, hot heat

Falling to the ground, I watch a leaf settle down

In a bed of brown.

Its coldand I wait For someone to shelter me

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And take me from here.

I hear crackling Crunch, of todays new found day

And know it wont last So I will leave it

At bay; and hope for the best This bitter new day.

Idioms

Idiom is ways in which words are commonly combined, ways in which a specific or identifiable group combine words in a particular context. Features:

The meaning may not be predictable from individual words in the expression;

Difficult to translate because of unique syntax; The context and the user often define the meaning.

Example of idioms:

The job that you are offering me sounds really good, but I would like to sleep on it before giving you my final decision.

Sleep on it means take at least a day to think about something before making a decision.

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Informational Posters

Informational poster is usually used to convey a large amount of information in a succinct and graphical form to a distant and fleeting audience, e.g. billboard. Features:

Appeals to a specific audience; May include slogan, logos, reference to public figures; Illustrations may include photographs of well-known people; Link with product may be obscure but causes tend to be overtly explicit; Graphics usually sell the message; Inferential reading a common requirement; Uses concise language; Often includes metaphors.

Interviews

Interview is usually magazine or newspaper articles set out in question-and-answer format. Its function is to record conversations with or questioning of a person for a specific purpose or audience, to obtain and share information about predetermined topics through a question-and-answer session. Features:

Little or no scene setting; Verbatim recording of questions and answers; Interviewee does not usually have opportunity to use reference material; Use of bold type, abbreviations, and colons in presentation; May include idioms, incomplete structures; Sidetracking is common.

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Journals

Journal is a scholarly periodical, a personal record of thoughts, impressions, and events important for the present or as a plan for future reference or action. Journal is used to provide a record of thoughts, experiences, dreams, memories, plans. Features:

Entries dated; Includes summaries, responses, and unanswered questions; Contains autobiographical information; First person; May be a mixture of tenses; Often focuses on what has been learned; Can be a source of ideas for writing or some action; Entries may be more spasmodic than in diaries; Entries may be more reflective of thoughts, impressions, and ideas than in a

diary.

Legends

Legend is narratives often part fact and part fiction about the life and deeds of a famous hero or a saint, kept alive mainly through oral retellings, and stories about heroes before the time of recorded history. Legend is used to explain a social phenomenon, to focus on positive character traits, to present models of behavior and ethics, and to use story to explain aspects of human nature. Features:

Focuses on character traits, especially of strength and bravery; Often exaggerated accountssome of the acts of heroism become more

exaggerated with each retelling; Many have historical basis; Many follow the pattern of traditional tales;

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Often called hero myths; Often distinguished from myths in that they have humans rather than gods

as characters and they sometimes have a historical basis which myths do not have;

Many epics are based on legends.

Letters: Business Letters

Business letter is a part of correspondence between two parties, one of whom is part of an organized body. Business letter is usually used to request or to respond to a request, to express an opinion, to inform, to apply for a product, information, or a position. Features:

Lay out more details, and body of letter has more defined structure than that of a personal letter;

Full address of sender and recipient included; Structure includes purpose of letter and reference to any previous

correspondence on the same topic, explanation, and thanks which often summarizes intended or decided action;

Opinion often stated as fact; May include Reference: Attention. Recipient or writer may be acting on behalf of a group or committee; May include technical information specific to topic or specific item; If more than one item is being discussed, paragraphs are used; Might be numbered with subsection defined by letters; Letterheads.

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Letters: Functional Letters

Functional letter is a letters for a specific purpose, often one-offs such as expressing condolence, thanks, or congratulations. Sometimes an open letter, such as a letter to an editor intended for public readership.

Letters: Personal Letters

Personal letter is a written communication from one person to another, traditionally sent in an envelope by post, but electronic mail is becoming more common. It is used to maintain a relationship, and exchange records of incidents and ideas of common interest. Features:

Sequence may not be important; Idioms and natural language common elements; Some content probably of significance only to writer and main recipient; Often used in research for biographies or autobiographies; Address and date often abbreviated; Usually longer length than business or functional letters; Grammar and spelling are often not as closely checked as in other forms of

letters.


September 02, 2010

Dear Michelle,

Please accept my most sincere apology for my behavior last week/yesterday. I have thought long and hard about what happened and I realize how very upset/angry you must have been.

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I am sorry for creating the situation, which I know I should have handled better. I admit that I was in the wrong and can only say how sorry I am. I can promise you that this will never happen again and hope that you will give me the opportunity to prove this to you.

I understand that it might be difficult for you to accept my apology but hope that this letter will help. I will call you later this week to apologize in person and hope that you will be able to give me another chance.

Kind regards,

Jessica Jessica Anastasia

Lists

List is a collection, often arranged vertically, of words or phrases with a common theme. List is used to provide quick access to information with a common purpose or focus, and to provide a quick reference for considering ideas or facts and their relationships. Features:

Often the result of individual or collective brainstorming; Usually same parts of speech within a list; May be reorganized into a logical sequence to form an outline or procedure; Bullets; May focus on main ideas; Can be a form of note taking.

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Magazines

Magazine is a collection of items published for a specific audience or promotes a cause. Magazine is also a volume or issue with a consistent format and approach. Magazine is used to provide short reads on a variety of subjects or different aspects or views of a single topic or theme within one publication and to pursue a topic or issue on a regular basis. It is also used to update information, to inform readers of the lives of famous people, to provide the views of several people, and to develop loyalty to a product or cause. Features:

Light and easy to handle; Often free or cheap; Offers detailed reading or content for dipping and delving. May be biased or emphasize a perspective; Each issue may vary according to focus and contributors; Cover gives information of main topics or the focus; Usually wide range of graphics within an issue; Columns; Range of type; Technical or specialized vocabulary; Items may be continued from one issue to another; Contents may include: cover informationpublication date, issue, volume,

key topics or theme, table of contents, publication staff, publication information, subscription information, editorial reviews, letters to the editor, profiles, articles, advertisements, achievements and milestones, forthcoming events or issues, latest news or research, interviews, articles, regular features (puzzles, recipes, snippets, reports).

Magazine Articles

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Magazine article is a short text within a collection, often a stand-alone item within the collection, by either form or content. It is used to explain, inform, express opinion, report, and to engender interest or response. Features:

Usually topical or current and linked to focus of magazine; May be by regular contributor to magazine; May be a one-off topic; Often biased.

Manuals

Manual is a procedural text links between manufacturer and consumer, a factual and descriptive explanation of how, what, when, and why. It is also known as handbook. It is used to guide or direct action, to explain the components and/or operation of a product, or to explain how materials or equipment can be used or repaired. Features:

Usually includes technical or specialized language; Diagrams are usually labeled and referenced from text; Diagrams often show sequence, are cut away to show inner components, or

just label components; Requires detailed reading, though tendency is often to skim or refer to

diagrams first; Often uses bold or italic type and framed sections; Chapter summaries often in note form at beginning of chapter; Detailed index and often a troubleshooting section; Often subsections within table of contents; Appendices may include specifications; Authorized service agents.

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Memos (Memoranda)

Memo is a formal or informal letter, note, or written message, usually between departments or branches of a business, of something that needs to be remembered or enacted. It is used to inform of past or intended action or to direct action. Features:

Heading includes To, From, Date, and Subject. Others receiving a copy for information;

Formal memos are often copied to supervisor of both writer and recipient; May be reporting on conversations or reminding of agreed action; Printed form or e-mail may determi

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