benefits of the mediterranean diet: insights from the

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 1

Title: Benefits of the Mediterranean Diet: Insights from the PREDIMED Study

Running title: PREDIMED and the Mediterranean Diet

Miguel A. Martínez-González [1,2,3], Jordi Salas-Salvadó [2,3,4], Ramón Estruch

[2,3,5], Dolores Corella D [3,6], Montse Fitó [3,7], Emilio Ros [3,5] for the

PREDIMED INVESTIGATORS*

1 Department of Preventive Medicine and Public Health, University of Navarra,

IDISNA (Navarra Health Research Institute), Pamplona, Spain.

2 The PREDIMED Research Network (RD 06/0045), Instituto de Salud Carlos III,

Madrid, Spain.

3 Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Fisiopatología de la Obesidad y Nutrición

(CIBERobn), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain.

4 Human Nutrition Department, Hospital Universitari Sant Joan, Institut d'Investigació

Sanitaria Pere Virgili, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Reus.

5 Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer, Hospital Clinic, University

of Barcelona, Barcelona.

6 Department of Preventive Medicine and Public Health, University of Valencia,

Valencia.

7 Cardiovascular and Nutrition Research Group, Institut de Recerca Hospital del Mar,

Barcelona.

*A complete list of PREDIMED INVESTIGATORS can be found at the end of this

manuscript.

Last names for PubMed indexing: Martinez-Gonzalez, Salas-Salvado, Estruch,

Corella, Fito, Ros

Word count: 3053 (excluding title page, abstract and references)

Number of figures: 1 Number of Tables: 3

Correspondence and reprints:

Prof. Miguel Á. Martínez-González, MD, MPH, PhD. Department of Preventive

Medicine & Public Health, School of Medicine, University of Navarra, Irunlarrea 1,

31008-Pamplona, Navarra (Spain). E-mail: [email protected]. Tel: +34 948 42 56

00 Ext: 806463. Fax: + 34 948 42 57 40.

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Funding Disclosure: Supported by the official funding agency for biomedical research

of the Spanish government, Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII), through grants

provided to research networks specifically developed for the trial (RTIC G03/140, to

Dr. Estruch; RTIC RD 06/0045, to Dr. Martínez-González and through Centro de

Investigación Biomédica en Red de Fisiopatología de la Obesidad y Nutrición

(CIBERobn), and by grants from Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares

(CNIC 06/2007), Fondo de Investigación Sanitaria–Fondo Europeo de Desarrollo

Regional (PI04-2239, PI 05/2584, CP06/00100, PI07/0240, PI07/1138, PI07/0954, PI

07/0473, PI10/01407, PI10/02658, PI11/01647, P11/02505 and PI13/01090), Ministerio

de Ciencia e Innovación (AGL-2009-13906-C02 and AGL2010-22319-C03), Fundación

Mapfre 2010, Consejería de Salud de la Junta de Andalucía (PI0105/2007), Public

Health Division of the Department of Health of the Autonomous Government of

Catalonia, Generalitat Valenciana (ACOMP06109, GVACOMP2010-181,

GVACOMP2011-151, ACOMP/2013/165, ACOMP/2013/159, CS2010-AP-111, and

CS2011-AP-042), and Regional Government of Navarra (P27/2011).

Role of the Funders: funding sources had no role in the design and conduct of the

study; collection, management, analysis, and interpretation of the data; and preparation,

review, or approval of the manuscript.

Conflicts of interest: MA Martinez-Gonzalez received grants for research from the

International Nut Council, Reus, Spain; J. Salas-Salvado has received grants for

research from the International Nut Council, Reus, Spain and is a non paid member of

its Scientific Advisory Committee; Ramon Estruch no conflicts of interest; D. Corella

no conflicts of interest; M. Fito no conflicts of interest and E. Ros has received grants

for research from the California Walnut Commission, Sacramento, CA, U.S. and is a

non paid member of its Scientific Advisory Committee;

Non standard abbreviations: AF, atrial fibrillation; CHD, coronary heart disease; CV,

cardiovascular; CVD, CV disease; DLP, dyslipidemia; EVOO, extra-virgin olive oil;

FFQ, food frequency questionnaire; HTN, hypertension; MeDiet, Mediterranean diet;

MetS, metabolic syndrome; PAD, peripheral artery disease; PREDIMED (PREvención

con DIeta MEDiterránea); RCT,randomized control trial; T2DM, type 2 diabetes

mellitus.

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ABSTRACT

The PREDIMED (PREvención con DIeta MEDiterránea) multicenter, randomized, primary

prevention trial assessed the long-term effects of the Mediterranean diet (MeDiet) on clinical

events of cardiovascular disease (CVD). We randomized 7447 men and women at high CVD

risk into three diets: MeDiet supplemented with extra-virgin olive oil (EVOO), MeDiet

supplemented with nuts, and control diet (advice on a low-fat diet). No energy restriction and

no special intervention on physical activity were applied. We observed 288 CVD events (a

composite of myocardial infarction, stroke or CVD death) during a median time of 4.8 years;

hazard ratios were 0.70 (95% CI, 0.53-0.91) for the MeDiet+EVOO and 0.70 (CI, 0.53-0.94)

for the MeDiet+nuts compared to the control group. Respective hazard ratios for incident

diabetes (273 cases) among 3541 non-diabetic participants were 0.60 (0.43-0.85) and 0.82

(0.61-1.10) for MeDiet+EVOO and MeDiet+nuts, respectively versus control. Significant

improvements in classical and emerging CVD risk factors also supported a favorable effect of

both MeDiets on blood pressure, insulin sensitivity, lipid profiles, lipoprotein particles,

inflammation, oxidative stress, and carotid atherosclerosis. In nutrigenomic studies beneficial

effects of the intervention with MedDiets showed interactions with several genetic variants

(TCF7L2, APOA2, MLXIPL, LPL, FTO, M4CR, COX-2, GCKR and SERPINE1) with

respect to intermediate and final phenotypes. Thus, the PREDIMED trial provided strong

evidence that a vegetable-based MeDiet rich in unsaturated fat and polyphenols can be a

sustainable and ideal model for CVD prevention.

Keywords: Mediterranean diet, Dietary intervention, randomized trials, primary prevention,

atrial fibrillation, peripheral artery disease, stroke, type-2 diabetes.

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Introduction

Cardiovascular (CV) disease (CVD) is the main cause of worldwide premature mortality.

Coronary heart disease (CHD) and stroke ranked first and third, respectively, as the leading

global causes of disability-adjusted years according to the global burden of disease estimates

for 20101. Furthermore, the projections of mortality from CVD for 2030 are dismal

2,3 and

underline the need for preventive strategies as a public health priority. In this context, a high-

quality diet and a healthy lifestyle at middle age are the most important factors for CVD

prevention3-7

. Consequently, the diet-heart hypothesis has been a long-standing tenet in CVD

prevention and nutritional epidemiology during the last 50 years7-8

. Recently, the relevance of

overall high-quality food patterns, rather than the focus on single nutrients and foods, has

emerged as a powerful paradigm to address the inherent complexity of dietary exposures and

to assess their potential CVD preventive effects. Food patterns can be described as the

amounts, proportions, combinations or varieties for the consumption of different foods and

beverages and the frequency with which they are usually consumed. This approach allows the

assessment of synergistic interactions and cumulative effects among different foods and

nutrients, preempts confounding by alternative dietary exposures, avoids some problems of

co-linearity between foods or nutrients and thus provides a strong methodological tool in

nutritional epidemiology9-10

. Even though randomized dietary intervention trials are the

hallmarks for acquiring knowledge on the effects of diet on CVD, most research in the field

of dietary patterns is observational, with some potential for residual confounding and other

possible sources of bias. These limitations have been the subject of ample but probably undue

criticism10,11

.

A weakness of the diet-heart hypothesis is that most of the available experimental research in

the field has not used hard clinical outcomes, but only intermediate risk biomarkers. The

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existence of multiple pathways leading from diet to CVD speaks against the simplistic

approach of giving a high value to changes in any single biomarker. Moreover, the induction

period can vary for the different pathways in which diverse biomarkers are involved, thus

limiting the possibility of assessing multiple biomarker combinations at any time point.

Furthermore, other lesser-known pathways could account for a substantial proportion of

clinical CVD events. The most sensible approach, therefore, in order to investigate the diet-

heart hypothesis is to use hard clinical CVD events as end-points of randomized controlled

trials (RCTs). Most feeding trials, however, are usually short term and rarely include clinical

end-points such as CVD events or death11

. The PREDIMED trial was designed to overcome

both the problem of the single-nutrient approach and the limitations of assessing only

intermediate risk markers. Indeed, the PREDIMED randomized trial used an overall food

pattern as the intervention and assessed hard CVD events as end-points12

providing a high

level of scientific evidence.

Scientific evidence of the cardio-metabolic benefits of the Mediterranean

diet

The abundant and consistent observational evidence that was available to support the benefits

of the Mediterranean diet (MeDiet) and, specifically, of tree nuts and olive oil, on CV health

prompted us to choose this traditional dietary model enriched with olive oil or nuts as the

intervention13-44

. Table 1 summarizes the results of meta-analyses and systematic reviews

assessing the effects of MeDiet on different cardiometabolic outcomes.

The MeDiet is defined as the traditional dietary pattern found in the early 1960s in Greece,

Southern Italy, Spain and other olive-growing countries of the Mediterranean basin. It is a

frugal diet that uses generous amounts of olive oil as main culinary fat and has a high

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consumption of plant-derived foods (fruit, vegetables, legumes, nuts and seeds, and whole

grain cereals); frequent but moderate intake of wine (especially red wine), usually with meals;

moderate consumption of seafood and dairy products (especially yogurt and cheese, but not

whole milk, butter or cream), poultry and eggs; and low consumption of sweet desserts, red

and processed meats. In comparison with other healthy patterns, such as the DASH diet, the

healthy US dietary pattern or the Alternative Healthy Eating Index, the consumption of fruit

and fish is usually higher in the MeDiet, while the consumption of dairy products tends to be

lower. In healthy vegetarian food patterns, meat and seafood are not consumed, but eggs and

dairy are most frequently included. Legumes, nuts/seeds, and processed soy are all higher in a

healthy vegetarian food pattern than in the healthy U.S.-style or Mediterranean-style patterns.

A considerable scientific advantage of the MeDiet over other healthy dietary patterns was the

availability of a previous randomized trial, the Lyon Diet Heart study, conducted in

myocardial infarction survivors (i.e., it was a secondary prevention trial). It showed that a

MeDiet enriched with alpha-linolenic acid, but not olive oil, provided a strong protection

against recurrent CHD45

.

Our hypothesis when designing the PREDIMED trial was that the MeDiet would be

superior to a low-fat diet for primary CVD prevention. This hypothesis had never been tested

previously using a RCT design.

Design and methods of the PREDIMED study

The PREDIMED study was a primary prevention trial which tested the long-term effects of

the MeDiet on incident CVD in men and women at high CVD risk aged 55-75 y (men) or 60-

80 y (women). PREDIMED was a multicenter, nutritional intervention RCT carried out in

Spain from 2003 to 2011. The study was funded by the official Spanish agency for scientific

research, Instituto de Salud Carlos III12

. A web site (www.predimed.es) and the supplemental

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material published together with the final results46

provide full details of the study protocol.

We selected participants from >200 primary care facilities affiliated with 11 recruiting sites.

All participants were at high risk for CVD, but had no history of previous CVD episodes at

enrolment. Criteria for recruitment were the presence of either type 2 diabetes mellitus

(T2DM) or ≥3 risk factors (smoking, overweight or obesity, hypertension/HTN,

dyslipidemia/DLP, and family history of early-onset CVD). Participants were randomized

into one of three diets: 1) MeDiet supplemented with extra-virgin olive oil (EVOO) ;2)

MeDiet supplemented with nuts; and 3) control diet (advice on a low-fat diet).

Full-time registered dietitians delivered the intervention. Throughout the study, participants

attended quarterly individual visits and group sessions in which they were instructed to follow

the allocated diets. Participants also attended quarterly group sessions where they received

written material with information on key Mediterranean foods and seasonal shopping lists,

menus and specific recipes for a typical week. This material was discussed in detail with the

dietitians. Allotments of EVOO (1 L per week, including a minimum of 50 mL/day for

participants and the rest for family needs) or mixed nuts (30 g/day: 15 g walnuts, 7.5 g

almonds and 7.5 g hazelnuts plus extra allocations for the family) were supplied at no cost to

each participant randomly assigned to the MeDiet groups on a quarterly basis during the

group sessions with dietitians. Participants in the control diet group attended similar quarterly

sessions with explanations and written material on the low-fat diet and they received non-food

gifts in these sessions. The three diets were energy-unrestricted and no intervention on

physical activity was conducted.

A validated 14-point MeDiet screener47

was used by dietitians as a tool to both assess actual

adherence to the MeDiet and enhance future adherence. These 14 items were:

1. Use of olive oil as the main culinary fat

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2. Consumption of 4 tablespoons/d of olive oil (including oil used for frying,

salads, out-of-house meals, etc.)

3. Consumption of 2 servings/d of vegetables

4. Consumption of 3 servings/d of fruits

5. Consumption of <1 serving/d of red meat, hamburger or meat products (ham,

sausage, etc.)

6. Consumption of <1 serving/d of butter, margarine, or cream

7. Consumption of <1 serving/d of sweetened and/or carbonated beverages

8. Consumption of 1 serving/d of wine

9. Consumption of 3 servings/week of legumes

10. Consumption of 3 servings/week of fish or shellfish

11. Consumption of <3 servings/week of commercial sweets or pastries (not

homemade), such as cakes, cookies, biscuits or custard

12. Consumption of 3 servings/week of nuts (including peanuts)

13. Preferential consumption of chicken, turkey or rabbit meat instead of veal,

pork, hamburger or sausage

14. Consumption of 2 servings/week of sofrito, a sauce made with tomato and

onion, leek or garlic and simmered with olive oil.

Validated food frequency questionnaires covering 137 foods were collected yearly by the

dietitians. This repeated collection of dietary data allowed us to use the PREDIMED trial as a

unique setting for subsequent cohort studies analyzed as a prospective observational follow-

up study with repeated measurements of diet, thus improving the quality of our dietary

assessment10

.

Fasting blood and spot urine were obtained and serum, plasma and DNA samples were saved.

Objective biomarkers of adherence to the supplemental foods (urinary hydroxytirosol as

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marker of EVOO consumption and plasma α-linolenic acid as marker of walnut consumption)

were determined in random sub-samples.

The pre-specified primary end-point of the trial was incident CVD (a composite of non-fatal

myocardial infarction/MI, non-fatal stroke or CVD death). This composite event occurred in

288 participants during a median follow-up of 4.8 years. The trial was neither powered nor

designed to independently assess each of the three components of the combined end-point.

Secondary outcomes included total mortality, T2DM, metabolic syndrome (MetS), peripheral

arterial disease (PAD), atrial fibrillation (AF), neurodegenerative diseases and major cancers.

An event adjudication committee, whose members were blinded to group allocation, was

responsible for event ascertainment. All participants provided written informed consent and

the protocol was approved by the Institutional Review Boards of all participating centers.

Main results of the PREDIMED trial

We randomized 7447 participants into the three PREDIMED intervention groups. The groups

were well-balanced with respect to their baseline characteristics and pharmacologic

treatments. Though small, between-group differences in some baseline characteristics were

observed, but they were not clinically meaningful. Furthermore, we adjusted all risk estimates

for these variables. The mean age of participants was 67 years, 57% were women and the

mean body mass index was 30 kg/m2. The baseline prevalence of diabetes was nearly 50%

and the prevalence of DLP and HTN was higher than 70% and 80%, respectively.

Compliance with the intervention in the two MeDiet groups was adequate48

. Our

tracking of objective biomarkers in random participant subsamples also indicated compliance

with the intended dietary intervention. However, the achieved absolute difference in

adherence to the MeDiet (according to the 14-item screener) between the intervention group

and the control group was modest, amounting to a maintained difference of 2 points out of 14.

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There were no between-group differences in physical activity during the study. No diet-

related adverse effects occurred.

We assessed the effect of baseline adherence to the 14-point score with respect to the

subsequent incidence of the primary CVD end-point during follow-up49

. As shown in Figure

1, the effect was remarkable. The multivariable-adjusted hazard ratio for participants with a

baseline 14-item screener in the 2nd

-3rd

quintile who scored between 8-9 points was 0.72 (95%

confidence interval [CI]: 0.55-0.94), and for those with the highest adherence (two upper

quintiles, scoring 10-14 points) it was 0.47 (CI: 0.35-0.65).

The observed rates per 1000 person-years for the primary end point were 8.1, 8.0, and 11.2 in

the MeDiet+EVOO, MeDiet+nuts, and control groups, respectively. The unadjusted hazard

ratios were 0.70 (CI, 0.53-0.91) for the MeD+EVOO and 0.70 (CI, 0.53-0.94) for the

MeDiet+nuts. The relative risk reductions, absolute risk reductions and number needed to

treat are shown in Table 2 after multivariable adjustment for sex, age, adiposity variables, and

baseline CVD risk factors. No effect on all-cause mortality was apparent. Significant disease

risk reductions were also observed for incident T2DM (in the subset of participants initially

free of T2DM)50,51

and for other CVD outcomes, such as PAD52

and AF53

. Hence, the

PREDIMED study showed with a RCT design for the first time that a MeDiet supplemented

with either EVOO or nuts is useful in the primary prevention of CVD, PAD, AF, and T2DM

in individuals at high risk.

A beneficial effect of the intervention on MetS status was also observed in the PREDIMED

trial54,55

.In comparison with the control group, participants randomized to either MeDiet were

more likely to show reversion of MetS, with HR 1.35 (CI 1.15–1.58) for the MeDiet+EVOO,

and HR 1.28 (CI 1.08–1.51) for the MeDiet+nuts. Similarly, the PREDIMED MeDiet

interventions were shown to reduce blood pressure and the risk of HTN56,57

and to slow the

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progression of subclinical atherosclerosis, as determined by changes in ultrasound-assessed

carotid intima-media thickness and plaque58,59

.

Number of events hypothetically prevented with the Mediterranean diet

Table 3 shows the number of hard clinical CVD events that could be prevented in a

hypothetical cohort of 1,000 persons undergoing the nutritional intervention with the MeDiet

used in the PREDIMED trial. These results suggest that even a modest intervention with the

MeDiet has the potential to account for a sizable reduction in the number of clinical events in

a relatively short period of time.

Observational studies and trials in the context of the PREDIMED trial

Although some authors have suggested that RCTs with hard clinical events as end-points are

the only solution to circumventing the problems of measurement error inherent to

observational designs in nutritional epidemiology, trials are far from perfect, and also present

considerable limitations10

. These problems include the frequent suboptimal compliance,

losses to follow-up, and the ethical need to prematurely halt the trial when there is sufficient

evidence of benefit, even when the number of observed events is lower than anticipated. In

addition, some degree of contamination of the control group with aspects of the intervention

intended only to the active intervention arms of the trial is unavoidable. Moreover some

exposures or outcomes cannot be assessed with RCTs.

In this context, the symbiosis between properly designed RCTs and large cohort

studies with appropriate and careful control of potentially confounding variables, and due

precautions to improve dietary measurements, are currently the best possible option to

ascertain the health effects of dietary exposures. Adequately designed and tested food

frequency questionnaires (FFQs) have been shown to have acceptable validity when

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compared to reference measures. In addition, adjustment for total energy intake, usually

applying the residuals method along with the use of repeated FFQs in long-term prospective

cohort studies, further improves their validity estimates9,10

.

The availability of validated FFQs of each participant with yearly repeated measurements is a

unique strength of the PREDIMED trial60

. Furthermore, biomarker analyses have

corroborated the validity of our dietary assessment tools61

. Most follow-up studies have

collected measurements of dietary intake only at baseline and this is a limitation in nutritional

epidemiology because diet may change during follow-up. The PREDIMED study has

provided a large body of evidence on the associations between diet and diverse health

outcomes taking advantage of the validated FFQs62-99

.

Mechanisms of protection by the Mediterranean diet

CVD protection by the MeDiet can be explained by a beneficial effect on classical and emergent

CV risk factors56,100-102. Although the underlying mechanisms of protection against CVD by the

MeDiet are not fully understood, the richness of this dietary pattern in antioxidant102

and anti-

inflammatory molecules98

is likely to be relevant. On one hand, this can be due to their anti-

oxidant capacity, such as cell redox state modulating enzyme systems. On the other hand,

nutrients have the capacity of modulating gene and protein expression and, subsequently,

metabolite production. Previous nutrigenomic studies have revealed that the MeDiet has a

protective effect on the expression of several proatherogenic genes involved in vascular

inflammation, foam cell formation, and thrombosis103-104

.

Genomics and the Mediterranean diet

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We investigated whether the effects of the MeDiet or its components might differ depending

on genetic variants. We found several gene-diet interactions in determining both intermediate

and CVD phenotypes105-109

. Suffice it to say that we observed that the association of the

MC4R rs17782313 or the FTO rs9939609 polymorphisms with T2DM were modulated by the

MedDiet107

. When adherence to the MedDiet was low (<9 out of 14 points), carriers of the

variant alleles had higher T2DM risk than wild-type subjects. However, when adherence to

the MedDiet was high (>=9 points), these associations disappeared. These gene-diet

interactions remained after adjustment for BMI. Adherence to the MedDiet was found to

interact with the TCF7L2-rs7903146 (C>T) polymorphism in relation to fasting glucose, total

cholesterol,low-density lipoprotein cholesterol and triglycerides108

. When adherence to the

MedDiet was low, participants with the TT genotype had higher fasting glucose

concentrations and lipids than CC+CT individuals but when adherence was high, these

differences were not apparent. Moreover, TT subjects had a higher stroke incidence in the

control group compared with CC, whereas the dietary intervention with MedDiet was

associated with reduced stroke incidence in TT homozygotes but not CC homozygotes108

.

Both genetic and epigenetic effects on microRNA target site polymorphisms were also

analyzed. A gain-of-function microRNA-410 target site polymorphism (rs13702T>C) in the

lipoprotein lipase gene, interacted with the MedDiet intervention in the association with

triglyceride levels and stroke incidence110

. The interplay between genetic and epigenetic

factors may contribute to better understand some biological mechanisms underlying CVD

progression. Overall these results highlight the relevance of the multi-level omics approaches

to a more comprehensive investigation of the mechanisms accounting for the MedDiet

protective effects.

Conclusions

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The findings from the PREDIMED trial, the Lyon Diet-Heart trial, and many large

prospective cohorts are fully consistent. These large observational and experimental studies

are also supported by mechanistic investigations aimed to assess classical and emergent CVD

risk factors and pathophysiological pathways. Anti-inflammatory effects and reduced

oxidative stress are very likely explanations for the protection observed in the PREDIMED

trial. Taken together, these research findings converge, demonstrating that the traditional

MeDiet offers an affordable, attractive, and easily achievable protection against CVD.

Importantly, these findings suggest that an overall dietary pattern that is rich in high-

unsaturated fat from natural vegetable sources is preferable for CV health than a low-fat diet.

In addition, the MeDiet has been shown to effectively control the residual risk observed after

standard pharmacologic treatment of DLP anomalies and HTN in high-risk individuals.

Taking into account the advanced age of many participants in the PREDIMED trial and in

some of the available cohorts, it can be concluded that it is never too late to improve the food

pattern to improve CV health.

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Acknowledgements

All authors have read and approved the final manuscript. CIBERobn is an initiative of

ISCIII, Spain.

Legends

Figure 1. Association between baseline adherence to the Mediterranean diet and risk of

major cardiovascular events (primary end-point) in the PREDIMED study.

Baseline adherence to the Mediterranean diet (14-point PREDIMED score) and

incidence of the primary end-point in the PREDIMED trial (a composite of myocardial

infarction, stroke or cardiovascular death).

Q1-Q5: quintiles.

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Complete list of PREDIMED INVESTIGATORS

University of Navarra and Osasunbidea (Servicio Navarro de Salud), Primary

Care Centres, Pamplona, Spain: P. Buil-Cosiales, J. Diez-Espino, E Toledo, A.

Garcia-Arellano, M Ruiz-Canela, B. Sanjulian, A. Marti, F.J. Basterra-Gortari, V.

Estremera-Urabayen, A Sola-Larraza, F Barcena-Amigo, C Oreja-Arrayago, M.

Serrano-Martínez, MJ Lasanta-Saez, L Quintana-Pedraza, C Amezcueta-Goñi, P Cia-

Lecumberri, F Artal-Moneva, JM Esparza-López, E Figuerido-Garmendia, H Ruiz-

Millan, R Oses-Primo, JA Tabar-Sarrias, L Fernandez-Urzainqui, MJ Ariz-Arnedo, T

Forcen-Alonso, P Pascual-Pascual, ML Garces, V Extremera, L Garcia-Perez.

University Rovira i Virgili, Reus, Spain: N. Babio, M. Bullo, J. Basora, N. Gonzalez,

C. Molina, F. Marquez, P. Martínez, N. Ibarrola, M. Sorli, J. García Roselló, A, Castro,

F. Martin, N, Tort, A. Isach, M. Guasch-Ferre, M. Baldrich, J.J. Cabre, G. Mestres, F.

Paris, M. Llauradó, R. Pedret, J. Basells, J. Vizcaino, and J. Fernandez-Ballart.

Institute de Recerca Hospital del Mar, Barcelona, Spain: M.I. Covas, S. Tello, J.

Vila, R. de la Torre, D. Munoz-Aguayo, R. Elosua, J. Marrugat, and M. Ferrer.

University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain: J.V. Sorli, P. Carrasco, R. Osma, M. Guillen,

P. Guillem-Saiz, O. Portoles, V. Pascual, C. Riera, J. Valderrama, A. Serrano, E.

Lazaro, A. Sanmartin, A. Girbes, V. Santamaria, C. Sanchez, Z. Pla, and E.

University of Malaga, Malaga, Spain: E Gomez-Gracia, J Fernandez-Crehuet, J.

Wärnberg, R. Benitez Pont, M. Bianchi Alba, R. Gomez-Huelgas, J. Martínez-

Gonzalez, V. Velasco García, J. de Diego Salas, A. Baca Osorio, J. Gil Zarzosa, J.J.

Sanchez Luque, and E. Vargas López.

Hospital Clinic, Institut d’Investigacions Biomediques August Pi i Sunyer,

Barcelona, Spain: M. Serra, A. Perez-Heras, R. Sola, E. Ortega, C. Vinas, R. Casas, L.

de Santamaria, S. Romero, J.M. Baena, M. García, M. Oller, J. Amat, I. Duaso, Y.

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García, C. Iglesias, C. Simon, Ll. Quinzavos, Ll. Parra, M. Liroz, J. Benavent, J. Clos, I.

Pla, M. Amoros, M.T. Bonet, M.T. Martin, M.S. Sanchez, J. Altirruba, E. Manzano, A.

Altes, M. Cofan, C. Valls-Pedret, A. Sala-Vila, and M. Domenech.

University Hospital of Alava, Vitoria, Spain: F. Arós, I. Salaverria, T. del Hierro, J.

Algorta, S. Francisco, A. Alonso, J. San Vicente, A. Casi, E. Sanz, I. Felipe, and A.

Loma-Osorio.

Institute of Health Sciences IUNICS, University of Balearic Islands, and Hospital

Son Espases, Palma de Mallorca, Spain: M Fiol, D Romaguera, M. García -Valdueza,

M. Monino, A. Proenza, R. Prieto, G. Frontera, M. Ginard, F. Fiol, A. Jover, D.

Romaguera and J. García.

Department of Family Medicine, Primary Care Division of Sevilla, Sevilla, Spain:

J. Lapetra, M. Leal, E. Martínez, M. Ortega-Calvo, P. Roman, F. Jose García, P.

Iglesias, Y. Corchado, E. Mayoral, L. Mellado, L. Miró, JM. Lozano and C. Lama.

University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Las Palmas, Spain: L. Serra-Majem, A.

Sanchez-Villegas, J. Alvarez-Perez, E. Diez Benitez, I. Bautista Castaño, I. Maldonado

Diaz, M.J. Férnandez-Rodríguez, F. Sarmiendo de la Fe, C. Simon García , I. Falcon

Sanabria, B. Macias Gutierrez, and A.J. Santana Santana.

Hospital Universitario de Bellvitge, Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain: X.

Pinto, E. de la Cruz, A. Galera, Y. Soler, F. Trias, I. Sarasa, E. Padres, and E. Corbella.

School of Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain: R.M. Lamuela-

Raventos, M.C. López- Sabater, A.I. Castellote-Bargallo, A. Medina-Remon, and A.

Tresserra-Rimbau.

Primary Care Division, Catalan Institute of Health, Barcelona, Spain: C. Cabezas,

E. Vinyoles, M.A. Rovira, L. García , G. Flores, J.M. Verdu, P. Baby, A. Ramos, L.

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Mengual, P. Roura, M.C. Yuste, A. Guarner, A. Rovira, M.I. Santamaria, M. Mata, C.

de Juan, and A. Brau.

Other investigators of the PREDIMED network: J.A. Tur (University of Balearic

Islands), V. Ruiz-Gutierrez (Instituto de la Grasa, Sevilla), M.P. Portillo (University of

Basque Country) and G. Saez (University of Valencia). All in Spain.

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Table 1. Scientific evidence on the Mediterranean diet.

Systematic reviews assessing the association between adherence to the Mediterranean

diet and cardio-metabolic outcomes.

Systematic review N

(Studies

)

Exposure Outcome Effects of

increased

adherence

to MeDiet*

Comment

Esposito 201131

16

MeDiet

(randomized

trials) Weight loss

-1.75 kg (-

2.86; -0.64)

Greater weight loss with

energy restriction and

longer follow-up

Buckland 2008 38

21

MeDiet

(randomized

trials) Weight loss

Beneficial

(13 studies)

No evidence

(8 studies)

Qualitative systematic

review

Nordmann2011 28

6

MeDiet

(randomized

trials) Risk factors Beneficial

Reductions in BMI, BP,

glucose and CRP

Grosso 201424

58 MeDiet Risk factors Beneficial


review

Schwingshackl2014

18

17 MeDiet

Flow-

mediated

dilatation

WMD

1.86%(0.23-

3.48)

Adiponectin levels also

increased

Schwingshackl

201418

17 MeDiet

High-

sensitivity

CRP

WMD= -1

mg/l(-1.5;-

0.5)

Similar favourable changes

in IL-6 and ICAM-1

Kastorini 201130

50

MeDiet

(randomized

trials)

Metabolic

syndrome

RR = 0.50

(0.29-0.85)**

Significant beneficial

effects were found for each

of the metabolic syndrome

criteria

Esposito 201325 14 MeDiet Metabolic Beneficial Qualitative systematic

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syndrome review

Schwingshackl2014

15

9 MeDiet

Type-2

diabetes

RR = 0·81

(0·73-0·90)

Quantitative meta-analysis:

long-term studies were

fairly homogenous (I2=0%)

and showed a stronger risk

reduction RR = 0·75 (0·68-

0·83)

Koloverou 201416

17 MeDiet

Type-2

diabetes

RR = 0.77

(0.66-0.89)


subgroups by region,

health status, and degree

of confounding control

rendered similar results.

Esposito 201033

9 MeDiet

Type 2

diabetes and

glycemic

control Beneficial


review

Esposito 2014 23

5

MeDiet

(observational)

Type-2

diabetes Beneficial


review

Esposito 2014 23

5

MeDiet

(randomized trials)

Glycemic

control Beneficial


review

Georgoulis 201420

17 MeDiet

Type-2

diabetes and

other

outcomes Beneficial


review

Roman 200839

20 MeDiet

CVD and risk

factors Beneficial


review

Widmer201414

Not

stated

MeDiet and its

components CVD

RR = 0.95

(0.83-0.97)


review: favourably

compared with

pharmacologic

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interventions

Ros2014 17

Not

stated MeDiet CVD Beneficial


review: the results of the

PREDIMED trial are

presented in the context of

their consistency with

observational results.

Whayne 201419 Not



review

Sofi2008 37

4

MeDiet (+2/9

points) CVD

RR = 0.91

(0.87-0.95)

This meta-analysis was

subsequently updated

Sofi 201032

8

MeDiet (+2/9

points) CVD

RR = 0.90

(0.87-0.93)


I2=35%

Sofi2014 21

20

MeDiet (+2/9

points) CVD

RR = 0.90

(0.87-0.92)


I2=38%

Martínez-González

201422

2

MeDiet

(randomized

trials) CVD

RR = 0.62

(0.45-0.85)


I2=55%

Martínez-González

201422

16

MeDiet

(observational, +2/9

points) CVD

RR = 0.90

(0.86-0.94)

The heterogeneity

disappeared after removing

3 studies assessing only

fatal cases

Martinez-Gonzalez

200935 5 MeDiet CVD Beneficial


review

de Lorgeril 200836 Not



review

Rees 201326

11

MeDiet (?)-only

trials CVD No evidence

The selection of trials

apparently had little

connection with the

concept of MeDiet.

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Panagiotakos

200442 6 MeDiet CHD

8% to 45%

relative risk

reduction


review

Psaltoupolou2013

27

22 MeDiet Stroke

RR = 0.71

(0.57-0.89)


meta-regression suggested

stronger protection among

males.

Tyrovolas 201034

9 MeDiet

CVD and

cancer Beneficial


review

Martinez-Gonzalez

200441

14

Feeding

randomized trials

CVD and

cancer Unknown

The authors support the

case for the urgent need

of a trial such as

PREDIMED

Sofi 200837

8

MeDiet (+2/9

points)

all-cause

mortality

RR = 0.91

(0.89-0.94)

This meta-analysis was

subsequently updated

Sofi2010 32

9

MeDiet (+2/9

points)

all-cause

mortality

RR = 0.92

(0.90-0.94)


I2=33%

Sofi2014 21

18

MeDiet (+2/9

points)

all-cause

mortality

RR = 0.92

(0.91-0.93)


I2=47%

Trichopoulou

200043 3 MeDiet

All-cause

mortality

Longer

survival


review

Serra-Majem2006

40 35 MeDiet

A variety of

outcomes Beneficial


review

Trichopoulou2014

44

Not

stated MeDiet

A variety of

effects Beneficial

Opinion of experts around

the world

Maderuelo-

Fernández 201413 14

Interventions to

promote MeDiet

Adherence to

MeDiet Beneficial


review: hard end-points

were not assessed

MeDiet: Mediterranean diet

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(+2/9 points): effects associated with increasing 2 points in a 0 to 9 score of adherence

to the MeDiet.

CVD: cardiovascular disease

CHD: coronary heart disease

RR: Relative Risk (95% Confidence Intervals)

WMD: weighted mean difference

CRP: C-reactive protein

IL-6: interleukin 6

ICAM-1: intercellular adhesion molecule

BMI: body mass index

BP: blood pressure

I2: index to quantify heterogeneity in meta-analyses, please check Higgins et al. BMJ

2003;327:557–60.

*Risk ratios in meta-analyses of epidemiologic studies, usually adjusted for multiple

confounders, compared the highest versus the lowest category of adherence to the

MeDiet. Outcome changes describe the mean changes for the MeDiet versus

comparator diets in meta-analyses of RCTs; only statistically significant changes are

shown. Values between brackets are 95% confidence intervals.

**An apparent erratum was corrected. The authors presented the log of hazard ratio

(95% CI) as -0.69 (-2.16 to -1.16), but this is impossible, the correct upper limit should

probably be -0.16 (as we have assumed).

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Table 2. Relative Risk Reduction, Absolute Risk Reduction and Number Needed to Treat associated with the PREDIMED primary prevention

intervention for several hard clinical events (assuming median follow-up = 4.8 years).

Mediterranean diet supplemented with Extra-virgin olive oil Mediterranean diet supplemented with mixed nuts

Clinical event

Relative Risk

Reduction

Absolute Risk

Reduction

Number needed

to treat

Relative risk

Reduction

Absolute Risk

Reduction

Number needed

to treat

Primary CVD end-point 30% (8.0% ; 46%) 1.34% (0.36% ; 2.05%) 75 (49-281) 28% (4.0% ; 46%) 1.25% (0.18% ; 2.05%) 80 (49-562)

Type 2 diabetes 40% (15% ; 57%) 3.52% (1.32% ; 5.02%) 28 (20-76) 18% (-10% ; 39%) 1.59% (-0.88% ; 3.44%) -

Peripheral artery disease 64% (35% ; 79%) 1.18% (0.64% ; 1.45%) 85 (69-155) 46% (8% ; 68%) 0.85% (0.15% ; 1.25%) 118 (80-679)

Atrial fibrillation 38% (12% ; 55%) 1.54% (0.48% ; 2.22%) 65 (45-206) 10% (-23% ; 34%) 0.40% (-0.93% ; 1.37%) -

Fully adjusted estimates for the hazard ratios from Cox regression models were used to compute the Relative Risks (RR).

The Relative Risk Reduction (RRR) was computed as RRR = (1-RR)%.

The Absolute Risk Reduction (ARR) was computed taking into account the baseline incidence of events in the control group (I0) after a median

follow-up of 4.8 years and applying the estimates for the Relative Risks, i.e. ARR= I0 (1-RR).

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Table 3. Number of expected prevented cases with the PREDIMED primary prevention intervention for several hard clinical events (median

follow-up: 4.8 years) in a hypothetical cohort of 1,000 subjects. Both Mediterranean diet groups were merged together.

Clinical event

Number of prevented cases (95% CI) per 1,000 hypothetical

participants receiving the PREDIMED MeDiet-intervention

Primary CVD end-point 13 (4 to 20)

Type 2 diabetes 26 (7 to 41)

Peripheral artery disease 10 (6 to 13)

Atrial fibrillation 11 (2 to 18)

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Figure 1. Baseline adherence to the Mediterranean diet (14-point PREDIMED score)

and incidence of the primary end-point in the PREDIMED trial (a composite of

myocardial infarction, stroke or cardiovascular death). Q1-Q5: quintiles.

benefits of the mediterranean diet: insights from the

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