behavioural adaptations behaviour in animals. innate versus learned behaviour the study of animal...

BEHAVIOURAL ADAPTATIONS

Behaviour in Animals

Innate versus learned behaviour

The study of animal behaviour is called ethology

The focus of this section is to look at the function of particular behaviour, rather than the mechanisms underlying a particular behaviour.

Innate Behaviour - definitionInnate Behaviour - definition

When a behaviour is essentially the same in all members of a species, the behaviour is call innate or inborn behaviour. It is genetically controlledList some innate animal behaviours

Learned Behaviour - definitionLearned behaviours are those that develop or change as we are shown how to do something. Copy, trial-and-error are some of the ways animals learn.

When a behaviour is changed as a result of experience, learning has occurred.

Learning enables an animal to adapt to change.

BehaviourActivity performed in response to stimulus

Innate BehavioursBehaviours that are essentially the same in all members of a species

Learned BehavioursBehaviours that develop or change as a result of experience

Rhythmic behavioursEg. Eating, sleeping, seasonal migration

Communication behaviours

Reproductive behaviours

Competitive behaviours

Dominance behaviours

Territoriality

Social interactions

Conditioning – respond to stimulus that normally does not elicit response

Operant conditioning – animal relates behaviour with reward or punishment and repeats or avoids behaviour

Habituation – cease to respond to stimuli

Imprinting – association with an object after exposure to it very early in life

Observational – learns from observing actions of others

Innate Behaviours

Rhythmic Behaviours- Animals repeat behaviours at regular intervals- Different species of animals may follow different patterns of rhythmic behaviour- Differences in rhythmic behaviours may be a significant factor in the ability of a group of animals to exploit the resources within the area in which they live and avoid competition from other species.- Regulated by both internal and external factors

- internal – biological clock- external – light

Feeding Behaviour

Feeding may be:-

On an individual basis

On a group basis

Spider Webs

• Many innate behaviours in spiders involve the use of silk – in feeding and in reproduction

Spider webs vary in their design and structure

WhalesWhales The species of whales are classified into two

major groups – Toothed and Baleen. Differing structures result in differing

behaviours related to functions Gulping and skimming techniques suit the

structures of the baleen whales (p346) Bubble netting is used by the humpback

whale (p347)

Migration• The movement of large numbers of animals

over long distances from one area to another area, and their subsequent return to their original home, is called migration.

• Animals usually migrate using the same route each time.

• A diverse range of species migrate – birds, fish, eels, insects and mammals

Migration• Some animals may take years to complete

their migration cycle

• Winter and the disappearance of food – migration. Very low temperatures can be fatal to some species

• Migration is an important survival strategy

Bird Migration• More than 1/3 of the world’s species of

birds migrate

Why do birds migrate?

• Birds need a constant supply of food

• Approach of winter, reduction in food supply. Migrate to warmer climate for a more abundant food supply

• Migratory behaviour enhances survival

How do birds know where to fly?

• Innate, young birds are born ‘knowing’ to migrate

• Sun, stars, Earth’s magnetic field help determine the direction of flight

• Magnetite has been found in the tissues of some birds. Its presence is related to the bird’s ability to navigate using the magnetic field.

Communication Behaviours

• Communication in the animals is an innate behaviour. Can be through:- touch, posture, sound, visual display and chemical signals

• Communication behaviour is a response to a stimulus


• Important components of communication include:-• Stimulus for the communication• Sender of a signal• Receiver to whom the signal is directed• The kind of signal sent• How the signal is sent• The behaviour of the receiver• The setting in which the communication occurs

How does the Bower bird communicate that he is a good potential mate?


Messages to trick a competitor

Eg alarm calls to trick a competitor (p 349)


The language of bees

The dance to indicate the location of a food source. Bees also use smell

Why is it important for survival for worker bees to communicate to each regarding the location of a food source.


COMMUNICATION UNDER WATER

Sound is an important means of communication underwaterSound is transmitted through water for long distances. Light can only penetrate very short distances below the surfacesThe range of whale and dolphin noises include: blips, clicks, groans, moans and snores, lasting from a few seconds to several hours.


Why do whales sing?

To locate and identify each other

During courtship


DolphinsUse various sounds to communicate different informationUse sounds for location and navigation

Echolocation for determining position

Navigation, hunting Clicks

Play-chase, pain Squawk

Courtship, mating Yelp

Threat Buzz

Alarm, fright, distress

Squeaks, cracks, pops

Resting, predator nearby

Silence


CHEMICALS FOR COMMUNICATION• Pheromones

• Used for identifying the location of food sources (leaving a pheromone trail)

• Attract members of the opposite sex (eg female dogs release a pheromone in the urine to notify males she is ready for mating)

• Can act over long or short distances• Very easy for insects and other animals to locate a

mate, even in sparsely populated areas.

Social and Territorial Interactions

• Social Interaction• Involves two or more individuals.• May involve cooperation (mating, food source)• May involve aggression and conflict as

individuals or group to defend territory or select a mate


• Reproductive behaviours • (discussed further in chapter 12)


GROUP ORGANISATION• Size of groups and reasons for which the animals group

varies• A group may be permanent or stay together until its

members are such that it splits in two• Being a member of a group is safer than being alone• Different kinds of groups are found in different species of

animals• Groups may be formed to make collecting food easier, for

protection, for shelter or for mating.

• Whatever the reason, it increases the chances of survival of members of the group and the species.


GROUP ORGANISATION• Castes

• Eg ants, bees, termites, some wasps• Each caste has a different structure and

performs a different function in the group


GROUP ORGANISATION• Social Hierarchies

• That is a pecking order. • Fighting occurs until an animal ‘knows its place’ in a

group• The higher an animal is in the pecking order the greater

access to food and other aspects of life in the group• Stronger animals in the group will have offspring that

are more likely to be stronger members of the next generation


GROUP ORGANISATION

• Leadership– A complex social hierarchy– Eg – Baboons with a dominant male and other

males in rank order behind

– Why must a dog owner be the leader of the pack?


GROUP ORGANISATION• Territorial Behaviour

• Eg The dreaded Magpie swoop!• Animals select a territory and defend it,

protecting a mating territory or food source.


COMPETITION

Animals may compete for nesting places, positions in an hierarchy, etc

Group dynamics is important for survival and reproduction in many species.

Social and Territorial InteractionsSocial and Territorial Interactions

COOPERATIONCOOPERATION

Animals often cooperateAnimals often cooperate

Many animals congregate in groups. Wolves hunt in packs in order to corner their prey. A wolf hunting singly would not be nearly as successful a hunter, and so we can call group hunting an adaptation since it increases the wolves’ chances of survival.

Do Innate behaviours remain constant?

Innate behaviours are genetically determined and are similar in all members of the species.However, innate behaviour is not necessarily fully developed at birth and may be modified by learning.This learning comes through trial-and-error and experience.

LEARNED BEHAVIOURS

Some behaviours change as a result of maturation of the body of an organism due to hormonal and structural changes.

These should not be confused with learned behaviours which are those that develop or change as a result of experience

• Table from page 343 repeat slide

LEARNED BEHAVIOURSConditioning

Eg food stimulus/response Pavlov’s Dog experiment – the ringing of a bell prior to feeding a dog. Eventually

the dog salivates just at the ringing of the bell.

LEARNED BEHAVIOURS

• Pavlov’s experiment is known as Classical Conditioning

• Operant Conditioning is trial-and-error

Operant Conditioning• Organisms make responses that have

consequences• The consequences serve to increase or decrease

the likelihood of making that response again• The response can be associated with cues in the

environment• We put coins in a machine to obtain food

• But we refrain when an Out of Order sign is placed on the machine

Key Aspects of Operant Conditioning

• In operant conditioning, the stimulus is a cue, it does not elicit the response

• Operant responses are voluntary

• In operant conditioning, the response elicits a reinforcing stimulus, whereas in classical conditioning, the UCS elicits the reflexive response

Key Terms of Operant Conditioning

• Reinforcement is any procedure that increases the response

• Punishment is any procedure that decreases the response

• Types of reinforcers:• Primary: satisfy a biological need• Secondary: have learned value

LEARNED BEHAVIOURS

HabituationThe ability to ‘get used to’ a repeated stimulus, such as a noise, is called habituation.Why is Habituation important for animals?- Animals will respond to a noise if they think it has been made by a predator.- Habituation enable animals to distinguish the unimportant noises and shapes from those that are important- Habituation allows animals to ignore meaningless stimuli and save energy for activities critical for survival.

LEARNED BEHAVIOURS

InsightInsight learning is related to the ability of an animal to apply past experience to solving a new problem without a trial-and-error period

Most highly developed in humans

Play forms an important part in developing problem-solving skills for later use.

LEARNED BEHAVIOURS

ImprintingThe formation of an attachment to something in the environment shortly after hatching or birth is called imprinting

The learning that takes place during imprinting is rapid and cannot be reversed

LEARNING FROM ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR

If we understand the natural behaviour of animals, we can also analyse and interpret any change in behaviour.

A change in animal behaviour can sometimes indicate a change in the environment

behavioural adaptations behaviour in animals. innate versus learned behaviour the study of animal...

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