behavior science unit 6 note

8/9/2019 Behavior Science Unit 6 Note

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Behavioral Science Note Unit -6 Prepared by: Sanjib Mishra- Lecture 1

Unit 6 LH 10

Attitude and ValueSyllabus

a) Attitude-formation of attitudes, measurement of attitudes, consistency inattitudes, attitude change

b) Value & Norms: Values and other factors, categories of Norms, Variations innorms

c) Prejudice-Characteristics, Bases of prejudice, Reduction of prejudiced) Job attitude and satisfaction: Job satisfaction, Factors in Job satisfaction, Job

satisfaction and performance

Attitudes and ValuesAttitudes are a predisposition to react, positively or negatively to a person, place or

circumstance. IT is learning behavior. There are two main elements in an attitude, thepredisposition and the direction of the predisposition.An opinion is the expression of ones judgment of a particular set of facts, and evaluation of the

circumstance presented to him.

A belief is the acceptance of a statement or a set of circumstances. When we state that we

believe something, we indicate that for us. Researcher recognize that attitudes, opinions, andbeliefs are so closely together in real life that it is difficult to separate them except on limited

conceptual basis. Most psychologists have believed, however that attitudes are more

fundamental to human behavior than are the related aspects.

Attitudes: Attitudes are evaluative statements or judgments concerning objects, ideas, people

or events. They reflect how an individual feel about and is disposed toward something.Attitudinal statements can be favorable or unfavorable? Attitudes are acquiring from parents,

teachers, peer and reference group members. Personal experiences, education, media and

environmental factors mold attitudes. Attitudes influence individual behavior in organizations.Attitudes are a persons learned predispositions to respond toward objects, ideas, people or

events. They are specific, have consistency and are either favorable or unfavorable. However,

they are less stable and can be changed. For example, advertisement campaigns can changeattitudes toward products. All attitudes embody beliefs.

The characteristics of attitudes are:

1. They tend to persist unless something is done to change them. They are less stable thanbeliefs.

2. They can be favorable or unfavorable.3. They are directed towards objects, ideas, people or events about which a person hasfeeling.

4. They are specific to express feelings.Components of Attitudes (Structure of Attitudes)Attitudes consist of three components:


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1. Cognitive Component: It is the knowledge or belief segment of an attitude. It is also theinformational segment of an attitude. It consists of beliefs and information about

objects, people or events.

2. Affective Component: It is the feeling segment of an attitude. This component is themost important part of attitude. Feeling can be positive, negative and neutral.

3. Behavioral Component: It is the intention to behave in a certain way toward someone orsomething. It can be directly observed.

Attitude Formation:Attitudes make up the personality. An attitude is a persistent tendency to feel and behave in aparticular way toward objects people or events. Attitude formation is influenced by the

following factors:

1. Situational Determinants: Traditionally, the situational context ahs been regardedimportant in attitude formation. It provides information to employees to form their

feeling or emotions.

2. Personality Traits: Traits describe the nature of an individuals personality. Personalitytraits are important determinants of work-related attitudes.

People with positive affectivity (PA) tend to have an overall sense of well-being and

experience positive attitudes.

People with negative affectivity (NA) tend to fell nervous, tense and worried. Theyexperience negative attitudes.

Types of AttitudesAn individual can have thousands of attitudes. However, job related attitudes are important

for understanding individual behavior in the context of Behavior Science.

Job- related attitudes can be of 3 types.

1. Job Satisfaction: It refers to an individuals general attitude toward his job. Positiveattitude implies high level of job satisfaction. Negative attitude implies job

dissatisfaction. Employees attitude and job satisfaction are frequently used

interchangeably.2. Job involvement: It is the degree to which an employee;

Identifies with his job; Actively participates in it; and Considers job performance important to self-worth.An employee with high level of job involvement has favorable attitudes toward hisjob. He is likely to be more productive.

3. Organizational Commitment: It is the degree to which an employee: Identifies with a particular organization and its goals; and Wishes to maintain attachment in the organization.An employee with high organizational commitment identified with his organization. Heis likely to be a better performer.

Importance of AttitudesAttitudes are important for understanding individual behavior. They play an important

role in the following ways:

1. Attitudes determine job satisfaction and performance level of the individualemployee. Positive attitudes contribute productivity.

2. Attitudes help reduce absenteeism, turnover, grievances and accidents.


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3. Attitudes provide a frame of reference to perceive specific aspects of work life,such as pay, hours of work, supervision, promotion, etc.

4. Attitudes are the basis for expressing values. They help defend self image.Favorable attitudes give rise to positive feelings.

5. Attitudes help people to adjust to their work environment.6. Events are perceived different differently by people with divergent attitudes.

Anattitude is a hypothetical construct that represents an individual's degree of like or dislike

for an item. Attitudes are generally positive or negative views of a person, place, thing, or

event-- this is often referred to as the attitude object. People can also be conflicted or

ambivalent toward an object, meaning that they simultaneously possess both positive and

negative attitudes toward the item in question.

Attitudes are judgments. They develop on theABCmodel (affect, behavior, and cognition). The

affective response is an emotional response that expresses an individual's degree of preference

for an entity. The behavioral intention is a verbal indication or typical behavioral tendency of

an individual.

Value

A personal and/or cultural value is an absolute or relative ethical value, the assumption of

which can be the basis for ethical action. A value system is a set of consistent values and

measures. A principle value is a foundation upon which other values and measures of integrity

are based. Those values which are not physiologically determined and normally considered

objective, such as a desire to avoid physical pain, seek pleasure, etc., are considered

subjective, vary across individuals and cultures and are in many ways aligned with belief and

belief systems. Types of values include ethical/moral values, doctrinal/ideological (religious,

political) values, social values, and aesthetic values. It is debated whether some values which

aren't clearly physiologically determined are intrinsic such as altruism and whether some suchas acquisitiveness should be valued as vices or virtues. Values have typically been studied in

sociology; anthropology; social psychology; moral philosophy and business ethics.

Values are an integral part of every culture. Along with beliefs and worldview assumptions,

they generate behavior. Being part of a culture that shares a common core set of values creates

expectations and predictability without which a culture would disintegrate and its members

would lose their personal identity and sense of worth. Values tell people what is good,

beneficial, important, useful, beautiful, desirable, appropriate...etc. They answer the question

of why people do what they do. Values help people solve common human problems for survival.

Over time, they become the roots of traditions that groups of people find important in their day

to day lives. Values can be positive or negative; some are destructive. To understand people ofother cultures, we must come to understand the values, beliefs and assumptions that motivate

their behavior of there values over.

Formation of Attitudes Attitudes of individuals are influenced by the culture, by the larger aggregates to which the

individuals belong, and by primary groups. Indeed, the family as the most important primary

group has been often referred to as the mediator of the culture.


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Attitude formation

Unlike personality, attitudes are expected to change as a function of experience. Tesser (1993)

has argued that hereditary variables may affect attitudes - but believes that they may do so

indirectly. For example, consistency theories, which imply that we must be consistent in our

beliefs and values.

Group FactorsThe influence of groups on the attitudes of the individual is inversely proportional to thedistance of the group from the individual. Primary group are much stronger in their influence

on the members of that group; large aggregates have less influence. Newcomb and Svehla

found high correlations between parents and children with respect to attitudes in many specificareas. These investigators fond a higher degree of relationship between parents and children in

attitudes than they found between children and their peers. The lowest correlation was between

attitudes of children and their teachers. Hyam reviewed studies dealing with political attitudesof parents and children. A high degree of correlation was found here as well. Foldsen state that

the parents who hold weak attitudes do not influence their children. Children may differ fro

their parents with respect to type of music enjoyed, particular patterns of immediate socialbehavior, or wearing of types of clothes, but on very basic matters-social, political and religious

the resemblance between parents and children is very great.

Other primary groups are certainly very influential; the values and norms of the primary group

play a very important role in influencing attitudes, opinions, and beliefs of the members of thegroups. Children are highly influence in politics like 75 % of voters voted for candidates of the

party of their parents.

Social class and religious affiliation play a vital role. Reference group influences rather(slightly) than membership group influences. Reference group undoubtedly is stronger in its

influence on individual attitudes.

Personality Correlates of AttitudesPersonality differences between all individuals. It is interesting subject for behavioral scientistfor many years particularly with respect to prejudice and social functioning. Personality is

directly correlated to attitudes. Ethnocentrism scale and measure the attitude. The most

dynamically significant part of the study consisted of a sketching of personality differences

between those who scored high on the ethnocentrism scale and those who scored low on thatscale. High ethnocentric scale demonstrated rigid personality pattern. Low ethnocentric scales

had more flexible organization of personality and were more affection in personal relationships

or socially constructive with respect to their value system. High ethnocentric has harshdiscipline so authoritarian (autocracy) in behavior but low ethnocentric has much family love in

equalitarian family. McClosky studies the personality correlates of conservatism and liberalism.

Measurement of AttitudesIn a sense attitudes might be measure by psychologist. One of the most often used approachesto the measure attitude has been the method of Thurstone, who researched large number of

statements relating to the area in which attitudes. Attitudes measurement toward war, church,

education and so on. Statements are both favorable and unfavorable. Individuals would then be

asked to check those statement with which they agreed.


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A method that is easier because is dispense with the need for having judges rate the items

before the scale is established is one that has been developed by Likert (1932). Likert collected

a number of statements that related to the attitude area. Under each statement the respondent

has a chance to check one of five boxes ranges from strongly agree at one end to stronglydisagree at the other end; five boxes are arranged strongly agree, agree, undecided, disagree, or

strongly disagree. Each box is weighted 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, in order and the summation of the item

rating gives a final score which indicates an attitude of the individual respondent.Probably the earliest and simplest scale of measuring attitudes is by Bogardus(1925), social

distance scale which is composed of certain national, racial or ethnic groups. Bogardus used a

seven point scale ranging from the most favorable acceptance picture, the acceptance to closekinship by marriage to exclusion form the country as the other end of the scale. Other more

recent techniques include cumulative scaling as developed by Guttman(1950).

Further approaches by various individuals attempt to combine the features of scales listedabove. Edwards and Kilpatrick have attempted to synthesize the Thurstone, Linkert, and

Guttaman approaches with techniques that they call scale discrimination. Judges are used to

rate the items and those which survive the test of clarity are then presented in a scale.

Thurstone scaleIn psychology, the Thurstone scale was the first formal technique for measuring an attitude. Itwas developed by Louis Leon Thurstone in 1928, as a means of measuring attitudes towards

religion. It is made up of statements about a particular issue, and each statement has a

numerical value indicating how favorable or unfavorable it is judged to be. People check each

of the statements to which they agree, and a mean score is computed, indicating their attitude.

Thurstone's method of pair comparisons can be considered a prototype of a normal

distribution-based method for scaling-dominance matrices. Even though the theory behind this

method is quite complex (Thurstone, 1927a), the algorithm itself is straightforward. For the

basic Case V, the frequency dominance matrix is translated into proportions and interfacedwith the standard scores. The scale is then obtained as a left-adjusted column marginal

average of this standard score matrix (Thurstone, 1927b). The underlying rationale for the

method and basis for the measurement of the "psychological scale separation between any two

stimuli" derives from Thurstone's Law of comparative judgment (Thurstone, 1928).

The most frequent recourse when the 1.00-0.00 frequencies are encountered is their omission.

Thus, e.g., Guilford (1954, p. 163) has recommended not using proportions more extreme than

.977 or .023, and Edwards (1957, pp. 41-42) has suggested that if the number of judges is

large, say 200 or more, then we might use pij values of .99 and .01, but with less than 200

judges, it is probably better to disregard all comparative judgments for which pij is greater

than .98 or less than .02." Since the omission of such extreme values leaves empty cells in theZ matrix, the averaging procedure for arriving at the scale values cannot be applied, and an

elaborate procedure for the estimation of unknown parameters is usually employed (Edwards,

1957, pp. 42-46). An alternative solution of this problem was suggested by Krus and Kennedy

(1977).

With later developments in psychometric theory, it has become possible to employ direct

methods of scaling such as application of the Rasch model or unfolding models such as the

Hyperbolic Cosine Model (HCM) (Andrich & Luo, 1993). The Rasch model has a close


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conceptual relationship to Thurstone's law of comparative judgment (Andrich, 1978), the

principal difference being that it directly incorporates a person parameter. Also, the Rasch

model takes the form of a logistic function rather than a cumulative normal function.

Likert scale

ALikert scale is a psychometric scale commonly used in questionnaires, and is the most widelyused scale in survey research, such that the term is often used interchangeably with rating

scale even though the two are not synonymous. When responding to a Likert questionnaire

item, respondents specify their level of agreement to a statement. The scale is named after its

inventor, psychologist Rensis Likert.

Sample question presented using a five-point Likert item

An important distinction must be made between a Likert scale and a Likert item. The Likert

scale is the sum of responses on several Likert items. Because Likert items are often

accompanied by a visual analog scale (e.g., a horizontal line, on which a subject indicates his

or her response by circling or checking tick-marks), the items are sometimes called scales

themselves. This is the source of much confusion; it is better, therefore, to reserve the term

Likert scale to apply to the summated scale, and Likert item to refer to an individual item.

A Likert item is simply a statement which the respondent is asked to evaluate according to any

kind of subjective or objective criteria; generally the level of agreement or disagreement is

measured. Often five ordered response levels are used, although many psychometricians

advocate using seven or nine levels; a recent empirical study found that a 5- or 7- point scale

may produce slightly higher mean scores relative to the highest possible attainable score,

compared to those produced from a 10-point scaleThe format of a typical five-level Likert item

is:

1. Strongly disagree2. Disagree3. Neither agree nor disagree4. Agree5. Strongly agree

Likert scaling is a bipolar scaling method, measuring either positive or negative response to a

statement. Sometimes a four-point scale is used; this is a forced choice method since the middle

option of "Neither agree nor disagree" is not available.

Likert scales may be subject to distortion from several causes. Respondents may avoid using

extreme response categories (central tendency bias); agree with statements as presented

(acquiescence bias); or try to portray themselves or their organization in a more favorable

light (social desirability bias). Designing a scale with balanced keying (an equal number of

positive and negative statements) can obviate the problem of acquiescence bias, since

acquiescence on positively keyed items will balance acquiescence on negatively keyed items,

but central tendency and social desirability are somewhat more problematic.


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Scoring and analysis

After the questionnaire is completed, each item may be analyzed separately or in some cases

item responses may be summed to create a score for a group of items. Hence, Likert scales are

often called summative scales.

Whether individual Likert items can be considered as interval-level data, or whether theyshould be considered merely ordered-categorical data is the subject of disagreement. Many

regard such items only as ordinal data, because, especially when using only five levels, one

cannot assume that respondents perceive all pairs of adjacent levels as equidistant. On the

other hand, often (as in the example above) the wording of response levels clearly implies a

symmetry of response levels about a middle category; at the very least, such an item would fall

between ordinal- and interval-level measurement; to treat it as merely ordinal would lose

information. Further, if the item is accompanied by a visual analog scale, where equal spacing

of response levels is clearly indicated, the argument for treating it as interval-level data is even

stronger.

When treated as ordinal data, Likert responses can be collated into bar charts, centraltendency summarised by the median or the mode (but some would say not the mean), dispersion

summarised by the range across quartiles (but some would say not the standard deviation), or

analyzed using non-parametric tests, e.g. chi-square test, MannWhitney test, Wilcoxon signed-

rank test, or KruskalWallis test. Parametric analysis of ordinary averages of Likert scale data

is also justifiable by the Central Limit Theorem, although some would disagree that ordinary

averages should be used for Likert scale data.

Responses to several Likert questions may be summed, providing that all questions use the

same Likert scale and that the scale is a defendable approximation to an interval scale, in

which case they may be treated as interval data measuring a latent variable. If the summed

responses fulfill these assumptions, parametric statistical tests such as the analysis of variancecan be applied. These can be applied only when more than 5 Likert questions are summed.

Data from Likert scales are sometimes reduced to the nominal level by combining all agree and

disagree responses into two categories of "accept" and "reject". The chi-square, Cochran Q, or

McNemar test are common statistical procedures used after this transformation.

Consensus based assessment (CBA) can be used to create an objective standard for Likert

scales in domains where no generally accepted standard or objective standard exists.

Consensus based assessment (CBA) can be used to refine or even validate generally accepted

standards.

Level of measurement

The five response categories are often believed to represent an Interval level of measurement.

But this can only be the case if the intervals between the scale points correspond to empirical

observations in a metric sense. In fact, there may also appear phenomena which even question

the ordinal scale level. For example, in a set of items A,B,C rated with a Likert scale circular

relations like A>B, B>C and C>A can appear. This violates the axiom of transitivity for the

ordinal scale.


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Bogardus Social Distance Scale

The Bogardus Social Distance Scale is a psychological testing scale created by Emory S.

Bogardus to empirically measure people's willingness to participate in social contacts of

varying degrees of closeness with members of diverse social groups, such as other racial and

ethnic groups, sex offenders, and homosexuals.

The scale asks people the extent to which they would be accepting of each group (a score of

1.00 for a group is taken to indicate no social distance):

As close relatives by marriage (score 1.00) As my close personal friends (2.00) As neighbors on the same street (3.00) As co-workers in the same occupation (4.00) As citizens in my country (5.00) As only visitors in my country (6.00) Would exclude from my country (7.00)

The Bogardus Social Distance Scale is a cumulative scale (a Guttman scale), because

agreement with any item implies agreement with all preceding items. The scale has been

criticized as too simple because the social distance in intimate relations may not be to attitudes

concerning far-away contacts, such as citizens or visitors in my country.

Research by Bogardus first in 1925 and then repeated in 1946, 1956, and 1966 shows that the

extent of social distancing in the US is decreasing slightly and fewer distinctions are being

made among groups. A Web-based questionnaire has been running since late 1993. Internet

users are encouraged to submit their responses here where the maintainer of this site has

posted at least two papers that update research on social distance.

For Bogardus, social distance is a function of affective distance between the membersof two groups: [i]n social distance studies the center of attention is on the feeling

reactions of persons toward other persons and toward groups of people. Thus, for

him, social distance is essentially a measure of how much or little sympathy the

members of a group feel for another group. It might be important to note that

Bogarduss conceptualization is not the only one in the sociological literature. Several

sociologists have pointed out that social distance can also be conceptualized on the

basis of other parameters such as the frequency of interaction between different groups

or the normative distinctions in a society about who should be considered an insider

or outsider.

Guttman scale

In statistical surveys conducted by means of structured interviews or questionnaires, a subset of

the survey items having binary (e.g., YES or NO) answers forms a Guttman scale if they can be

ranked in some order so that, for a rational respondent, the response pattern can be captured

by a single index on that ordered scale. In other words, on a Guttman scale, items are arranged

in an order so that an individual who agrees with a particular item also agrees with items of


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lower rank-order. For example, a series of items could be (1) "I am willing to be near ice

cream"; (2) "I am willing to smell ice cream"; (3) "I am willing to eat ice cream"; and (4) "I

love to eat ice cream". Agreement with any one item implies agreement with the lower-order

items.

The concept of Guttman scale likewise applies to series of items in other kinds of tests, such as

achievement tests, that have binary outcomes. For example, a test of math achievement mightorder questions based on their difficulty and instruct the examinee to begin in the middle. The

assumption is if the examinee can successfully answer items of that difficulty (e.g., summing

two 3-digit numbers), s/he would be able to answer the earlier questions (e.g., summing two 2-

digit numbers). Some achievement tests are organized in a Guttman scale to reduce the

duration of the test.

By designing surveys and tests such that they contain Guttman scales, researchers can simplify

the analysis of the outcome of surveys, and increase the robustness. Guttman scales also make

it possible to detect and discard randomized answer patterns, as may be given by

uncooperative respondents. A hypothetical, perfect Guttman scale consists of a unidimensional

set of items that are ranked in order of difficulty from least extreme to most extreme position.For example, a person scoring a "7" on a ten item Guttman scale, will agree with items 1-7 and

disagree with items 8,9,10. An important property of Guttman's model is that a person's entire

set of responses to all items can be predicted from their cumulative score because the model is

deterministic.

Example

Here is an example of a Guttman scale - the Bogardus Social Distance Scale:

(Least extreme)

1. Are you willing to permit immigrants to live in your country?2. Are you willing to permit immigrants to live in your community?3. Are you willing to permit immigrants to live in your neighbourhood?4. Are you willing to permit immigrants to live next door to you?5. Would you permit your child to marry an immigrant?

(Most extreme)

E.g., agreement with item 3 implies agreement with items 1 and 2.

Consistency in AttitudesA persons attitudes are usually consistent with each other and with other aspects of his

functioning including his behavior. Circumstance has changed the attitude. Most of individual

has face cognitive dissonance and which bring stress in their behavior.

Consistency in attitudes has decrease by cogitative dissonance.

Cognitive dissonance


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Cognitive dissonance is an uncomfortable feeling caused by holding two contradictory ideassimultaneously. The theory of cognitive dissonance proposes that people have a motivational

drive to reduce dissonance by changing their attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors, or by justifying

or rationalizing them. It is one of the most influential and extensively studied theories in social

psychology.

Dissonance occurs when a person perceives a logical inconsistency in their beliefs, when oneidea implies the opposite of another. The dissonance might be experienced as guilt, anger,

frustration, or even embarrassment. The idea of "sour grapes"from the fable The Fox and the

Grapes by Aesop (ca. 620564 BCE), where the fox decides that the grapes he is unable to

reach are probably not ripe enough to eat anywayillustrates an example of cognitive

dissonance: desiring something, then criticizing it because it proves unattainable, a

phenomenon that Jon Elster calls "adaptive preference formation."[1]

A powerful cause of dissonance is an idea in conflict with a fundamental element of the self-

concept, such as "I am a good person" or "I made the right decision". The anxiety that comes

with the possibility of having made a bad decision can lead to rationalization, the tendency to

create additional reasons or justifications to support one's choices. A person who just spent toomuch money on a new car might decide that the new vehicle is much less likely to break down

than his or her old car. This belief may or may not be true, but it would reduce dissonance and

make the person feel better. Dissonance can also lead to confirmation bias, the denial of

disconfirming evidence, and other ego defense mechanisms.

Smoking is often postulated as an example of cognitive dissonance because it is widely

accepted that cigarettes can cause lung cancer, yet virtually everyone wants to live a long and

healthy life. In terms of the theory, the desire to live a long life is dissonant with the activity of

doing something that will most likely shorten one's life. The tension produced by these

contradictory ideas can be reduced by quitting smoking, denying the evidence of lung cancer,

or justifying one's smoking. For example, smokers could rationalize their behavior by

concluding that only a few smokers become ill, that it only happens to very heavy smokers, or

that if smoking does not kill them, something else will. While chemical addiction may operate

in addition to cognitive dissonance for existing smokers, new smokers may exhibit a simpler

case of the latter.

Attitude ChangeThe response of the individual to all sorts of changes in the environment surrounding him isundoubtedly related to attitudes. Motivation and learning are as fundamental factors for attitude

change. Attitudes develop as the result of an arousal of a need and then are shaped specifically

through the process of learning. Thus the most important thing to remember about attitude

change is that a need to change must be present.

Attitude Change Factors

There are situations in which a person may deliberately attempt to change someone's attitude

with communications. Such situations include an election where candidates are trying to win

votes, and also television commercials, which try to persuade people to buy a product or

service.


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Attitude change

Breckler and Wiggins (1992) define attitudes as mental and neural representations, organized

through experience, exerting a directive or dynamic influence on behavior (p. 409). Attitudes

and attitude objects are functions of cognitive, affective and conative components.

Emotion plays a major role attitude change. Emotion works hand-in-hand with the cognitiveprocess, or the way we think, about an issue or situation.

Functional TypesAttitudes can be categorized on the basis of the purposes served. Katz has grouped attitudesinto four functional types:

1. Utilitarian: This is easily in change situational attitude. When old responses are nolonger relevant in new situations, the mechanism comes to the force.

2. Ego-defensive attitude: This attitude protects the person from threats to the ego and theanxiety generated by them.

3.

Value expressive attitude: This attitude maintaining self-identity or leading to self-expression and determination. When old values no longer provide the basis for

maintaining a good self-image, change is coming.

4. Knowledge Function attitude: This attitude is serving the knowledge function tend topromote meaningfulness in all activity. An individual struggles to have completeness

and clarity in what he does; ambiguity can lead to attitude change when the new

patterns provide more information about the problems.

Types of ChangeAttitude change may be classified roughly into congruent and incongruent change.

Congruent Change: Congruent change in attitudes involves a movement in the same

direction.Incongruent attitude change: It involves a change toward the opposite end of the continuum.

Factors in Attitude ChangeCharacteristics of the attitudes themselves or with individuals have less strength of attitudes

and they are susceptibility to change. Balance theories are its predictor that an imbalance in

attitudes will provide a more toward balance.Individual characteristics can be important in attitude change like personality traits have been

found to be important. Intelligence may affect the rate of change in attitudes. Less intelligence

people change their attitude rapidly and more intelligence people attitude remains constant.

Situational factors play a greater role in influencing the change in attitudes.

Social influence is found in the effect of public commitment on attitudes.

Other factors for attitude change;1. Age2. Gender3. Physical condition4. Environment variable5. Prejudice6. Discrimination


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Change in OrganizationsThe process of change in business, governmental and educational organization thought to be

change agent. Change agents are Manager of firm. The designation may not be far from an

identification of the basic problem in either the instituting or guiding of change procedures in

new or established groupings. Circumstance outside the organization, such as economicchanges also play a role in altering the values and attitudes of individuals in organization. The

strongest bases for attitude change is come form the social forces acting in the summative ofindividuals.

StereotypesStereotype is a word first coined by Walter Lippmann in the 1920s. Stereotypes are evident in

statements like the following: beautiful but dumb, intelligent but uncivilized, all brawn(muscle) and no brains. The notion (view) that a highbrow or high forehead or a big head

means superior intelligence and low brow means quite the opposite is another common

constellation of attitudes, opinions and beliefs.

Certain traits (characteristics) were chosen much more often than others when there was noreason for the choice other than chance. Some good examples of stereotyping are: The

Germans were pictured as scientifically minded and industrious, Italians were very musical,

Jews were shrewd and Negroes superstitious.There is a feeling that because so many people believe some characteristics to be true of certain

groups that these must be true. There is no relationship between the height of a persons

forehead and his mental ability. Stereotypes often invade (attack) the decision making ofbusinessmen. Selection of worker on a basis that has little foundation characteristics is

stereotyping.

A stereotype is a commonly held public belief about specific social groups, or types of

individuals. The concepts of "stereotype" and "prejudice" are often confused with many otherdifferent meanings. Stereotypes are standardized and simplified conceptions of groups, based

on some prior assumptions.

Dynamics

For instance: Studies have shown that women stereotype more negatively than men, and that

women read into appearance more than men.

Theories

Different disciplines give different accounts of how stereotypes develop: Psychologists may

focus on an individual's experience with groups, patterns of communication about those

groups, and intergroup conflict. Sociologists focus on the relations among groups and the

position of different groups in a social structure. A number of theories have been derived from

sociological studies of stereotyping and prejudicial thinking. In early studies it was believed

that stereotypes were only used by rigid, repressed, and authoritarian people. Another theory is

that people stereotype because of the need to feel good about oneself. Stereotypes protect one

from anxiety and enhance self-esteem. Some believe that childhood influences are some of the


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most complex and influential factors in developing stereotypes. Though they can be absorbed at

any age, stereotypes are usually acquired in early childhood under the influence of parents,

teachers, peers, and the media. Once a stereotype is learned, it often becomes self-

perpetuating.

Native Americans have been stereotyped by others in both a negative and positive sense.

Stereotypes

A "stereotype" is a generalization about a person or group of persons. We develop stereotypes

when we are unable or unwilling to obtain all of the information we would need to make fair

judgments about people or situations. In the absence of the "total picture," stereotypes in many

cases allow us to "fill in the blanks." Our society often innocently creates and perpetuates

stereotypes, but these stereotypes often lead to unfair discrimination and persecution when the

stereotype is unfavorable.

Television, books, comic strips, and movies are all abundant sources of stereotyped characters.

For much of its history, the movie industry portrayed African-Americans as being unintelligent,lazy, or violence-prone. As a result of viewing these stereotyped pictures of African-Americans,

for example, prejudice against African-Americans has been encouraged. In the same way,

physically attractive women have been and continue to be portrayed as unintelligent or

unintellectual and sexually promiscuous.

Discrimination

When we judge people and groups based on our prejudices and stereotypes and treat them

differently, we are engaging in discrimination. This discrimination can take many forms. We

may create subtle or overt pressures which will discourage persons of certain minority groups

from living in a neighborhood. Women and minorities have been victimized by discriminationin employment, education, and social services. We may shy away from people with a history of

mental illness because we are afraid they may harm us. Women and minorities are often

excluded from high echelon positions in the business world. Many clubs have restrictive

membership policies which do not permit Jews, African-Americans, women, and others to join.

Racism

Anthropologists, scientists who study humans and their origins, generally accept that the

human species can be categorized into races based on physical and genetic makeup. For

example, many, but certainly not all African-Americans have physical differences from

Caucasians beyond their dark skin, such as wiry hair. Virtually all scientists accept the factthat there is no credible scientific evidence that one race is culturally or psychologically

different from any other, or that one race is superior to another

Yet despite overwhelming scientific evidence to the contrary, there are people who maintain

that their own race is superior to all others. These people, known collectively as "racists," are

the most likely to engage in discrimination, persecution, and violence against those they deem

to be members of "inferior" races.


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Racism against African-Americans is still prevalent in the United States. Despite laws and

other protections against discrimination, African-Americans still face discrimination in

housing, employment, and education.

Understanding the nature of prejudice, scapegoating, stereotypes, and discrimination is the

first step in combating these practices. All of us have prejudices about members of groups

different from ourselves. We should, however, recognize that we are not acting fairly if we treatpeople differently because of these stereotypes and prejudices. Each one of us deserves to be

considered a unique human being.

Values

Values represent something more than just a persons acceptance of the validity of a view offacts.

Values and other factorsValues can be differentiated from attitudes. Value and attitude has close relationship.

Values can be differentiated from attitudes in that the latter represent predisposition to respond.

While usually there will be a close correspondence between attitudes and values that makesthem difficult to distinguish, the judgment of what ought to be represent the specific

manifestations of a determining tendency below the surface of the behavior.The close relationship to norms can be seen is easily. A norm is rule or guide for behavior

established by a consensus in the social order. The consensus represent the feeling of the group

as to what is desirable or what ought to be.

Opinions too are related to values. The notion of what is desirable will influence the evaluation

of a specific set of circumstances but the concepts are not same. Again, what is though

desirable will not necessarily be coextensive with the judgment that is the opinion.

The differences between the concepts may be delineated, in somewhat over simplified from asfollows.

Belief- There is no difference between White and Negroes.

Value-Discrimination is wrong.

Norm- Serve Negroes in restaurants.

Opinion- I think the civil rights matches in Milwaukee are right.

Attitude-pro x con

It can be seen that the concepts while not isomorphic, are all part of the same package most of

the time.

Behavior may be affected by values in various ways. Actions may be influenced directly in the

efforts of people to confirm to a norm. In an indirect way, the behavior patterns may emerge isa by product of the norms.

Values in American SocietyAn extensive analysis of the values held by Americans has been made by many researchers,

notably Willams. Major value orientations have been identified by Williams. Activity and

achievement, moral orientation and humanitarian mores, along with material comfort and

conformity are said to characterize the main thrust of American value system. Continuingactivity toward the achievement of success is the view of many observers an outstanding aspect


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of American society. The channeling of action into productive work can be a continuation of

the early need for security on the frontier. Business success with wealth as an oblivious

measure o fit, can be viewed as prime determiner of the strong focus on business values as

central in American life. An American value is individual initiative and competition towardsuccess. Promotion of technological change and the rejection of economical control is next

values.

NormsMost groups have rules to govern the behavior f their members. These guidelines or directionsas to what is accepted or prohibited are called norms. These can vary from very simple rules to

very complete sets of prescription and prohibitions. In a society, the ramifications of a

normative system can be extensive. Norms not only indicate to members of the group what theyshould or should not be they also provide for a system of built in reward and punishments for a

behavior. Just as norms may be strength or intensity of feeling and complexity so punishment

can vary in strength or intensity of feeling and complexity.Norms depend on values. A belief as to what ought to be is fundamental to shaping of the

rules for the society. If a society values property above human life, the norms will reflect this.

Capital punishment finds a more fertile ground in the kind of atmosphere. For instance, thenorms represent another value that has certain norms tied to it. In this instance, the normrepresents an area to which we do not attach much importance and therefore a violation of

norm does not bring as severe punishment with it. Mild social disapproval is the extent of the

sanction.

Categories of NormsFolkways: Norms governing behavior that is not considered critical in the functioning of a

society are classified as folkways.

Etiquette: Proper manners, style of dress, language used with other people all those we maycall etiquette.

Mores: Norms governing behavior of individuals in areas believed to be more important for thefunctioning of the society are known as mores. The term mores is a Latin word for authoritative

and sacred customs of long standing. First time name coined by William Gtaham sumner(1906). While mores themselves imply stronger feelings about the behavior inquisition, there

are variations within this classification. Mores do not need to be enforced by laws; however, as

they maintain their influence in informal or none institutionalized ways. For example;extramarital relations in a monogamous society, would brand the guilty parties as immoral and

not fit to be in the company of decent people. This informal sanction would be powerful even if

no laws governing this kind of behavior would be enacted. Additionally, however, we mightlook for variation in time since mores are not static (constant). Custom may show changes

representing increasing or decreasing severity of sanctions, depending on the value of the

society of particular time.Norms that are thought to be important enough to the regulation of the behavior to be

organized in some formal way are laws. Laws are norms that have been institutionalized; that is

the rules are organized and enforce by the political authority of the state. Some researchers

refer to these as institutional ways. Laws differing degrees of intensity. Traffic rules and capitalpunishment are laws.

Taboo: A norm that is deeply engrained (attached) in individuals in a society is called a taboo.

The incest taboo is prohibiting cannibalism and murder are very nearly so.


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Variations in NormsThe great variation in intensity of norms was coming in society. The same circumstances maybe treated in an informal manner or the norms enforce in a formal and institutionalized way.

This can be a source of conflict when a group in power decides that its moral viewpoints are

important enough to be enacted into a statute regulating the behavior of all. A large part of the

society may be governed by a set of rules foreign to them; severe stress on the society can

result. At present time, restrictions such as those with respect to gambling are often bypassedbecause this behavior is not considered offensive to those individuals. Charitable groups often

run bingo games or lotteries to raise funds for their endeavors. Mores is rapidly changed acrossthe years.

PrejudiceStrictly speaking, prejudice is a neutral term meaning a prejudgment of a set of circumstance

but in behavioral or social research the term is used to mean an attitude as the result of whichan ethnic group or a member of it is put at a disadvantage. We immediately think of hostile

attitudes toward Negroes or minority groups when prejudice is mentioned, or negative attitudes

toward some group are also known as prejudice.

Discrimination is a phenomenon often accompanying prejudice, but the two concepts differ.Prejudice is an attitude, while discrimination is the active expression of it. Conflict is

community relations arise most often and more recently on an ethnic basis. Since prejudice and

discrimination are fundamental aspects of a broad social process.

Prejudice is general not universal. Prejudice brings some bias in interpersonal relations. The

hostility toward minority group has been documented in great detail in many research reports aswell as casual observation by layman. Minority groups can display similar hostile attitudes

toward the dominant group as well as maintaining a prejudicial hierarchy within their own

group as well as maintaining a prejudicial hierarchy within their own group. Individual feelinferiority in those same individuals. Prejudice brings social hostility and social conflict in

certain organization. Aggression brings counter aggression and its resulting social conflict.

Aprejudice is a prejudgement: i.e. a preconceived belief, opinion, or judgment made without

ascertaining the facts of a case. The word prejudice is most commonly used to refer to a

preconceived judgment toward a people or a person because of race, social class, gender,

ethnicity, age, disability, political beliefs, religion, sexual orientation or other personal

characteristics. It also means a priori beliefs (without knowledge of the facts) and includes

"any unreasonable attitude that is unusually resistant to rational influence."

Cognitive Prejudice refers to what people believe to be true. metaphysical ormethodological philosophy at the expense of other philosophies which may offer a more

complete theoretical explanation. Affective Prejudice refers to what people like and dislike: for example, in attitudes

toward members of particular classes such as race, ethnicity, national origin, or creed.

Behavioral Prejudice refers to how people are inclined to behave. It is regarded as anattitude because people do not act on their feelings. An example of conative prejudice

may be found in expressions of what should be done if the opportunity presents itself.

These three types of prejudice are correlated, but all need not be present in a particular

individual"Discrimination" is a behavior (an action), with reference to unequal treatment of


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people because they are members of a particular group. Farley also put discrimination into

three categories:

As with prejudice generally, these three types of discrimination are correlated and may be

found to varying degrees in individuals and society at large. Many forms of discrimination

based upon prejudice are outwardly acceptable in most societies.

Bases of PrejudiceThere is no reason to believe that prejudice is any different from other aspects of behavior with

respect to the underlying factors contributing to development and continuation.

Following factor are bases of prejudice.

PersonalityThe relationship between the personality dynamic of an individual and the response of

prejudice and discrimination has been suggested down thought the years of many researchers.

The authoritarian personality they were able to identify a pattern of characteristics as the result

of individual response test scales where people were asked to agree or disagree with items like

the following.1. Any good leader should be strict with people under him in order to gain their respect.2. There are two kinds of people in the world the weak and the strong.

The philosophy of world is weak obey and the strong command. The emphasis on

power denies the basic equality of man.

Personality can be defined as a dynamic and organized set of characteristics possessed by aperson that uniquely influences his or her cognitions, motivations, and behaviors in varioussituations. The word "personality" originates from the Latin persona, which means mask.

Significantly, in the theatre of the ancient Latin-speaking world, the mask was not used as a

plot device to disguise the identity of a character, but rather was a convention employed torepresent or typify that character.

The study of personality has a broad and varied history in psychology, with an abundance oftheoretical traditions. There is no consensus on the definition of "personality" in psychology.

Most researchers and psychologists do not explicitly identify themselves with a certain

perspective and often take an eclectic approach.

Social InfluencesPrejudice is much more complex than the sketch of personality patterns would imply.

Patterns of prejudice have been shown to vary with the surrounding circumstance,

regardless of the personality characteristics of the individuals. Surroundingcircumstances play a role in prejudice at least as much as does personality. Widespread

community attitudes are bound to have their impact. A perceived threat to ones social

and economic status has been found consistently to be an element of prejudice. Feeling

of being displaced from ones position by incoming minority groups feel latent feelingsof aggression and prejudice against those groups. Several studies are in agreement that

individuals who are downwardly mobile, that is found themselves slipping in the social

scale.


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Reduction of PrejudiceUnderstanding the broad historical and social backgrounds for intergroup conflict canhelp somewhat a glimpse into the needs served by prejudice can assist as well in

overcoming some of the divisive factors in this form of social conflict.

Many people have placed their hopes in education on the assumption that the

elimination of prejudice would occur as soon as people were expected to the facts.

Education change attitude permanent. Prejudice is not an intellectual matter but anemotional one, and the emotions in this area can be very strong and deep seated.

More positive and direct action has been taken in recent years to promote betterrelations between groups and reduce prejudice or discrimination. These have varied

from changes imposed by legal fiat to an increasing of informal have varied from

changes imposed by legal fiat to an increasing of informal mingling (mix) ofindividuals. Despite the fact that mores are resistant to change some direct action has

been successful in changing attitudes.

In summary it may be stated that positive action promoting greater interaction amonggroups can and usually does have a beneficial effect.

Job Attitude, satisfaction and MoraleMorale and job satisfaction are closely tied to the basic concepts of attitude and motivation.

Indeed, some writers fail to distinguish between certain of these variables with the result that

there is some variety in usage. It may be of value first to note the more common usages of theterms and to mention variations in later discussion.

An attitude is a predisposition to respond, positively or negatively to ascertain set of facts. A

job attitude would be therefore tendency to respond to aspects of the job. The direction andextent of attitudes on the work role or job elements themselves could be measured.

Job satisfaction is based on job attitudes but is somewhat broader in that job satisfaction relates

to how the job fits into the total picture of the persons functioning. Satisfactions outside thejob are not included except as they contribute to the persons perception of how the work role

fits with his expectations, those of others, and the values that have been built up through theincorporation of cultural patterns.

In converse, job dissatisfaction is arise when individual are not satisfied with job. Satisfactionhas been considered by many basically, a matter of needs, feelings or expectations. Morale is a

group concept. It is the summation of the attitudes of the individuals making up the group. One

may speak of high morale where the members generally have positive attitudes within thecontext of the group task while a reference to a greater presence of negative attitudes indicated

low morale. Morale is sprit de corps or the attitudes of the collective body.

Some investigators use the terms morale synonymously with job satisfaction and doing to havesome empirical justification. There is evidence from morale studies that the components of both

job satisfaction and morale are the same so the distinction remains primarily definitional.

Morale refers to a group, particularly when common goals are stressed, while job satisfaction isthe individual picture of activity.

Most of the research activity has focused on job satisfaction, the area of greatest interest and

importance. Since the related concepts of job attitudes and morale are either part of or so

closely related to job satisfaction, discussion of the latter factor will provide the basis forunderstanding of motivated behavior on the job.

Job satisfaction describes how content an individual is with his or her job. The happier peopleare within their job, the more satisfied they are said to be. Job satisfaction is not the same as


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motivation, although it is clearly linked. Job design aims to enhance job satisfaction and

performance, methods include job rotation, job enlargement and job enrichment. Other

influences on satisfaction include the management style and culture, employee involvement,

empowerment and autonomous work groups. Job satisfaction is a very important attribute

which is frequently measured by organizations. The most common way of measurement is the

use of rating scales where employees report their reactions to their jobs. Questions relate to

rate of pay, work responsibilities, variety of tasks, promotional opportunities the work itselfand co-workers. Some questioners ask yes or no questions while others ask to rate satisfaction

on 1-5 scale (where 1 represents "not at all satisfied" and 5 represents "extremely satisfied").

Morale, also known as esprit de corps when discussing the morale of a group, is an intangible

term used for the capacity of people to maintain belief in an institution or a goal, or even in

oneself and others. According to Alexander H. Leighton, "morale is the capacity of a group of

people to pull together persistently and consistently in pursuit of a common purpose".

Two-Factor Theory (Motivator-Hygiene Theory)

Frederick Herzbergs Two factor theory (also known as Motivator Hygiene Theory) attempts toexplain satisfaction and motivation in the workplace. This theory states that satisfaction and

dissatisfaction are driven by different factors motivation and hygiene factors, respectively. An

employees motivation to work is continually related to job satisfaction of a subordinate.

Motivation can be seen as an inner force that drives individuals to attain personal and

organization goals (Hoskinson, Porter, & Wrench, p.133). Motivating factors are those aspects

of the job that make people want to perform, and provide people with satisfaction, for example

achievement in work, recognition, promotion opportunities. These motivating factors are

considered to be intrinsic to the job, or the work carried out. Hygiene factors include aspects of

the working environment such as pay, company policies, supervisory practices, and other

working conditions.

Measuring job satisfaction

There are many methods for measuring job satisfaction. By far, the most common method for

collecting data regarding job satisfaction is the Likert scale (named after Rensis Likert). Other

less common methods of for gauging job satisfaction include: Yes/No questions, True/False

questions, point systems, checklists, and forced choice answers. This data is typically collected

using an Enterprise Feedback Management (EFM) system.

The Job Descriptive Index (JDI), created by Smith, Kendall, & Hulin (1969), is a specific

questionnaire of job satisfaction that has been widely used. It measures ones satisfaction in

five facets: pay, promotions and promotion opportunities, coworkers, supervision, and the workitself. The scale is simple, participants answer either yes, no, or cant decide (indicated by ?)

in response to whether given statements accurately describe ones job.

Other job satisfaction questionnaires include: the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire

(MSQ), the Job Satisfaction Survey (JSS), and the Faces Scale. The MSQ measures job

satisfaction in 20 facets and has a long form with 100 questions (five items from each facet)

and a short form with 20 questions (one item from each facet). The JSS is a 36 item

questionnaire that measures nine facets of job satisfaction. Finally, the Faces Scale of job


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satisfaction, one of the first scales used widely, measured overall job satisfaction with just one

item which participants respond to by choosing a face.

Job Satisfaction

The topics of job satisfaction and its determinates have occupied the interest of industrial

researchers for some time, since the importance of this factor in industrial functioning has beeneasily recognized. Several research studies beginning with Hoppock have probed this are onidentify, with the focus not belonging the elements of satisfaction but, more practically or

determine the relationships with job performance or productivity. In the pioneer study by Katz,

Maccoby and Morse the authors surveyed the employees of a large insurance company anddetermined four measures of general job satisfaction. 1) pride in work group, 2) intrinsic job

satisfaction 3) company involvement 4) financial and job status satisfaction. The measures

were obtained from interviews and were then related to actual productivity.

A later study that has generated interest and further research on the basis of its conceptualcontributions is one by Herzberg.

Herzberg theory Two-factor theory

The two-factor theory (also known asHerzberg's motivation-hygiene theory) states that thereare certain factors in the workplace that cause job satisfaction, while a separate set of factors

cause dissatisfaction. It was developed by Frederick Herzberg, a psychologist, who theorized

that job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction act independently of each other.

Two-factor theory fundamentals

According to Herzberg, individuals are not content with the satisfaction of lower-order needs

at work, for example, those associated with minimum salary levels or safe and pleasantworking conditions. Rather, individuals look for the gratification of higher-level psychological

needs having to do with achievement, recognition, responsibility, advancement, and the nature

of the work itself. So far, this appears to parallel Maslow's theory of a need hierarchy.

However, Herzberg added a new dimension to this theory by proposing a two-factor model of

motivation, based on the notion that the presence of one set of job characteristics or incentives

lead to worker satisfaction at work, while another and separate set of job characteristics lead

to dissatisfaction at work. Thus, satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not on a continuum with

one increasing as the other diminishes, but are independent phenomena. This theory suggests

that to improve job attitudes and productivity, administrators must recognize and attend to both

sets of characteristics and not assume that an increase in satisfaction leads to decrease in

unpleasurable dissatisfaction.

The two-factor, or motivation-hygiene theory, developed from data collected by Herzberg from

interviews with a large number of engineers and accountants in the Pittsburgh area. From

analyzing these interviews, he found that job characteristics related to what an individual does

that is, to the nature of the work he performs apparently have the capacity to gratify such

needs as achievement, competency, status, personal worth, and self-realization, thus making

him happy and satisfied. However, the absence of such gratifying job characteristics does not

appear to lead to unhappiness and dissatisfaction. Instead, dissatisfaction results from


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unfavorable assessments of such job-related factors as company policies, supervision, technical

problems, salary, interpersonal relations on the job, and working conditions. Thus, if

management wishes to increase satisfaction on the job, it should be concerned with the nature

of the work itself the opportunities it presents for gaining status, assuming responsibility,

and for achieving self-realization. If, on the other hand, management wishes to reduce

dissatisfaction, then it must focus on the job environment policies, procedures, supervision,

and working conditions

[1]

. If management is equally concerned with both (as is usually thecase), then managers must give attention to both sets of job factors.

The theory was based around interviews with 203 American accountants & engineers in

Pittsburgh, chosen because of their professions' growing importance in the business world. The

subjects were asked to relate times when they felt exceptionally good or bad about their present

job or any previous job, and to provide reasons, and a description of the sequence of events

giving rise to that positive or negative feeling.

Here is the description of this interview analysis:

Briefly, we asked our respondents to describe periods in their lives when they were exceedingly happy

and unhappy with their jobs. Each respondent gave as many "sequences of events" as he could that met

certain criteriaincluding a marked change in feeling, a beginning and an end, and contained some

substantive description other than feelings and interpretations

The proposed hypothesis appears verified. The factors on the right that led to satisfaction (achievement,

intrinsic interest in the work, responsibility, and advancement) are mostly unipolar; that is, they

contribute very little to job dissatisfaction. Conversely, the dis-satisfiers (company policy and

administrative practices, supervision, interpersonal relationships, working conditions, and salary)

contribute very little to job satisfaction[3]

.

Two-factor theory distinguishes between:

Motivators (e.g., challenging work, recognition, responsibility) that give positivesatisfaction, arising from intrinsic conditions of the job itself, such as recognition,

achievement, or personal growth[4]

, and

Hygiene factors (e.g. status, job security, salary and fringe benefits) that do not give positive satisfaction, though dissatisfaction results from their absence. These are

extrinsic to the work itself, and include aspects such as company policies, supervisory

practices, or wages/salary[4]

.

Essentially, hygiene factors are needed to ensure an employee is not dissatisfied. Motivation

factors are needed to motivate an employee to higher performance, Herzberg also furtherclassified our actions and how and why we do them, for example, if you perform a work related

action because you have to then that is classed as movement, but if you perform a work related

action because you want to then that is classed asmotivation.

Unlike Maslow, who offered little data to support his ideas, Herzberg and others have

presented considerable empirical evidence to confirm the motivation-hygiene theory. Their

work, however, has been criticized on methodological grounds. Nevertheless, Herzberg and his

associates have rendered a valuable service to science and to management through their efforts


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to apply scientific methods to understanding complex motivational problems at work and have

stimulated others to continue the search.

Factors in Job satisfactionThe element that usually comes to mind first in a discussion of factors contributing to jobsatisfaction is that of wages. The economist is likely to focus on this aspect of the job situation

as being very important for job satisfaction, and many businessmen are doubtless in agreementthat money is crucial factor. Some scholar argue that higher the pay the greater the satisfaction.But most of psychologist state that social and psychological factor provide job satisfaction.

The relationship between occupational level and job satisfaction has been of substantial interest

for a long time. An early study was followed by many research efforts indicting a clear positiverelationship between job level and job satisfaction. Morse did find a positive relationship

between a persons expectations of a promotion and his job satisfaction.

Job situation plays an important role in the satisfaction of his subordinates, but eh exact

relationships may not have been clear. The supervisor influential one but is a prime contributorto a job satisfaction of this workers. Current time increasing specialization and standardization

one might expect some impact from these factors on job satisfaction.

It is possible to go even further and state that people may have a need to utilize their abilities tothe fullest as Maslows concept of self actualization. Vroom presents empirical evidence of a

relationship between job satisfaction and opportunity for self-expression in the work, while

other writers use such results as a basis for related conceptualization. Herzberg amplifies theconcepts of hygienes and motivators factor.

Job Satisfaction and Performance

Human relations advocate that it was good it carried with it many positive contributionsincluding high performance. People basically believed that job satisfaction and morale were

positively related to productivity on the job. Early authors and identified 12 high producing

sections and 12 low production groups to use as the basis for determining the relationshipbetween job satisfactions and productivity.Production centre supervisor give autocratic leadership so employees are dissatisfied and

employee centre supervisor are democratic so give satisfied to employees.

Direct relationship between job satisfaction and productivity are not the only aspects of interestin performance. Indirect factors can be studied as well. Morse found that job satisfaction was

negatively related to variables such as absenteeism and turnover. Other evidence confirms that

people are more likely to leave if the job fails to satisfy their needs one way or another. Insummary it may be stated that while there may not necessarily be a relationship between job

satisfaction and productivity, performance may be affected indirectly by the absenteeism or

turnover which is related negatively to satisfaction.

Summery of ChapterPredispositions to react and related learned variables are important in human behavior.

Attitudes are the basic predispositions to react in a positive or negative direction, whileopinions are specific judgments influenced by attitudes. Belief is a stronger acceptance of a set

of facts or events. Each of the variables influenced by the others.

Attitudes are formed very early and most immediately in primary family group, though thebroader cultural influences are present. Peers are also influential in shaping social, political, and


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religious attitudes but not as much as are parents. Personality and attitudes arte interrelated in

many respects; ethno-centric individuals are disposed to be narrow in emotions or values and

less open and accepting of others and their ideas.

Attitudes are measured most often by having subjects respond to items that have been scaledearlier by the researcher. Generally, the response consists of an agreement or disagreement with

the statement or a checking of the items that most closely corresponds with ones position the

question.Attitudes may change, however. Much of the kind and extent of change depends on how the

attitudes are formed and the purpose they serve. Attitude can be adaptive to situations,

protective of the ego, expressive of emotion or vehicles for meaning in activity. Change mayoccur in terms of intensity or direction, with the latter change being the more difficult.

Generally, a change occurs in the direction of consistency- agreement with other attitude

consistency with personality, and similarity of response of peers. Change groups andorganizations is a more complex matter though based on individual changes.

Stereotype is an oversimplified representation of reality or more common an inaccurate

portrayal of set of facts. Pictured characteristics of individual or groups may perpetuate(complete) myths and the prejudice stemming from them.

Values are preferred options with a moral or desirable tinge (hint, bit). This feeling of rightness

is one which is felt to be shared by a large number. They are closely related to opinions,attitudes, beliefs, and norms. In American society the dominant themes of work and success

prevail, through some inconsistency such as the trend to conformity may be seen as

complicating factors.Norms are rules governing the behavior of members of a group. They vary in strength or

importance form casual folkways to the more intense taboo. Variations in norms among

segments of a society may produce some discord (disagreement) if what may be considered

undesirable and upsetting in some subgroups not considered so in another grouping.Prejudice, technically a neutral term, now refers to a negative attitude that places an ethnic or

social group and its individual members at a disadvantage. Such bias is extensive, since even

minority group members may incorporate such attitudes in their own functioning. Hostility,aggression, and feelings inferiority are common results of prejudice. The authoritarian

personality shows more prejudice than do other; perceived threats in interpersonal situation

intensify the response as social influence generally are important factors. Prejudice can bereduced but less by simple education than by a change in attitudes and emotions. A positive

stand to remove the threats to individuals in social relations is necessary.

Attitudes toward ones work and the emotional responses from it are significant features of the

present social scene. Job satisfaction is the positive response to the contributions of ones work

to the general level of expectation built up through experience. Morale is a group concept

although closely related to positive job attitudes and job satisfaction.The job itself may be the source of satisfaction, or the job as it fits into the surroundings may be

the provider of positive feelings. Each of these may be subdivided further. Contributing to job

satisfaction are such variables as higher occupational level, higher salary, control over thesituation, and opportunity to contribute to the fullest. Job satisfaction may not necessarily

stimulate higher performance but it usually does, if only in indirect ways.

behavior science unit 6 note

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