MENC: The National Association for Music EducationImprovisation in Latin American MusicsAuthor(s): Gerard BhagueSource: Music Educators Journal, Vol. 66, No. 5 (Jan., 1980), pp. 118-125Published by: MENC: The National Association for Music EducationStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3395789Accessed: 16/03/2010 10:56Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available athttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp. JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unlessyou have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and youmay use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use.Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. 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For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.MENC: The National Association for Music Education is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve andextend access to Music Educators Journal.http://www.jstor.orgI N L A T I N A MERI CA N MUSI CS I N L A T I N A MERI CA N MUSI CS Gerard BehagueI mprovisationimpliesa relativefreedomtochoose elements within stylisticnorms or rulespropertoa given culture.T hedegreeof per- missiveness allowedwithina partic- ular musicsystem(which is culture- specific) determines the bounds of improvisation andthe extentofitsexistence init. Moreover, itis thenature ofmusicperformance, asconceived by the members ofa giv- en culture, thatbecomes the in- dicator ofthe essential peculiarity ofa givenimprovisationalpracticeanddetermines what mightactually constitute"improvisation" inthat culture.T he standarddistinctionbe- tweenfixedorcomposed musicand improvisation has little useful application to oralmusictraditions, as shown byBrunoN ettl.'N ettl takes the view thatall performersimproviseto someextent, andre- futes the ideathat improvisation isa process separateanddistinctfrom composition.2I nL atin A merican musictraditions,specific improv- isatoryperformancecharacteristicshave beenelaborated upon modelsor standard formulas thatare in themselves an integralpart oftheimprovisatory process. I ndiantraditionsMostI ndiantribes ofCentraland SouthA mericabelieve thatmusichas amagicorsupernaturalorigin. A merindianmusicaccompaniestheobservance oflifecyclesandfunc- tionsprimarily inaritualcontext. Shamanicchants fordiagnosingand 'BrunoN ettl. "T houghtson I mprovisation: AComparativeA pproach," Musical Quarterly60,no. 1(January1974):1-19. 'I bid.,p.19. T heauthor isprofessor of musicologyand ethnomusicologyattheUniversity ofT exas at A ustin. healingillness, forexample, consti- tute an importantpart ofI ndian musicrepertories.Songsare re- vealed by invoked spiritstothe sha- manwhile he or she is inanal- teredstate ofconsciousness. Sometimes thesongsare trans- mitted through dreams. A lthough such songsdenote suddenmusic- making andare thereforeimpro- vised,theygenerally follow well-es- tablished stylistic patternsthat vary onlyaccording tothespecific, as- signed functionofthesonggenrewithinaritual.T his observationisnottosay thatindividualshamanicperformancesdonotdiffer inde- tails fromeachother.Eachdevel- ops preexistent materials inhisown way, butthe basicstylesina given arearemain essentially thesame. I nnonritualizedmusicperform- ance, thesong anddancereper- tories ofA merindians allow littleimprovisation. N either musicgenrehas an operatingimprovisationsys- tem, but performance practicesal- low alimited rangeofmelodic and rhythmicvariationinthe rendition ofa specificmusic or dance.Forexamplethehuayno, themajorso- cialdanceamongQuechua and A y- maraI ndians ofPeruand Bolivia, isperformed witha variety ofaccom- paniments, froma single harp or a quena (end-notchedvertical flute) duettoensemblesincluding wind instruments suchasthepinkillo, pinkullo, andthetarka; voices with stringaccompaniment,primarily thecharango, a five-double-string,gui- tar-likeinstrumentwithanarma- dilloshellresonator; and per- cussion,generally a large, double- headeddrumknownas the bombo andthe snare drumcalledthecaja. Despitethis instrumental flexibility, huayno melodies and rhythmicor- ganization retainaremarkable simi- larity throughout thearea, with pre- dominatingpentatonic descending melodies and binary metric divi- sions.T he most typicalrhythmsaf- fecting the melodies include thepatternsshownin Figure1.T hesecanbe varied slightlyduring therepetition ofthe melodicphrases.A ccompanimental formulas in Fig- ure 2 may bevaried, as in Figure 3, but generally theregular,basicpat- ternsprevail. Spanish-derived traditionsAgreaterfreedomofchoice can be foundintheperformanceof mestizoandurban popularmusicsderivedfrom HispanicandA frican traditions.N umerous folk song types throughout L atin A mericafol- low thepopular Spanishliterary formknownas thecopla,a qua- trainwithassonant rhymesthat servesas afundamentalstructurefor textual improvisation. Fromtheballad songssuchas the corridoof Mexico, thepunto anddcimaof Cuba, the decimaofPuertoRico,the versoandthe tonadaof Chile, andthe vidalaof A rgentina,to songs accompanying folk dances,suchas the cururuandthe catereteof Brazil, thecopla derajalena of Colombia, the corridoofVenezuela, andthe variousregional sones of Mexico,improvisedcoplasare fre- quently thenecessaryadjunct ofa successful performance. T he Medi- terranean song-duel traditioninL at- inA mericaserves as the source foraseries of improvisedsongs, such as the Cubandecima guajira,theBrazilian desafio andembolada, andthe Chilean contrapunto and paya, allbasedoneither thecopla or decima (ten-line verse)Spanish forms.T heprimary functionof these duels is to quarrel or teaseverbally, sotextual improvisation isquite important andstandardme- lodic and rhythmicformulas areusedtominimize the needfor118 mej/jan '80 Figure1.Basicrhythmpatterns ofhuayno melodiesFigurhythmpatterns ofhuaynoaccompaniment Figure2.Basicrhythmpatterns ofhuaynoaccompaniment gure3.Variationsofhuaynoaccompanimentpatterns Figure3.Variationsofhuaynoaccompanimentpatternspurely musical extemporization. T he nationaldance of Venezuela,thejoropo, is anillustrationofmes- tizomusicperformance involving folkdance.T he substantialmelodicand rhythmicvariety in thejoropo allows forspontaneous creativity on thepart oftheperformers,particu- larly theharpist.A ccording toVene- zuelan ethnomusicologist L uis Fe- lipeRamon yRivera, fourspecificmusic forms-the corrido,thega- leron, thepasaje, andthegolpe- are associatedwith thejoropo. T hesong itselfisaccompaniedby adia- tonicharp(thirty to thirty-seven strings), acuatro (asmall, four- stringguitartunedto B,F#, D, and A , orA ,E,C, and G, withthe first two stringsin ascendingpitch and the other twoin descendingpitch),3L uisFelipeRam6n yRivera,Eljoropo, bailenacionalde Venezuela (Caracas: MinisteriodeEducacion,1953). ,^ M.M.J= 116 -)4- A >-__ - (iA lr r iP rFI _-if I -M-O) I'' V II! I __ IBe- sos hel - nonoes en - can - toniaun - que-sej(e)'n rTI r- Irm-3 r1Ir:N etc. W I JI I hiI lI I i -'' I A ,.& m-- N , N N N N N --- a .- II 1--tI F17t1"!! ----7wL Fetc. I ttI I tI I FI I I1f: r;ri--J- :")>rtlT Frda por an -to- jonotie -ne va-lor de un jonisu - pre cioal -a atn o- jo nisu - pre- cioal-can - zaatan - to. 1i. dJ iJ.L K 1mijj JIFigure4.Galeron.FromL uisFelipeRamon y Rivera'sEl Joropo, baile nacionalde Venezuela(Caracas: MinisteriodeEducacion, 1953). Usedwith permission. mej/jan '80119 VoiceMaracasMand. Cuat. ,.I"kI /f - A s A nA S-4 ' ___ 3 aa J a pairof maracas, andaguitarand amandolin. Ramon yRivera has characterized some corrido and galeron melo- dies as"amensural,independent," whichmeans free-meteredandin- dependent fromthe accom- paniment; and others,including somegolpemelodiesaccompanied by theharp,as "mensural,inde- pendent,"meaningstrictly metered butstill independent fromthe ac- companiment. Mensuralmelodieswith synchronous accompaniment occur withthegolpe, andmotivicrepetition is commoninallfourgenres. With harpaccompaniment the melodic line isfrequentlyper- formedinalternationwiththe voiceandthe instrument.T hegaleron isapparently theonlygenreassociat- edwith thejoropo thatcalls formandolinorguitar accompaniment, whichinthe hands ofa skilled playeradds an improvised counter- melodytothe vocalline thatcan create an exciting cross-rhythmiceffect (see Figure 4). A nalmosthemiola rhythmicstructure is heardin thepasajebe- tweenthe vocal part andthe harp. T he hemiolaresults fromthe alter- nationor simultaneous use of8and 3 4meterfiguresandis foundinnu- merous SouthA mericanfolk songtypes. L atinA mericandance musicoftheHispanicmestizotraditionisbestcharacterized by itsrhythmicflexibility anditspolyrhythms, whichresultfromdifferentaccentu- ations inthe variousperformingparts. Atypical illustrationofa poly- rhythmiceffectinthejoropo canbeseenin Figure5. A frican-derivedtraditionsT he most widespreadpracticesof improvisation inL atin A mericaand the Caribbean stemfromA frican-re- lated religiousmusics aspracticed intheA fro-Cuban,Haitian,Jamai- can,T rinidadian, andBraziliancults. T ypically, musicperformancein these traditionalrituals calls for a vocalsoloistwithchoral responseaccompaniedby drums ofvariouskinds andshakenor struckidio- phones.A lthough the solovoice oc- casionallyimprovisesinthe over- lappingcall-and-response sections, mostofthesongsare setinse- quences, andtheirreligiousfunc- tions donotallow much departurefromthe established styles. Religious drummingdisplaysthemost frequentimprovisationalprac- tice.I nA fro-CubanandA fro-Brazil- ian religions, the actual organiza- tionofthe musicperformanceistheresponsibility ofthe masterdrummer.I nthe mosttraditional (mostclosely relatedto A frica) cults, thepercussion includes threedrums ofdifferentsizes(known asatabaquesin Bahia,Brazil, andbata drumsamong the L ucumi groupsof Cuba) andacowbellknownasagogoinBraziland ogan or ek6n inCuba. A s a rule, the smallestand the middle-sizeddrums andthecowbells reiterateregular rhythmicpatterns. T helargestdrums,played by the masterdrummers,provideimprovisationsand rhythmicvaria- tions thatreveala sustainingcycleof pulsesinan essentially A frican organization. I nthismusic, the timespan isusually twelvepulsesin length, oftensounded by the small- er drums or sometimesmerely im- plied. T hedupleand triplemetricsubdivisions ofindividual patternscreate ahemiolaeffect.T he masterdrummer'simprovisations repre- senta varyingdegreeof density of rhythmicactivity dictated bythe rit- ual choreography. T he dancerspay attention primarily tothe masterdrummerwho,through his im- provisations, directs andcommandsthechoreography.Byrepeating theimprovisedrhythmic patternsat shorter time intervals(often twiceasshort), the master drummer de- termines thepaceofthe dance and stimulates the ritualbehavior ofthedancers.4 T he numerous secular folkdanc- es and songsofA fro-Caribbeanand A fro-SouthA mericancommunitiesalsorevealA fricanizedtransforma- tions ofI beriandances and songs.Some ofthe mostcommonCuban syncopations, illustratedin Figure 6, are thepointsof departurefor ase- ries of rhythmicvariations foundin folkand popularmusicthroughout the continent.T he first figure,calledtresilloin Cuba, is oftenno- tatedas a simple triplet(A ),butin actual performance, itsounds liketherhythmsnotatedinB or C.By using the sixteenthnote as the ba- sicpulse, theduplemeteractually becomes subdividedas 3-3-2. T he second figure, notatedas inDbut performed as in E, canbe var- ied bytying the firsttwonotes of 'I llustrations ofsuch patternsare foundin BrunoN etl's andGerard Behague's"A fro- A mericanFolkMusic inN orthandL atinA merica," inBrunoN ettl, FolkandT raditionalMusicof theWestern Continents,2ded. (Englewood CliffsN ewJersey:Prentice-Hall, I nc.,1973),pp. 218-224. Maracasah:< ; t Er.I. .nI rT i iI) I IIFigure5. Pasaje. FromL uisFelipeRam6n y Rivera'sE1 Joropo, bailenacionalde Venezuela(Caracas:MinisteriodeEducacion,1953).Usedwuith permission. 120 mej/an '80 VoiceHarp \ I1II rII 1 IIII- fi Ithat rhythmicunit (F), as istypical inthe basicrhythm ofthe A fro-Cu- bandance knownas conga. T hethird figure (G) is one ofthe most characteristicrhythmsofL atin A mericanfolkand popularmusic of A fro-A mericanextraction.T hispat- tern, knownascinquillo in Cuba, results fromacontractionofthefig- ureH, whichisquiteA frican initssymmetry. Sometimes it appearsasI inactual performanceand gener- ates the basicrhythmic organization ofthe Cuban danzon(J).T he mod- els K andL show thetypicalfiguresin dupleand triplemeters.T his ac- companimentpattern istypically playedby the claves(two hardwood sticks struck against each other), andunderlies almostallA fro-Carib- beandance.Since theearly nineteenthcen- tury, the Cubancontradanzahasemphasized theparticularrhythmicfigureofa dotted eighth andsix- teenthfollowed by two eighth notes,whichbecame knownas thehabaneraandwas foundintheSpanish tangoandaluz.T he haba- nera,togetherwiththeconspicuoussyncopation ofa sixteenth-eighth- sixteenth, constitutes therhythmicbase ofmostL atinA mericandancemusic. I ngeniousvariations onsuch simplemodels have been impro- visedinnumerousdances, includ- ing the Cuban guaracha, son, mod- ern guajira,mambo, andchacha- chi; the DominicanandHai- tian merengue; the PuertoRican danza; certain stylesofT rinidadian and Jamaican calypso; the Pan- amanian-Colombiancumbia; theBraziliantango,maxixe, andsam- ba; andtheA rgentine milonga and tango. T he mostcommonvariantsare shownin Figure7.Such synco- patedpatternsarealways per- formedin conjunction withtheregular pulseofsixteenthnotes, which helpstoestablishacontrast andthus reinforce thesyncopated effects.5 Rumba stylesT he A fro-Cubandance knownasrumba providesanillustrationof improvisedmultiple syncopation and multilayeredrhythmic activity. T he termrumbahas different 'For illustrations ofsimilarsyncopated effectsfoundinBrazilian popular music, particularly bossa nova music,see Gerard Behague's"Bossaand Bossas:Recent ChangesinBrazilianUrban PopularMusic," in Ethnomusicology17,no.2 (May1973): 220-222. - II I IItG J$J I I~ I..I l!~ - cl~ i. ! . 3. -- - MIDanzon i KFigure 6.Cuban dance rhythms2J:-mJ.i-f:Jf^ 2J: ;J J';J_:'"E;'J-- r .frr rIFigure7.Variantsof habanera rhythmsmej/jan '80121 C A RIa n-0rr..roS.'S 0= r'0 meaningsinCubanfolkand popu- lar music. A lthough its recentuse isto designatea specificmusicgenre, the term originally meantamannerofvivacious anderoticdancing. I n folk music,the rumba has threetypes:theyambt,columbia, and guaguanc--allcoupledances that imitate a pursuit. T heguaguanco isby far the most popular. I ts instru- mentationincludes two conga-typedrums, thelargerknownas tumba- doraandthe smaller asquinto, and palitos (stickson woodblocks) orclaves.T he ensemble iscompleted withone or twomale solo singersanda mixedchorus. T ypically thesolo part issung inthe middle of the choral rangeandisrhythmically and melodically free incontrastto the fixedchoral parts. T his freedom constitutes the soloists' opportunityforimprovisation. Whentwovocal- istsperform,heterophony oftenre- sults,although duets in parallel thirds are also common, butthe im- provisatorypossibilitiesaresharply reduced.T hechorus, which singssimpleharmonies andoctave dou- blings,frames the soloist vertically byextendinghigherandlower in pitch thanthe soloistandhorizon- tallybyrepeating the last phraseof the solo line orcomplementing it. T hepercussion ensemble followsthis same functionandstructure. T hequinto player parallelsthe vo- calsoloistinthe sense thathis al- most fullyimprovisedpart also oc- cupiesthe middlerangeofthepercussiongroup. T he outerper- cussionvoices areprovidedby thetumbadorainthe lowrangeand thepalitosor claves inthehigh range.T hese instrumentsperform slightlyvariedostinato patterns. T hevocaland percussion soloists fluc- tuate intheirimprovisatory free- dom.T heremainingperforming parts providereferentialbases forthe tensionandrelease ofthesoloists' improvisations. T his ef- fective contrastis one ofthe out- standingqualitiesofthe rumba. T heguaguanc6almost alwaysbeginswiththelalaleo, aseries of extendedrecitative-likephrasessung to nonsensesyllables by thesoloistand accompaniedby thepercussion.T he lalaleooftenendsonanascendingmajortriadonthesyllables "o-ye-lo" andisgenerally rhythmically independent fromthepercussionaccompaniment. T hecall-and-response practiceis built I Ir- 4:3 Figure8.Basicrhythmpatternofguaguanco melodiesHighpitch L owpitch r'' ryl:r' rr' ' f rOitter arifu rri - r rsti r a Figure 9.Ostinatopattern and variations ofguaguancoaccompaniment i:r r r, rrr r1 L 3 J L 3 J 33--3 1-'..I ,?. . ..1 L --3 ' ' 3 L -- 3 Figure10.Ostinato patternsof columbia Fr r'r1i r r 8 i Figure11.Ostinato for palitoshr -r rV r rrFigur 12.Variantsofpalitosostinato Figure 12.Variants ofpalitosostinato 122 me/jan'80 r r12 - IIronfour-oreight-measure patternsequallydividedbetweenthe soloist andthe chorus inthe first case; in the second case, the chorussingsthree measures andthe soloist singsfive.Since the choralsectionsgenerally harmonize the melodicmaterialofthesoloist, newimpro- vised phrasesinvented by thesoloistarepossiblewithinthe five- measurelapse. Asystematic arrangement ofoff- beats occurs inboththe vocaland quintoparts.A common pattern isshownin Figure8. Figure9showsthe basic ostinato pattern andcom- mon improvised variations ofthetumbadoraintheguaguanc6 and theyambz. T he tresillo figureisemphasized in everyother mea- sure.Asyncopated basis for thepercussion ensemble is thus estab- lished.T he two pitches usually ob- tainedonthe tumbadoraareap- proximatelymajorseconds orminorthirds;perfect fourths areused onlyrarely. I nsomeperform- ances ofthe columbia slightly dif- ferentostinato patternsoccur(seeFigure 10).T hepalitosor clavesplay a fundamentalostinato(shown in Figure 11), withthe tresillo rhythmsynchronized withthe tum- badora pattern.I nactual perform- ance,however, one finds numerousimprovisedvariants, some ofwhich aregiven in Figure12. T hequintopart ismusically themost excitingaspect ofthe rumba dances because itis almostcom- pletelyimprovised. Several pitchesarepossibleonthequinto, butin general contrastis establishedbe- slaptone^ ;j __^ low tone/ I r 3 I 1A 3 Figure16.A lternatequintorumbapattern 1slap tonelowtoneA *P J tweenalow tone anda sequenceof high,slap tones obtained byslap- ping the drumheadwitha loud, sharp attack. Differenttones areproducedthroughmuffling thehead,applyingpressureto it, or ex- erting differentlevels offorce in the attack.A fewgeneralizationsabout improvisation onthequinto canbe made basedontranscribed individual performances. Relianceonoff-beatsand sporadic, sudden interjectionsisparamount. A com- monlyrecurringpattern is shown in Figure 13, withthetypical end- ing occurring onthe off-beatsofthesecondbeatofthe thirdmeasure. I n Figure14another usual pattern is shownthatconsists ofthe under- lyingduplesubdivisionsarranged into groupsof three, initiatedonan off-beat. Figure15 givesanother fre- quentending ofthepattern. Figure16illustrates amore elaboraterhythmicvariantinwhichboththelow tone andtheslap tone inter- vene todivide thequarternotes in- to patternsofthree.I nthispattern, constantoff-beats arearranged in groupsas the resultoftheperform- ance oftheslap strokeevery third note.Morecompleximprovised rhythms may involve a quick shift fromthequarter-notetotheeighth- notegrouping ofthrees andthen returntothequarter-note pulse, asnotatedin Figure17. T he firstshiftin Figure17takesplaceatmeasure 4andthenreturnsatmeasure 6. I rregulargroupingsiY Tr r ,I rrr[Y rI t =slap toneFigure13.Basicrhythmpatternofquintorumba accompaniment 31-I-3 r-+ 1 - 31-3 - r rFigure14.A lternatequinto rumba pattern r r rFigure15.A lternatequinto rumba pattern - 3 I3-31 - 3Iy xf Jf 8trfr4i i ^*p 8 rr^;'1r ..w.... I IFigure 17.A lternatequintorumbapattern mej/jan '80123 rIr rrII57 I 'D i' 9 C?il;rMarch-likerhythm:ifairly fast tempo Surdo Caixa Pandeiro A JnnlT Jooirr 0nJ j=A 9p9l or al9.9021 ^Bi^?s^ff, ," , ,r7\nf\ high toneorCuT ca low toneI[ ~ --" T amborim Reco-reco or * 1I $ 33 orf l \n ?? in^r^ijn ?> ,Jil?in Frigideira hightone~' F A gogO4 low toneaISamba rhythm: : fast tempo Surdo JJI J.J orCaixa or . azl. oraJff > ,>^,,, PandeiroCuica high tone\ m a ro or\n . I j low tone?f J a Wa? I I IT amborim n Reco-recooffive andsix quarternotespermeasure(thelatterusuallyper- formedastriplets), occurfrequently andare consideredto beplayablebyonly the mostablequinto im- provisers.A ctually, in guaguanc6 performancesthequintoplayercommonly takes theplaceofthesolo singerandbecomes involved in lengthy and complex solos. For classroom purposes, teachersmightexplorethe moretangibleandachievable traditions ofthe Bra- ziliancarnival percussion ensemble.T he essentialinstruments insuch 124 mej/jan '80 orJnj irJ I nmm iiiii J.r JJ1.JJ >* , ,_ lnn J17! nmrn iJT J'llI JJ JJJ.^7J anensemble are the surdo (large, bass,double-headeddrum played witha mallet), the caixa (snaredrum), thepandeiro(atambour- ine), the cu'ca(a frictiondrum witha wailing soundthatis obtained byrubbing awetclothontherigid rodattachedtothe drum- head), the tamborim (a smallhand drum played withawooden stick), the reco-reco(aguiro-typeof scraper), thefrigideira(smallfrying panplayed withametal stick), and theagogo(cowbell). T he music as- sociatedwithBraziliancarnivalsconsists ofmarches and sambas, anensemble are the surdo (large, bass,double-headeddrum played witha mallet), the caixa (snaredrum), thepandeiro(atambour- ine), the cu'ca(a frictiondrum witha wailing soundthatis obtained byrubbing awetclothontherigid rodattachedtothe drum- head), the tamborim (a smallhand drum played withawooden stick), the reco-reco(aguiro-typeof scraper), thefrigideira(smallfrying panplayed withametal stick), and theagogo(cowbell). T he music as- sociatedwithBraziliancarnivalsconsists ofmarches and sambas, whichareplayed in4meter.T hebasicpatternsandsome variationsperformedby eachinstrumentaregiven in Figure18.Students canim- provise syncopated alterations of thesepatterns, butthe downbeatal- waysshouldbe stressed. Abibliographical noteStudiesfocusingspecifically on the use and practiceof improvisa- tioninL atinA mericanmusic havenever been published. A few de- scriptionsareavailable,however, in general music histories orgeneral studies offolkand popularmusicwhichareplayed in4meter.T hebasicpatternsandsome variationsperformedby eachinstrumentaregiven in Figure18.Students canim- provise syncopated alterations of thesepatterns, butthe downbeatal- waysshouldbe stressed. Abibliographical noteStudiesfocusingspecifically on the use and practiceof improvisa- tioninL atinA mericanmusic havenever been published. A few de- scriptionsareavailable,however, in general music histories orgeneral studies offolkand popularmusicinvarious countries. Bibliographical informationonthese is available in GilbertChase'sA Guide tothe Mu- sicof L atin A merica, 2ded. (Wash- ington, D.C.: PanA merican Union,1962). For itemspublished since1960, consultthe music andfolk- lore sections ofthe Handbook of L atinA mericanStudies seriespub- lished by theUniversity Presses of Florida. T he most comprehensivedescription ofL atin A mericanin- struments, folk songs, anddanceswillbe available intheforthcoming N ew Grove'sDictionaryof MusicandMusicians.A i invarious countries. Bibliographical informationonthese is available in GilbertChase'sA Guide tothe Mu- sicof L atin A merica, 2ded. (Wash- ington, D.C.: PanA merican Union,1962). For itemspublished since1960, consultthe music andfolk- lore sections ofthe Handbook of L atinA mericanStudies seriespub- lished by theUniversity Presses of Florida. T he most comprehensivedescription ofL atin A mericanin- struments, folk songs, anddanceswillbe available intheforthcoming N ew Grove'sDictionaryof MusicandMusicians.A i DavidL ocke DavidL ockeA nthropologists traditionally havedistinguished betweenseveral broadculture areas inA frica.Mel- ville Herskovits delineated eight cat- egories: N orth Coast, Sudan Desert, East Horn, East A frica, CentralA f- rica, West A frica,theBushmen, and thePygmies.1T he traditionalmusicofeachofthesecategorieshas dis- tinctive characteristics. A long the N orth Coast, a strong I slamic influence canbeperceived 'MelvilleJ.Herskovits, "APreliminary Considerationofthe CultureA reas ofA frica," A merican A nthropologist 26(1924):50-63. T heauthor is alecturer in ethnomusicologyand A frican music at T ufts University in Medford,Massachusetts. A nthropologists traditionally havedistinguished betweenseveral broadculture areas inA frica.Mel- ville Herskovits delineated eight cat- egories: N orth Coast, Sudan Desert, East Horn, East A frica, CentralA f- rica, West A frica,theBushmen, and thePygmies.1T he traditionalmusicofeachofthesecategorieshas dis- tinctive characteristics. A long the N orth Coast, a strong I slamic influence canbeperceived 'MelvilleJ.Herskovits, "APreliminary Considerationofthe CultureA reas ofA frica," A merican A nthropologist 26(1924):50-63. T heauthor is alecturer in ethnomusicologyand A frican music at T ufts University in Medford,Massachusetts. invocal style;instrumentation; me- lodic,rhythmic, andformalstruc- tures; andtheplaceofmusic inso- ciety. Because the influence of I slamic/A rabicmusic is so per- vasive, N orthA fricanmusic is usual- ly considered separately fromblack A frican music.T his article's dis- cussionthus is limitedtosub-Saha- ranmusics. I nthe Sudan Desert, afusionhasevolvedbetweenthe I slamicstylesofthe N orthCoastandthe blackA f- rican stylesofCentralandWestA f- rican regions. Onthe East Horn, music showsbothmarkedI slamic influence and unique indigenous styles, suchasthe ancientmusic oftheEthiopian CopticChurch. East A frica is characterized by invocal style;instrumentation; me- lodic,rhythmic, andformalstruc- tures; andtheplaceofmusic inso- ciety. Because the influence of I slamic/A rabicmusic is so per- vasive, N orthA fricanmusic is usual- ly considered separately fromblack A frican music.T his article's dis- cussionthus is limitedtosub-Saha- ranmusics. I nthe Sudan Desert, afusionhasevolvedbetweenthe I slamicstylesofthe N orthCoastandthe blackA f- rican stylesofCentralandWestA f- rican regions. Onthe East Horn, music showsbothmarkedI slamic influence and unique indigenous styles, suchasthe ancientmusic oftheEthiopian CopticChurch. East A frica is characterized by widespread use ofmelodic in- struments and well-developed in- strumentalmusics suchas theShonambiraand Chopi marimba traditions. CentralA frica has beeninflu- enced by bothA rabic andA frican music, butis otherwise similar to WestA frica inits musicstyles,al- though Central A fricanmusic tendstoberhythmically less intense.WestA frica'sarchetypal music in- cludespercussion ensembles with antiphonal choral singing.T he Bushmenand Pygmies prac- ticecontrapuntal yodeling ina hocket stylebutuserelatively fewmusicalinstruments. Despitesuch diversity, certain general statements canbe madeaboutthe musics ofsub-SaharanA f- widespread use ofmelodic in- struments and well-developed in- strumentalmusics suchas theShonambiraand Chopi marimba traditions. CentralA frica has beeninflu- enced by bothA rabic andA frican music, butis otherwise similar to WestA frica inits musicstyles,al- though Central A fricanmusic tendstoberhythmically less intense.WestA frica'sarchetypal music in- cludespercussion ensembles with antiphonal choral singing.T he Bushmenand Pygmies prac- ticecontrapuntal yodeling ina hocket stylebutuserelatively fewmusicalinstruments. Despitesuch diversity, certain general statements canbe madeaboutthe musics ofsub-SaharanA f- mej/jan '80125 mej/jan '80125