Chapter 9:

Physical and Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood

In This Chapter

Physical ChangesGrowth and Motor Development From 6 to 12

General growth

Large muscle coordination

Fine motor control

Eye-hand coordination improvement

How did you grow during middle childhood?

Physical ChangesGrowth and Motor Development From 6 to 12

Gender Differences

Girls: Faster in overall growth rate Slightly more fat and less muscle Better coordination

Boys: Boys faster and stronger

The Brain and Nervous System

Major Middle Childhood Growth Spurts

From 6 to 8 years: Increases in the sensory and motor cortex

From 10 to 12 years: Frontal lobes and cerebral cortex add synapses

The Brain and Nervous System

Cognitive ChangesThe Brain and Nervous System

Spatial perception lateralization Improves learning math concepts and

problem-solving

Spatial cognition Ability to infer rules from and make

predictions about movements of objects in space

Cognitive ChangesHealth and Wellness

Rate and Type of Injury Changes with Age

Head injuries Motor vehicles and bicycles

Traumatic brain injuries (TBI) Reduced by helmet usage

Cognitive ChangesHealth and Wellness

Asthma: Chronic disease that causes airways to become sore and swollen

Causes Allergens, irritants, weather, exercise,

infections

Consequences Most frequent cause of school absence

Health and WellnessObesity

Obesity: Excess body fat that has adverse effect on health

Most serious long-term health risk of middle childhood

Affecting nearly 1 in 5 children Associated with adult obesity

Let’s look at the prevalence of overweight children over time.

Figure 9.1 Prevalence of Overweight among U.S. 6 – 11 Year Olds

Figure to come

Cognitive ChangesLanguage

During the school-aged years, children: Demonstrate improved grammar skills and

pronunciation Engage in conversation with many ages Increase in vocabulary, especially derived

words

Figure 9.2 Vocabulary Growth in Middle Childhood

Cognitive ChangesPiaget’s Concrete Operational Stage

Concrete Operational Stage: Thinking logically about concrete concepts but have difficulty understanding abstract or hypothetical concepts

School-aged children: Understand rules that govern physical reality Distinguish between appearance and reality Utilize a set of powerful schemas

Cognitive ChangesPiaget’s Concrete Operational Stage

Do you know what powerful schema school-aged children use?

Figure 9.3 An Example of Concrete Operational Thinking

Piaget’s Concrete Operational StageDirect Tests of Piaget’s View

Horizontal decalage: Applying new thinking to all kinds of problems

Conservation: Ability to logically determine certain quantity remains same despite adjustment of container, shape, or apparent size

Let’s see how children perform on tests of conservation.

Figure 9.4 Within-Stage Development in Concrete Operations

Direct Tests of Piaget’s ViewSiegler

Concrete Operations as Rules for Problem Solving

Siegler Cognitive development consists of

acquiring a set of basic rules applied to broader ranges of problems.

Movement from one rule to next requires experience.

This approach is a cross between Piaget’s and information processing theories.

Figure 9.5 Piaget’s Balance Task

Advances in Information Processing SkillsProcessing Efficiency

Processing efficiency: Ability to make efficient use of short-term memory capacity

Major component of cognitive growth

Increases speed of cognitive processing

Change validated with cross-cultural research

Advances in Information Processing SkillsAutomaticity

Automaticity: Ability to recall information from long term memory without using short term memory capacity

Frees up short-term memory space for more complex processing

Achieved primarily through practice

Advances in Information Processing SkillsExecutive and Strategic Processes

Executive processes: Information processing skills allowing a person to devise and carry out alternative strategies for remembering and problem solving

Metacognition: “thinking about thinking”

Memory strategies

Advances in Information Processing SkillsExpertise

Expertise: Amount of information possessed improves information processing

Categorize information in complex and hierarchical ways

Stirs capacity for creativity Chi research

SchoolingOverview

Every society seeks ways of teaching children skills needed in adulthood.

In U.S., formal education is one of most important influence on cognitive development in middle childhood.

Schooling

Literacy: Ability to read and write Phonological awareness Balanced approach utilizes systematic

and explicit phonics instruction Sound-symbol connections and explicit

language mechanics instruction Curriculum flexibility

Second-Language Learners

Limited English Proficient (LEP): Limited ability to read, write, speak, or understand English

English Language Learners (ELL): Limited English proficiency prevents full participation in regular education classes

By 2008, one-half of all U.S. classrooms had one or more ELL or LEP students

Second-Language Learners

Programs and services provided Bilingual education ESL Home-school programs

No single approach is most successful Any structured program better than

submersion Transition to English-only program is

necessary

Achievement and Intelligence Tests

Standardized tests: Individual performance determined by comparing score to average score obtained from large sample of similar individuals

Kinds of tests Achievement tests Paper and pencil intelligence tests

Yes or No?

IQ tests should be used as the primary or only criteria for placing children in educational programs.

SchoolingAchievement and Intelligence Tests

Which theory describes intelligence better – multiple intelligences or the triarchic theory? Why?

Obesity is becoming a major problem in the U.S. What can a parent do to help an obese child or to help a child avoid becoming obese?

Questions To PonderQuestions To PonderQuestions To PonderQuestions To Ponder

SchoolingGroup Differences in Achievement

Sex differences No consistent differences between boys

and girls on total IQ or achievement test scores

Differences shaped by interaction between biology and environmental factors

SchoolingGroup Differences in Achievement

Ethnic differences Problems associated with economic status;

access to prenatal care; family stability

Style differences Analytic Relational

SchoolingCross Cultural Differences in Achievement

U.S. children significantly behind industrialized nation peers in math and science

North American parents emphasize innate ability; Asians emphasize hard work

Teaching methods vary Studies may be measuring surface rather

than subtle variations

Children with Special NeedsOverview

13% of all U.S. children receive some kind of special education

See Table 9.4 for a list of disabilities for which U.S. children receive special education services

One of the growing categories of disabilities include learning disabilities

Children with Special NeedsLearning Disabilities

Learning disabilities: Disorder in which child has difficulty in mastering specific academic skill, even though she or he possesses normal intelligence and no physical or sensory handicap.

Children with Special NeedsAttention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

ADHD: Neurobiological disorder characterized by developmentally inappropriate impulsivity, inattention, and, in some cases, hyperactivity

Causes Cultural factors Treatment