basics focuson - ncsallfound for white ex-offenders. read about this study and consider its...

1Writing at the House

Bob Flynn

9Re-Entry and

Corrections EducationKathy Goebel

11What Are the Economic Effects

of Earning a GED in Prison?

13Culturally Relevant Education

15The Critical Poetry Project

Pauline Geraci

21The Pendulum Swings

Dominique T. Chlup

25The Community

High School of VermontTom Woods

30Teaching on the Inside...

Dominique T. Chlup

31Understanding the

Complexities of Offenders’Special Learning Needs

Laura Weisel, Alan Toops, & Robin Schwarz

35Two Ways to Assess

Literacy Learners in PrisonBill Muth

40An Active Advisory Board

Meets Via Interactive TelevisionMarianna Ruprecht

43Blackboard

CorrectionsEducation

WORLD EDUCATION NCSALLVolume 7, Issue D • August 2005

William sat at the head of the large, gray rectangular tableand passed out typed copies of his autobiographical piece,My Own Prison, to his eight classmates and their teacher.

“What do you want us to look for?” Manuel asked.

“Descriptive language is the main thing. I mean, can you really seewhat I’m writing about? Let me know about that,” William repliedas he quickly shuffled his copy in his hands and

Focus onBasicsI N T H I S I S S U E :

CONNECTING RESEARCH & PRACTICE

continued on page 3

Writing at the HouseBunker Hill Community College’s OffenderRe-Entry Program at the Suffolk County House of Correction by Bob Flynn

2 AUGUST 2005 • NCSALL

Focus onBasics

F ocus on Basics is the quarterlypublication of the NationalCenter for the Study of Adult

Learning and Literacy. It presents bestpractices, current research on adultlearning and literacy, and how researchis used by adult basic education teach-ers, counselors, program administrators,and policymakers. Focus on Basics isdedicated to connecting research withpractice, to connecting teachers withresearch and researchers with the realityof the classroom, and by doing so,making adult basic education researchmore relevant to the field.

All subscription and editorial correspondence should be sent to:

Focus On BasicsWorld Education44 Farnsworth StreetBoston, MA 02210–1211e-mail address: [email protected]

Focus on Basics is copyrighted, but weurge readers to photocopy and circulatethe publication widely. When reprintingarticles, please credit Focus on Basicsand the National Center for the Studyof Adult Learning and Literacy.

Editor: Barbara GarnerLayout: Mary T. White Illustrator: Mary T. WhiteProofreader: Celia Hartmann

Focus on Basics is published by theNational Center for the Study of AdultLearning and Literacy (NCSALL).NCSALL is funded by the EducationalResearch and Development Centers Pro-gram, Award Number R309B960002, asadministered by the Institute of EducationSciences (formerly Office of EducationalResearch and Improvement), U.S.Department of Education.

The contents of Focus on Basics do notnecessarily represent the positions orpolicies of NCSALL or World Education;the Institute of Education Sciences; orthe U.S. Department of Education, andyou should not assume endorsement bythe Federal Government.

Welcome!What role does education play in efforts to equip inmates to transition successfully

out of incarceration and back into the community? That’s the unspoken question at thecore of each of the articles in this issue of Focus on Basics.

Education is the pivotal element in the Offender Re-Entry Program that serves theSuffolk County (Massachusetts) House of Corrections, writes Bob Flynn in the coverarticle. The writing workshop instills confidence as it provides inmates with concepts,skills, and strategies. And in working on autobiographies, inmates form relationships withteachers that last as the teachers support them in their transition back to the community.

Kathy Goebel, based in Washington state, describes why an emphasis on re-entry isso important and the role that education plays in those efforts (page 9). NCSALLresearcher John Tyler finds that the GED has a positive economic impact on minority ex-offenders during the first two years after release from incarceration. The first two years arecrucial, so this is good news. However, these effects diminish over time and are notfound for white ex-offenders. Read about this study and consider its implications, page 11.

In Hawaii, Vanessa Helsham uses Hawaiian cultural references and literature in herclasses in the Learning Center in the Halawa Correctional Facility. She also teachestraditional hula dancing and, in her class, members of rival gangs work together (page13). If you’re doing it wrong, in hula, you have to change. It’s like life, she explains.Pauline Geraci writes about using a different art form — poetry — in the MinnesotaCorrectional Facility Stillwater (page 15).

On page 21, Dominique Chlup, Texas, provides a chronology of corrections educationfrom 1789 and an in-depth discussion of this area over the past 65 years. Education’s rolein corrections ebbs and flows as society’s views of incarceration shift from punishment-oriented to rehabilitative.

Everyone, even the incarcerated, has a right to an education in Vermont, explainsTom Woods, a teacher in the Community High School of Vermont. Read about thisschool and how it serves a transitory population with a huge range of educationalbackgrounds and needs (page 25). While certain aspects of being a teacher transcendplace, some do not. For those Focus on Basics readers who are not corrections educators,Dominique Chlup describes what it’s like to teach in a correctional facility. Her articlestarts on page 30.

Recognizing that offenders have a high incidence of disabilities, low academic skills,and other related challenges, Missouri and Ohio are using comprehensive screeningsystems and putting into place a web of follow-up services, including education. LauraWeisel, Alan Toops, and Robin Schwarz report on these efforts (page 31). Bill Muthshares the results of his research on assessing offenders’ literacy skills, beliefs, andpractices (page 35) and offers a model of literacy assessment that can more meaningfullyinform placement and instruction. Just as services are learning to work together tomaximize their effectiveness, so are advisory boards. Marianna Ruprecht, Wisconsin,shares how her board used technology to do so (page 40).

Welcome to those corrections educators who are new to Focus on Basics: We hopethis issue serves you well. We also encourage you to seek out earlier issues of thepublication for information and ideas relevant to your experience as an educator.

Sincerely,

Barbara GarnerEditor

Focus onBasics

NCSALL • AUGUST 2005 3

Writing at the Housecontinued from page 1

began reading My Own Prison.His audience listened intentlyas he recounted his search fora place to live when he washomeless, with several stu-dents underlining sentencesand scrawling notes on theircopies. William finishedreading and looked fromhis piece to the class.

“That’s great, man,”Damon said. “I couldreally see what’s hap-penin’. Like when youdescribe the place yourfriend showed you.” Damonflipped the pages of hiscopy to find the exact part.He read it aloud. “‘It wasa drab looking buildingmade of yellow brick andcovered with dirt andgrime. We walked up the stairs of this morbidlooking building and westepped inside. The hall-ways were dark and dank.The smell of urine bouncing of the walls made it hard tobreathe.’ I could see that,man. I could smell that.”

William smiled.

This scene occurred in theWriting Workshop at Bunker HillCommunity College’s Offender Re-Entry Program (ORP). ORP is acollaboration of four nonprofit socialservice agencies in Boston, MA:Bunker Hill Community College, theSuffolk County Sheriff ’s Department,Community Resources for Justice, andthe Work Place. Originally funded in 2000 as a federal Department ofEducation re-entry grant (and nowfunded entirely by the Suffolk County

Sheriff ’s Department), ORP providesoffenders at the Suffolk County Houseof Corrections with comprehensiveservices that prepare them for a success-ful and sustained transition to society.

One of the principal tenets ofORP is that education is an essentialelement in reducing recidivism. A studyconducted by the Texas Departmentof Criminal Justice in 1990-1991showed that the recidivism rate foroffenders without a college degree was60 percent compared to 13.7 percent

for those with an associate’s degree,5.6 percent for those with a bachelor’sdegree, and 0 percent for those amaster’s degree. In similar studiesconducted in Indiana, Maryland,Massachusetts, and New York, offendersenrolled in higher education programshad average rearrest rates between 1 and 15 percent, compared to thenational average of 60 percent (OpenSociety Institute, Criminal JusticeInitiative, p. 5).

Two StagesORP operates in two stages.

Stage One is an intensive eight-weekprogram at the Suffolk County Houseof Correction comprised of the

Writing Workshop, a computercourse, a job skills course, and a lifeskills course. Although each coursedemands complete commitment and effort from each offender, theeducational component — theWriting Workshop — is the mostrigorous and has become thefoundation of ORP. In addition,offenders create a portfolio of theirprincipal work for each course and workshop, which they present to a panel of staff, peers, and

representatives from thecollaborating agencies. Offendersalso work individually with acase manager to create a detailedplan in preparation for theirreturn to their communities.

Stage Two of ORP involvesa systematic approach to con-necting with the now ex-offenderswhile they are in the community.Upon release, ex-offenders arecontacted by ORP staff (eitherby phone or in person) once aweek for the first month andonce a month for the followingfive months. The goal is toreinforce ex-offenders’ dischargeplans and to offer any necessaryassistance (including employ-ment assistance, housingassistance, academic counseling,and counseling referrals). Inaddition, ex-offenders are

encouraged to contact ORP staff atany time if they need assistance.Although ex-offenders are under nomandate to remain connected to staff,90 percent of offenders do remain incontact with at least one ORP staffmember after they re-enter thecommunity.

Writing WorkshopPhilosophy andFormat

The Writing Workshop isinfluenced by the work of NancyAtwell (1998), Anne Lamott (1994),Donald Murray, Donald Graves,Ralph Fletcher, and Natalie Goldberg


Focus onBasics(1995) and operates from the philos-ophy that writing instruction is aboutthe process of writing rather than theproduct of writing. Throughout theWorkshop, students work towardcompleting an autobiographical piecethat involves a clear writing processand incorporates specific writingtechniques and conventions. Studentsdraft their autobiographical piecethroughout the session while workingon separate mini-assignments,including dialogue and completesentences (between the auto-biographical piece and the mini-assignments, offenders have betweenone and one-and-a-half hours ofnightly homework). “They arelearning to unlearn a lot of what theybelieve writing means — that theirstory is ok to write about,” says AmyCarpineto, one of the two WritingWorkshop teachers.

Students read Jimmy SantiagoBaca’s memoir A Place to Stand(2001), which is about Baca’sstruggles both in and out of prison.Baca’s autobiography provides stu-dents an opportunity to read and

discuss the themes of an exceptionaland relevant piece of literature, inaddition to providing a context inwhich to study the conventions ofwriting (e.g., paragraphing andpunctuation) and the elements of amemoir (e.g., character developmentand plot development). Students readtwo to three chapters each week.Mary Beth Cahill, the second

Writing Workshop teacher, says thatBaca’s memoir is important foroffenders because “the theme of thebook is language — that gainingcontrol of language allowed him toovercome his environment andchange his life.”

In the WritingWorkshop component of their ORP portfolio,students include the finaldraft of their autobio-graphical piece as well asan earlier draft of theirchoice. During theirPortfolio Presentation,students discuss specificrevisions they made in theearlier draft and how theserevisions were incorporatedin their final draft. “Theportfolio is so importantbecause it is somethingconcrete,” Carpineto says.“This is a time for them toshine and show they didn’t sleep theirsentence away. It says to an employeror a school, ‘Yeah I was in jail butlook what I did.’ Anybody can say

they did something, butthese guys can show it.”

The box on page 5shows an example of oneoffender’s first and finaldrafts. The selected piececaptures a moment whenMichael, staring out hiscell window, looks uponthe Boston UniversityMedical Center. Michael’spiece is impressive not only because the final draft reflects significantrevisions from the firstdraft, including improved

descriptive language and the additionof internal dialogue, but also becauseit includes important reflections onhis previous life and the consequencesof his crime. The ability to reflect —especially in writing, because of theclarity that is expected — is criticalfor offenders if they are to make a successful transition to thecommunity.

Impact The impact of the Writing

Workshop, both during the eight-week class and when offenders returnto the community, has made it thepivotal element of ORP. During

the eight-week class, the concepts,strategies, and skills offenders acquireare integrated into every other course.In the job skills class, students employtheir knowledge of active voice,descriptive language, and basicgrammatical rules when writing theirresumes and cover letters. KamilahDrummond, the job skills instructorfrom 2001 through 2004, states thatthe Writing Workshop “allowed me to use class time more efficiently onjob skills areas rather than having tospend time on writing areas.” In thecomputer course, a component of thecurriculum involves learning MicrosoftWord’s formatting and style functions.Since the majority of offenders are notcomputer literate and need to practicetheir computer skills frequently, theWriting Workshop assignments pro-vide a relevant and important contextin which offenders can apply theirMicrosoft Word skills. Lastly, as partof the life skills class, offenders recordminutes of each session. The ability to write clearly, accurately, andsuccinctly is essential to this task.

The impact of the WritingWorkshop transcends the classroom: it

“The Writing Workshop is based on having

students makethemselves vulnerableand telling the truth.

This allows the teachersto get to know students

at an acceleratedspeed.”

“. . . they’re not justremaining connected

with a program, they’reremaining connected with people who careabout them and are

committed to helping them succeed.”

First DraftEvery three to five seconds, another vehicle found its

temporary residence as the lot filled up to capacity as fast

as Fenway Park on Opening Day filled itself with Red Sox fans

from all over. However, in this picture, the fans were the many

doctors, medical residents, students, interns, and others who

were not coming to see a baseball game but were all arriving no

doubt with a common purpose in mind. They were coming to be

productive members of Boston University Medical Center’s

community. They’re coming because, somewhere in each of their

individual lives, they had learned that they should work hard to

earn a living. They were coming because, unlike a Red Sox game,

life itself was no game at all. They knew that productivity, consis-

tency, and labor were the keys to survival and true prosperity.

Final DraftI’d notice how, every three to five seconds, another vehicle

found its temporary residence for the day. The parking lot filled tocapacity as quickly as Fenway Park had filled itself with Red Soxfans on Opening Day. However, in this picture, I thought to myself,the fans were the many doctors, nurses, medical residents, students,interns, and others who were not coming to see a baseball game,but were all arriving, no doubt, with a common purpose in mind.

I knew this on account of my personal interactions with manyof the people I was observing. I knew that they were coming to be members of Boston University Medical Center’s flourishingcommunity. How? Because it was the same community that I wasonce a part of, not too long ago. Seeing this happening had aprofound effect on my inner conscious. I wondered whether thejudge knew, when he sentenced me, that I would be confronted withsuch “smack in the face”.In this way, I thought to myself, the system seemedheartless and cold, yet it was I who had done myself theinjustice and placed myself in this position. I committed thecrime of Breaking and Entering and had, therefore, renderedmyself powerless to these circumstances. I had no choice but towatch life go on without me.I thought to myself, These people are showing up because,somewhere in each of their individual lives, they had learnedthat they should work hard to earn a living. They were comingbecause, unlike a Red Sox game, life itself is no game at all.These people knew that productivity, consistency, and laborwere all key to survival and true prosperity in the capitalisticsociety we are living in today. I, on the other hand, had losttouch with this reality and became somewhat of an outcast.

Michael’s Draft

Focus onBasics


is evident when the offenders returnto the community. The most obviouseffect is the confidence it instills. Manyoffenders view obtaining a job andcompleting a college course in the sameway they initially viewed reading anovel or writing a polished paper —as an impossibility. “A lot of our guyshave a history of not completingthings. Their writing is somethingtangible they have completed,” saysCarpineto. When students completethe intensive Writing Workshopcurriculum, they realize that they arecapable of success in areas where theyonce believed it was unattainable.Carpineto cites as an example anORP graduate, Marcus, who returnedto the community and is enrolled in ademanding one-year massage therapycertificate program. He not only suc-cessfully managed the rigors of themassage program — which include classfour days per week and nightly home-work — but also continued with theprogram despite spending a week in thehospital after being shot in the abdomen.

The writing of a required auto-biographical piece plays a significantrole in establishing meaningful relation-ships between offenders and ORP staff.Offenders often write about profoundpersonal experiences and feelings,allowing the teachers and staff a meansto understand them and build trustingrelationships. “The Writing Workshopis based on having students makethemselves vulnerable and telling thetruth. This allows the teachers to get toknow students at an accelerated speed,”Carpineto says. This relationship isinvaluable to remaining connectedwith students when they return to thecommunity: they’re not just remainingconnected with a program, they’reremaining connected with people whocare about them and are committed tohelping them succeed. Karen Bacon,the program’s former case manager andcurrent director, cites the example ofMichael. “The first time I met Michaelwas to complete the program’s assess-ment paperwork. When he got to thewriting sample, he froze. ‘I can’t dothis. Do I have to write?’ I explained

to him that the program’s writingworkshop involves a great deal ofwriting throughout the eight weeks. Heresponded with, ‘Thank you for thisopportunity, but then I don’t want todo the program. I’m sure it’s a good

program and I could use it, but I’ll failthe writing.’ For 20 minutes, Michaelcarried on about being a bad writer:he felt anxious and self-conscious witheven talking about writing. After alot of coaxing on my part, Michael


Focus onBasicsfinally agreed to participate.

“I then asked him to do ourstandard writing sample. The sample heproduced was only a couple of sentencesand as he passed it to me he commented,‘This is all I can do. It sucks. I’ll trythe program, but don’t expect muchfrom me because I really can’t write.’For eight weeks, Michael worked onan autobiographical story. He solicitedfeedback from staff and classmates,despite how nervous he was that hisstory was going to be ‘bad’ and peoplewouldn’t like it. At the end of thecycle, Michael had completed a typed,two-and-a-half-page autobiographicalpiece that I felt was outstanding.It was thoughtful, had charactersthat were developed, and heincorporated dialogue. Michael saidto me, ‘I can’t believe that I wrotethis. Remember, I couldn’t even dothe writing sample. I didn’t think Iwas gonna make it, but look atwhat I actually wrote.’”

The ChallengesThere are two primary chal-

lenges in running a Writing Work-shop in a correctional facility. Thefirst is operating a closed-enrollmenteight-week program. ORP operates outof the Community Corrections Unitand, although it recruits offendersfrom the entire institution, offendersmust reside in this unit in order toparticipate. As result, recruitment forthe program can difficult because:

• the number of available beds in the unit limits the number of newstudents who can be recruited;

• the unit has strict restrictions:offenders cannot have SuperiorCourt cases pending, a lengthyviolent criminal history, or recentdisciplinary issues; and

• offenders must be able to completethe full eight-week session: thosewho are scheduled to be released or paroled before the end of thesession are ineligible.

The Suffolk County House ofCorrection’s Classification Department,which approves and coordinates all

offender movement and programming,has been instrumental in helping ORPnavigate these challenges successfully.Without its cooperation, ORP wouldnot be able consistently to enroll afull class each session.

The second challenge is theoffenders’ educational experience.The vast majority of offenders enterORP with low academic levels (ORPgraduates read on average at a 7.93reading level based on the Test forAdult Basic Education) and, becauseof negative experiences in formalschooling, perceive any educational

activity in a negative light. As aresult, teachers consistently find that offenders begin the WritingWorkshop with an unequivocal beliefthat they are not capable of success as writers and readers. “You can makeabsolutely no assumptions about whatskills they have,” Carpineto says. “Moststudents simply don’t use language asa means to get them through theworld. We not only teach studentsconcepts but how to learn concepts,and we must balance between givingstudents what they need withoutoverwhelming them.”

MeasuringEffectiveness

ORP’s model has proved highlyeffective. An independent evaluationof ORP conducted by Anne M. Piehl,Stefan F. LoBuglio, and Richard B.Freeman (2003) of Harvard’s Kennedy

School of Government showed thatoffenders who graduated from theprogram had a 12.63 percent lowerrecidivism rate than a control groupwho had not participated in ORP. Inaddition, their results showed that thelonger an ORP graduate remains in thecommunity, the greater the likelihoodhe will not return to prison: 500 daysafter release, ORP graduates are 20percent more likely not to have returnedto prison than offenders who did notparticipate in ORP. Many factorscontribute to an offender’s successfultransition into the community. The

Offender Re-Entry Programdemonstrates that education isone of them.

Offenders’ names have been changed to ensure confidentiality.

ReferencesAtwell, N. (1998). In the Middle: NewUnderstanding About Writing, Reading,and Learning. Portsmouth, NH:Boynton/Cook.

Baca, J. S. (2001). A Place to Stand. NewYork, NY: Grove/Atlantic Publishing.

Goldberg, N. (1995). Writing Downthe Bones. Boston, MA: Anchor

Publishing.

Lamott, A. ( 1994). Bird by Bird: SomeInstructions on Writing and Life. NewYork: Pantheon.

Open Society Institute, Criminal JusticeInitiative. (N.D.). Retrieved December31, 2002, from http://www.soros.org/crime/research_bries_2.html

Piehl, A. M., LoBuglio, S., & Freeman, R.(2003). Prospects for Re-Entry. WorkingPaper No. 125, Economic Policy Institute.

About the AuthorBob Flynn’s professional experienceincludes seven years as a GED and WritingWorkshop instructor at the Log SchoolSettlement House in Dorchester, MA, and three years as the Director of theOffender Re-Entry Program in Boston,MA. He is now the Acting Dean ofDevelopmental Learning and AcademicSupport at Bunker Hill CommunityCollege, Boston, MA. �

“. . . offenders whograduated from the

program had a 12.63percent lower recidivism

rate than a control group who had not

participated in ORP.”

Focus onBasics


How Does Writing Workshop Work? The Seven Steps to Success

� Step1: FoldersMany students have never participated in a struc-tured writing process, so it essential to incorporatesuch structure in the Writing Workshop. A multi-colored folder system is used to organize andmaintain the Writing Workshop’s many materials.The following are the four distinctive folders andtheir functions:

• Yellow folder: syllabus, homework assignments,and notes

• Blue folder: all text and lyrics

• Green folder: writing in progress

• White folders: corrected homework

� Step 2: BrainstormingThe instructors use two brainstorming techniques:Free Writing and Writing Territories. The only rulein Free Writing is to write. Students may writeabout anything they choose and are encouraged tobe unconcerned with grammar, structure, or style.Afterwards, students review their writing to identifyideas that they may want to incorporate into amore formal, written piece. The length of timestudents Free Write increases progressivelythroughout the session, with students beginning atfive minutes each day during the first week andincreasing five minutes each week. During the lastweek of class, students Free Write for 35 minutes.

Natalie Goldberg’s concept of Writing Territoriesprovides a more structured brainstormingtechnique. Writing Territories involve three areas:Topics, Genres, and Audiences. Students are askedto brainstorm ideas for Topics (e.g., an argumentwith a girlfriend), Genres (e.g., drama or comedy),and Audiences (e.g., teachers, friends, and/orfamily). Students then identify the topic, genre, andaudience for their autobiographical piece.

� Step 3: Mini-LessonsThis concept, introduced in Nancy Atwell’s In theMiddle (1998), involves the teacher beginning eachclass with a 15- to 30–minute lesson that introduces

a writing concept that students will incorporate intheir autobiographical pieces. The mini-lessons fallinto two categories: craft and convention. Conventionconsists of basic grammatical rules, such as com-plete sentences, punctuation, and paragraphing.

Craft consists of writing techniques, such as char-acter development, defining a conflict, describing asetting, and figurative language. Jimmy Baca’s APlace to Stand is used as a context for many of thecraft mini-lessons. Student can read Baca’s similes,for instance, and then see how they can developand incorporate similes into their own pieces.

The following two memorable examples of studentsimiles are from James, who wrote his autobio-graphical piece about the day he was sentenced tothe Suffolk House of Correction:

• “When I approached the stand, I didn’t knowwhat to expect. I thought I was smoked like aNewport for sure.”

• After being sentenced to six months in the Houseof Correction and having to leave his distraughtgirlfriend, James wrote: “I felt like I was slidingdown a razorblade and into a pool of alcohol.”

The instructors typically spend two to three days foreach mini-lesson and give students mini-assign-ments that reinforce the concept being taught.

� Step 4: Drafting ProcessThe following concepts are incorporated to guidestudents through the writing process.

First Drafts Anne Lamott’s book on writing, Bird by Bird, is aninvaluable tool for writers, especially writers whodon’t think they’re writers. In her chapter entitled“Shitty First Drafts,” Lamott writes, “Almost all goodwriting begins with terrible first efforts. You need tostart somewhere . . . For me and most of the otherwriters I know, writing is not rapturous. In fact, theonly way I can get anything written at all is to writereally, really shitty first drafts. The first draft is thechild’s draft, where you let it continued on page 8


Focus onBasics

all pour out and then let it romp all over the place,knowing that no one is going to see it and that youcan shape it later.” This concept is both validatingand liberating for our students, many of whom beginthe Writing Workshop believing that excellent writersalways write excellently. Cahill says, “Sometimesstudents think they’re not good writers becausethey don’t get it right the first time. It’s a relief forstudents to know that professional writers don’t getit right the first time. It gives them confidence.”

Next Drafts After the teacher introduces the mini-lesson concept,students revise their papers while incorporatingconcepts learned in the mini-lessons. For example,if the mini-lesson introduced dialogue, studentswould be expected to engage their characters in dialogue that is both interesting and realistic.“Students learn that writing is rewriting. Each timeyou tackle a draft, you improve upon it,” says Cahill.

Final Drafts A student’s final draft is his best piece, not theteacher’s best piece: the major revisions need to be done by the student, not the teacher. As a result,a final piece may contain fragmented sentences,vague descriptions, and an incorrect use ofquotation marks. This is fine. The objective is forstudents to improve in specific areas as they movethrough the drafting process. Since many of ourstudents need significant improvement in manyareas, it is not realistic to expect that students willperfect their skills in all areas.

� Step 5: FeedbackStudents receive feedback on their pieces in twoways: presenting the paper in workshops with theclass and individually with the teacher. This occursonce per week. Students are taught to ask their audi-ence to provide feedback on particular areas, forexample, similes or character development. Oneparticularly effective technique involves placing thewriter in a Fishbowl. This means that while thewriter’s classmates are commenting on his piece, hemust remain silent. After his classmates have fin-ished, the writer then has opportunity to respond.Placing the writer in the Fishbowl forces him tolisten to all his classmates’ comments and provideshim time to come up with thoughtful responses.

One of the challenges with feedback is thatstudents frequently want the teacher to reviewevery draft and “tell them what is wrong,”Carpineto says. However, the teachers reinforcethat the students need to review and revise theirdrafts based on the mini-lessons. Teachers will onlymeet with students individually if students havespecific areas that they would like the teacher toreview (e.g., leads, dialogue, or plot).

� Step 6: EvaluationsTeachers evaluate offenders’ autobiographicalpieces based on the following criteria:

• Cover Page: Name, Date, Genre, Draft Number, Title.

• Drafts: All drafts must be included and labeled.

• Showing Not Telling: Similes, metaphors,personification, description of setting, anddescriptive language.

• Character Arc: Author’s ability to show what helearned through the experience he wrote about.Character is round not flat.

• Dialogue: Dialogue is realistic.

• Moment: Author’s ability to stick to one moment.

• Commitment: The amount of effort that the authorput into the paper and his willingness to revisetheir work.

The above areas are assessed as (1) exceedingexpectations, (2) meeting expectations, (3) barelymeeting expectations, or (4) not meeting expecta-tions. The teachers also provide specific and com-prehensive comments explaining their assessment.

� Step 7: Portfolio PresentationsAs part of the Writing Workshop, students’ portfoliosinclude the final draft of their autobiographicalpiece as well as an earlier draft. In addition,students must select a specific area in their piece(e.g., the opening paragraph), and compare theearlier draft to the final draft. Students mustdiscuss specific revisions and their rationale forhaving made them. “The portfolio is an importantpart for offenders because they can see thetransformation of their writing and share thattransformation with the panel. They’re reallyowning their writing because they’re explaining it,”Cahill says. �

Focus onBasics


“America is the land

of second chances, and

when the gates of prison

open, the path ahead should

lead to a better life.”

President George W. Bush, State of the Union Address, 2004

For the vast majority ofincarcerated offenders,prison is a transitional

placement. They are not“home” in a correctionsfacility; they are movingtoward release. Inmates andthose who provide prison-basedservices must fight the tendencytoward institutionalism. The focus should always be on positive steps towardsuccessful transition back into the community.

After serving their sentences, themajority of offenders transition fromincarceration back to their commu-nities. Ex-offenders struggle to findtheir place in society while copingwith the social pressures and economichardships that led them to crime inthe first place. The cycle of arrest,confinement, and release across ourcountry is nothing new, yet it is evenmore important today, because morethan 630,000 offenders return homeeach year: four times the number thatcame home 25 years ago (Harrison &Karberg, 2004). Almost every personincarcerated in jails in the UnitedStates, and approximately 97 percentof those incarcerated in prison, willeventually be released (Hughes &Wilson, 2003).

The impact that released offenders

have on public safety cannot beignored any longer. Of the largenumber of offenders released eachyear, an estimated two thirds will berearrested within three years of theirrelease (Langan & Levin, 2002). Re-entry has major implications forcommunity safety. “Too many areharmed: People are victimized,families are destroyed; communitiesare overwhelmed; and the lives ofindividuals cycling in and out ofincarcerations are wasted” (Solomonet al., 2004, p. 4). A greater proportionof offenders are being released withoutpostprison supervision or services toassist them with finding jobs, housing,and needed support (Petersilia, 2000).

The high social and economiccosts associated with ever-higher rates of incarcerationare staggering. With theexception of health care,spending on correctionshas increased more rapidlythan any other item instate budgets (NationalAssociation of StateBudget Offices, 2004). Inthis country, expenditureson corrections have gonefrom $9 billion in 1982 to$60 billion in 2001 (Bauer,2001). The fiscal impact isfurther amplified becauseprisoners are spending longer periodsof time incarcerated and experiencefewer opportunities to take advantageof education and training programsthat could assist in their transitionupon release (Lynch & Sabol, 2001).

Returning offenders face myriadchallenges as they transition to theircommunities (Report of the Re-EntryPolicy Council, 2005; Harlow, 2003;Holzer et al., 2003; Lynch & Sabol,2001; Mumola, 1999; Travis et al., 2003):

Re-Entry and Corrections Educationby Kathy Goebel

• Three quarters of offenders have ahistory of substance abuse.

• Two thirds of offenders do not havea high school diploma or equivalency.

• About one third of all offenderswere unemployed before they wereincarcerated. A criminal recordhinders both their employabilityand their earning capabilities.

• One third of incarcerated offendersreported having some physical ormental disability, with a rate ofserious mental illness that is two tofour times higher than that of thegeneral population.

• About two thirds of offendersreturning to the community havechildren under the age of 18, and incarcerated parents owe anaverage of $20,000 in child supportdebt when they are released fromprison.

Given this stark picture, thecurrent emphasis on re-entry mustcontinue to be a high priority forcorrections educators and the criminaljustice system as a whole.

Phases of Re-EntryRe-entry efforts should begin

while offenders are still in correc-tional facilities and preparing forrelease, continue through theirimmediate transition back into thecommunity, and then help to sustainthem with support services such as jobsearch assistance, substance abusecounseling, and mental healthtreatment. The Serious and Violent

“Of the large number ofoffenders released eachyear, an estimated twothirds will be rearrested

within three years oftheir release (Langan &

Levin, 2002).”


Focus onBasicsOffender Reentry Initiative (SVORI)is a federal effort to improve outcomesfor adults and juveniles returning tocommunities from correctional facili-ties. The goal of SVORI is to reducethe likelihood of reincarceration byproviding tailored supervision andservices. SVORI has designed one re-entry model comprised of threedistinct phases that are described indetail below (Lattimore et al., 2004).

Corrections educators usuallywork with offenders during theprerelease phase. The emphasis ofmany programs is to prepare offendersfor their transition back to theirhomes and neighborhoods. Literacyskills, classes that prepare learners for the tests of General EducationalDevelopment (GED), life skillsinstruction, employment training,parenting classes, and crimeintervention programs make up a large portion of the prereleaseprograms that are sometimesavailable to eligible offenders.However, resources continue todiminish as the offender populationincreases, thus limiting access toneeded educational programs.

The intense demands of therelease phase usually precludeoffenders’ involvement in educationalprogramming. Offenders during thisstage face many pressures as theyreunite with family, begin searchingfor employment, come in contactwith previous acquaintances and thetemptations of old habits, as well ascomply with community supervisionrequirements. In the ideal situation,during this phase offenders would beprovided with information onavailable community resources.

During the sustained supportphase, ex-offenders should beconnected with community-basededucational programs. Linkagesbetween the institutional educationand community-based programsrequire extensive work and continuednurturing. Ex-offenders’ previousassessment results and their partici-pation in educational programs whileincarcerated should be documented

and made easily accessible to them asthey begin community-based educationprograms.

EmploymentChallenges

Employment is critical forreturning offenders, but finding andretaining employment is incrediblydifficult. Many offenders have limitededucation and little employmentexperience. A felony conviction oftenrestricts the type of employment anoffender can be offered. A dispropor-tionally large number of offendersreturn to low-income and predomi-nantly minority communities thathave relatively few unskilled jobs

available. Corrections educationneeds a sharp focus on employabilityissues. The Reentry Policy Councilurges service providers “to teachinmates functional, educational, andvocational competencies based onemployment market demand andpublic safety requirements” (2005, p. 1). Training must correspond withjobs that are in high demand or withthose employment sectors forecastedto provide new job opportunities inthe community. It is critical thatcorrections educators and correctionsofficials create direct linkages withemployment service providers in the release phase. We must designeducational services that meet theemployment challenge. Housing,health care, employment, familystability, and drug treatment are allcritical needs that often take on crisisproportions for ex-offenders. However,all of these life challenges are relatedto education. Inmates who addresstheir educational needs duringconfinement do better when they

return to their families and commu-nities and are significantly less likelyto be reconvicted (Harlow, 2003;Steurer et al., 2001).

“Rather than draining communityresources, safety and morale, prisonerswho return to the community withsupport systems in place can becomeproductive members of society, thussaving resources, strengthening familyand community ties, and expanding thelabor force and economy” (Solomonet al., 2004, p. 1). Correctionseducators toil to bring this vision to reality.

ReferencesBauer, L., (2001). Justice Expenditure and

Employment in the United States.Washington, DC: US Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics,NCJ 202792.

Harlow, C. (2003). Education andCorrectional Populations. Washington,DC: US Department of Justice, Bureauof Justice Statistics, NCJ 195670.

Harrison, P., & Karberg, J. (2004).Prison and Jail Inmates at Mid-Year

2003. Washington, DC: US Departmentof Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics,NCJ 203947.

Holzer, H., Raphael, S., & Stoll, M.(2003). “Employment barriers facing ex-offenders.” Urban Institute ReentryRoundtable Discussion Paper. NewYork: New York University Law School.

Hughes , T., & Wilson, D. (2003). ReentryTrends in the United States. Washington,DC: US Department of Justice, Bureauof Justice Statistics.

Langan P., & Levin, D. (2002). Recidivismof Prisoners Released in 1994. Washington,DC: US Department of Justice, Bureauof Justice Statistics, NCJ 193427.

Lattimore, K., Brumbaugh, S., Visher, C.,Lindquist, C., Winterfield, L., Salas, M.,& Zweig, J. (2004). National Portrait ofSVORI. Serious and Violent OffenderReentry Initiative. Washington, DC: TheUrban Institute. http://www.urban.org/Template.cfm?Section=ByAuthor&NavMenuID=63&AuthorID=7409&AuthorName=Pamela%20K.%20Lattimore

Lynch, J., & Sabol, W. (2001). “Prisonerreentry in perspective.” Crime PolicyReport. Vol. 3. Washington, DC: The

“Corrections educationneeds a sharp focus onemployability issues.”

Focus onBasics


Urban Institute.

Mumola, C. (1999). Substance Abuse andTreatment, State and Federal Prisoners,1997. Washington, DC: US Depart-ment of Justice, Bureau of JusticeStatistics, NCJ 172871.

National Association of State BudgetOffices. (2004). 2003 State ExpendituresReport. pp. 55-63. Retrieved on March30, 2005, from http://www.nasbo.org.

Petersilia, J. (2000). “Prisoners returningto communities: Political, economic,and social consequences.” In Sentencingand Corrections: Issues for the 21stCentury. National Institute of Justice:Papers from the Executive Sessions onSentencing and Corrections. Washington,DC: US Department of Justice.

Re-Entry Policy Council of the Council ofState Governments (2005). Report ofthe Re-Entry Policy Council. New York:Council of State Governments.Chapter B, PS 15 pp. 1-15.

Solomon, A., Johnson, K., Travis, J. &McBride, E. (2004). From Prison toWork: The Employment Dimensions ofPrisoner Reentry: A Report of the ReentryRoundtable. Washington, DC: UrbanInstitute, Justice Policy Center.

Steurer, S., Smith, L., & Tracy, A. (2001).Three-State Recidivism Study. Latham, MD:Correctional Education Association.

Travis, J., Cincotta, E., & Solomon, A. (2003).Families Left Behind: The Hidden Costs ofIncarceration and Reentry. Washington,DC: Urban Institute, Justice Policy Center.

AcknowledgmentThe author thanks John Linton, EducationProgram Specialist, Character, Civics andCorrectional Education Unit, Office ofSafe and Drug Free Schools, US Depart-ment of Education, for his assistance withthis article.

About the AuthorKathy Goebel began her career as a specialeducation elementary and middle schoolteacher. After 10 years in the K-12 system,she shifted to adult education as a basic skillsinstructor and later director of education attwo correctional facilities in Washingtonstate. She is currently the CorrectionalEducation Program Administrator for theWashington State Board for Communityand Technical Colleges. �

W hat economicimpact does earninga certificate of Gen-

eral Educational Development(GED) offer offenders afterthey are released from prison?NCSALL researcher JohnTyler and a colleague, JeffreyKling of Princeton University,examined this question usingdata from the state of Florida.They compared school dropoutswho had been incarcerated in Florida prisons between1994 and 1999 and obtaineda GED during that time withdropouts who entered andexited prison at about thesame period but either did not participate in educationalprogramming while in prisonor who participated but didnot complete a GED. Theyused state unemploymentinsurance data for earningsinformation: the studyexamined the mainstreamlabor market rather than the“under the table” economy.

This study is important because,as Tyler reminds us, “The growingprison population is primarily fueled bylow educated individuals, especiallyracial and ethnic minorities: thepeople we are most worried about inthe labor market.” To what extent doeducation and training programs helpthese individuals successfully reinte-grate into the mainstream labor

market? “GED programs are ubiquitousin prisons,” points out Tyler, so studyingthe economic effect they have makessense.

“Among racial and ethnic minorityoffenders — primarily AfricanAmericans with a smaller number of Hispanics — we found about a 20 percent increase in the earningsamong GED holders relative to non-GED holders in the first post-releaseyear. This effect declined in thesecond year and by the third year itfell away to basically zero,” explainsTyler. “We found that, for whiteoffenders, there was no difference inthe post-release earnings or employ-ment for individuals who got a GEDversus those who did not.”

Tyler and Kling’s findings are verysimilar to those reached by a previousstudy on the effects of vocationaleducation in prison by the Bureau ofPrisons (Saylor & Gaes, 1996). “If youthink that the GED is something thatwill turn prisoners’ lives around, thisis a discouraging study,” explainsTyler. “On the other hand, in a worldwhere it’s hard to find big effects inmany social programs targeted at ourmost disadvantaged populations, [thisstudy shows that] the GED programdoes have pretty big initial effects forpeople we are very concerned about.”

Why?The initial positive economic

effect of the GED on minorities —compared to similar ex-offenders whodid not attain the GED — dwindlesaway after two years. Research needsto be done to help us understand whythis is so: it may be because the jobsthat ex-offenders get tend not to be

N C S A L L R E S E A R C H F I N D I N G S

What Are the EconomicEffects of Earning a GED in Prison?


Focus onBasics

“career ladder” jobs with opportu-nities for growth. The non-GED-holding ex-offenders may be gettingjobs over time, and the GED-holdinggroup, while working, may not be experiencing substantial wageincreases. Thus, over time, the initialpositive effect on the earnings of ex-offenders who earned GEDs may bediminishing as the uncredentialed ex-offenders eventually find their wayinto employment. This is, however,speculation at this point.

Why the white GED-earning ex-offenders’ earnings were notstatistically different from those of white ex-offenders who did notcomplete GEDs or did not participatein GED programs while incarceratedis unknown. This phenomenon

certainly raises questions and meritsfurther study.

Other AttributesBy making offenders who

participated in prison-based GEDprograms but did not get their GEDs akey comparison group, the researchersaddressed the question of the “omittedvariable” problem: what if theoffenders who studied for their GEDs in prison had attributes that wouldhave led them to have “superior labormarket outcomes” to those of non-GED attempters, even if they did notcomplete a GED? “For example,” saysTyler, “a GED may simply be a proxyfor intelligence or motivation thatwould have led to greater employment

and earnings anyway, with no causalrole for the GED itself.”

The study is also importantbecause the researchers were able tocontrol for a variety of factors thatothers researching the impact ofprison education on ex-offenders havenot been able to control for: priorcriminal justice record, prior earnings,marriage status, and prior academicskills level as measured by the Tests forAdult Basic Education, for example.This methodology enables researchersto attribute impact to the GED ratherthan to these other factors.

GeneralizabilityWhether these findings can be

generalized to other states dependsupon the similarity between Florida —the state that was the source of the data— and the state in question. “Floridais a pretty big prison population state,”notes Tyler, “but it looks much morelike the rest of the US prison popula-tion than do other big states like Texasor California, because those states havemuch higher percentages of Hispanicsin their prison populations. You alsohave to think about the economies: inthe late 1990s, when these folks weremoving out into the Florida economy.Was [Florida’s economy in the late 90s]sufficiently different from yours? If so,will the lessons hold for your state?”

To read the full study, “Prison-BasedEducation and Re-Entry into theMainstream Labor Market,” go tohttp://www.brown.edu/Departments/Education/facpages/j_tyler/pdfs/papers/Prison_d11_sage2_brownWP.pdf

–Barbara Garner

ReferencesSaylor, W., & Gaes, G. (1996). “PREP:

Training inmates through industrialwork participation, and vocational andapprenticeship instruction.” US FederalBureau of Prisons. Retrieved May 3, 2005,from http://www.bop.gov//news/research_projects/published_reports/recidivism/orepreprep_cmq.pfd �

N C S A L L R E S E A R C H F I N D I N G S

Understanding and Acting on these Findings

This is a thought-provoking study. The findings — that the GED has apositive economic impact on minority ex-offenders during the first two yearsafter release from incarceration but that the impact dwindles thereafter, andthat the GED has virtually no economic impact on white ex-offenders — raiseimportant questions. These include, but are certainly not limited to:

• Why does the impact dwindle after two years?

• Why does the GED have no positive economic impact on white ex-offenders?

• What role does society’s treatment of ex-offenders have that overrides the positive economic impact the GED has on non-offenders? (see http://www.ncsall.net/?id=171 Why Go Beyond the GED?;http://www.ncsall.net/?id=409 Results from a New Approach to Studyingthe Economic Benefits of the GED; http://www.ncsall.net/?id=329 Do theCognitive Skills of Dropouts Matter in the Labor Market?)

• What other impact does earning a GED have on offenders?

• What could corrections GED programs do to help ex-offenders improve their economic futures?

We hope that you and your colleagues, and you and your students,explore these questions. Share your ideas with others via the Focus on Basicselectronic discussion list (see page 39 for information on how to subscribe).Researchers including John Tyler are particularly curious about why, forexample, earning the GED offers white ex-offenders no economic boost. �

Focus onBasics


Between 60 and 70 per-cent of the inmates inHawaiian prisons are

of Hawaiian heritage, butmany of them were not raisedin it or have lost contact withit. Hawaiian values are reallydifferent from western values,according to Maureen Tito,Corrections Program ServicesManager for the state of Hawaii.“In our corrections educationprograms,” she explains, “wetry to use cultural informationto teach math, English, and cog-nitive skills. Sentenced felonslearn hula and Hawaiian chant,learning, at the same time, howto behave, and the expectationsof the community.”

The Learning Center in theHalawa Correctional Facility in Aiea offers adult basic education,preparation for the tests of GeneralEducational Development (GED),independent studies, college courses,and what they call “branch electives”:Hawaiian chant and dance, Hawaiianlanguage, music, yoga, meditation.Samoan, Japanese, German, andRussian language have been offered as well, based on the availability ofinstructors. Of a total population ofabout 1,200 inmates, about 650 a yearparticipate in educational programs.This represents a large proportion,given that participation is voluntary.The teaching staff includes three full-time education specialists, oneeducation supervisor, usually threecontract teachers, and about six

volunteers. All inmates who wish to participate take the Test of Adult Basic Education (TABE) todetermine their reading and mathlevels. After they complete it, theyattend orientation, during which a staff person explains the rules of the center and helps inmates choseclasses based on theirtest scores and interests.Most offenders take acombination of up tosix classes at one time.

The adult basiceducation classes use,among other materials,Hawaiian authorswriting about Hawaii.Chicken Soup from theSoul of Hawaii includesa number of suchstories, and althoughthe learners have tostretch because of thematerial’s reading level,its content sparks theirinterest and motivatesthem to make the effort.In math, learners mightbe asked to calculatethe number of flowersneeded to make an ili lei (approximately4,000), explainsVanessa Helsham, ateacher at the prison.Of course, she pointsout, many learnersdon’t see math as relevant to theirlives. “We tell them, you need tobring up your math scores,” she says.“And they ask why they need toknow math. ‘I don’t use math in mylife.’” She asks them, “Aren’t youhere for a drug charge? So how many

grams did you sell? And they say, ‘Ican tell you that.’” Her retort: “So Ithought you don’t use math in yourlife? There are grams, ounces, money.”

And they say, “Wow, ok.”

Relate to ThemUnless you tell them something

that relates to them, they won’t getthe importance, Helsham explains.She is Hawaiian, and most of the staffare either native Hawaiian or grew up in Hawaii. They all use culturalreferences in their classes, not justHawaiian but almost all the culturesthat are, as she says, “part of whatmakes Hawaii a unique place to live.”

Helsham starts work with herstudents by connecting with them,explaining that she grew up in[public] housing, as did almost 80 percent of them. She explains tothem that life is not easy: it’s a matterof choice and consequence. “I hear

Culturally RelevantEducationTeaching Hawaiian inmates about and viatheir culture motivates and inspires them


Focus onBasicsfrom folks,” Helsham remembers,“that they wish that someone taughtthem that, that it’s choice andconsequence.”

Not just Hawaiian culture, butreally local cultures, street and drugculture, become reference points, if

not topics. What is and what is notHawaiian culture is also investigated.Helsham teaches a cognitive skillsclass, providing participants withtools that help them change the waythey make choices. “I find that I can’tteach it Americanized,” she says, “sowe step back and change it, not justto Hawaiian culture but local culturehere. I have heard students say, ‘I getit when you tell me.’”

Teaching Hawaiian culture andvalues via dance and music, languageand discussion, and using Hawaiianexamples in the teaching of basicacademic skills works because learners see themselves in this material. Theapproach incorporates two elementsthat underlie Youth Cultural Compe-tence, a technique found to besuccessful in engaging youth (Weber,2004). These elements are positivepeer influence and popular culture. Inthis case, the positive peers are teacherssuch as Helsham and local artists suchas the hula dancers whom she bringsinto her classes. Popular cultureencompasses all the material drawnfrom local life: the drug references thatilluminate the inmates’ use of math,the critical analysis of trips to thepark, the Hula and the expectationsthat go along with the dance.

Helsham explains, “I say at thebeginning of class: ‘I can get you to

realize within the next ten minutesthat you’re going to realize somethingyou never realized before.’ I ask themhow many of them take their childrento the park, and 99 percent raise theirhands because they all have children,or nieces or nephews.” Then, she con-

tinues, she asks “When youtake your children to the park,do you see that as being qualitytime with those children?”

She probes: “Ok, so whatare you doing at the park? Areyou letting your child play? Andthat’s quality time, becauseyou’re at the park with them?

“A lot don’t answer,” sheexplains. “Most of you, I say,are probably partying at thepark, drinking. They say ‘Yeah’

and I say ‘and you call that quality timewith your child? Quality time meansyou’re actually playing with them,incorporating yourself into their lives.’”

She explains to her students thatthey — and by “they” she includesherself — were brought up to knowthat being at the park with our childwas our culture: it was good enough,and that parents didn’t have to alsoplay with the children. She challengesthem: “Why do you see it as goodenough?”

“This is your homework,” sheexplains. “Call home andask your child if just beingat the park was goodenough.”

According to Helsham,80 percent of her studentsreturned to class reportingthat their children wereangry with them for notbeing with them, becausethey saw the other kids’parents playing with them.Their children had notforgiven them.

Helsham presses herlearners, asking them if they reallybelieve that that’s local culture.

She feels that drinking andhaving fun isn’t a culture: it’s abehavior and it is one that they canchange.

Hula Is Like LifeAbout 50 percent of the adult basic

education students in the HalawaCorrectional Facility take branchelectives in addition to their academicclasses. Helsham teaches a Hawaiianchant and dance class in which sheexplains to the students, “Hula is a lotlike life: if you’re going the wrong wayin hula, you have to change it to makeit right. I say that it’s like life: if you’regoing the wrong way you have tochange to make it a better person.

“Right now, my dance class studentsare mostly of non-Hawaiian ancestry.Most of them have girlfriends or wivesof Hawaiian ancestry. I asked them if that was the reason they weretaking the class and 95 percent saidno. They took the class because theywere once one of the men who would‘tease’ the men in previous classesbecause they once thought that hulawas for females only. They learnedthat hula in the old days was taughtonly to men and was kapu (forbidden)to women. I have often challengedinmates to come to class to see whathula is all about. Lots of them say thatthey first joined the class for a form ofexercise or to ‘just get out of the modules[housing units].’ They soon found thatthey were actually working hard, using

their minds and their muscles in waysunknown to them before.”

Helsham’s first break in hula, she explains, was given by a very kindwoman, Mrs. Maxine Kidder, whounderstood that Helsham wanted to

“In my class I have the gangs,” she notes.“Knock on wood, I’venever had a problem.

When you’re in my classyou’re a dancer, nobody

but a dancer.”

“Not just Hawaiianculture, but really local

cultures, street and drug culture, become

reference points, if not topics.”

Focus onBasics


study hula but couldn’t afford even the$10 a month that the lessons cost. Mrs.Kidder told her that she was givingher the opportunity to learn and that,one day, she would do the same forthose who were less fortunate. “WhenMs. Tito approached me with the ideaof teaching hula in the prison, myresponse was automatic, ‘Yes of course!’Even to this day, I can feel the spiritof that wonderful lady each time Ipa’i [hit] my ‘ipu heke’.” (Ipu heke is the name for a double-gourd hulainstrument. Ipu Hele ‘Ole is the morecommonly used drum, used in moderndances. Ipu Heke is what the KumuHula [the hula teacher] uses to sendthe beats to the haumana [students].)

“In my class I have the gangs,”she notes. “Knock on wood, I’venever had a problem. When you’re inmy class you’re a dancer, nobody buta dancer.” She remembers the Chiefof Security’s amazement in seeingmembers of rival gangs tying eachother’s skirts and helping each otherwith their leis. He never thought hewould see that, she explains.

SupportMoments like that help to build

support for the education program,particularly the Hawaiian culturalclasses. The warden and deputywarden are very supportive. TheChief of Security is so supportive thathe asked Helsham to increase thenumber of performances given by herHawaiian chant and dance class fromone to four times a year.

Can other corrections institutionsuse a cultural approach to education?Helsham thinks so. “Any culture cando what we do here,” encouragesHelsham. “It’s important for you toknow who you are, so that others canunderstand you.”

–Barbara Garner

ReferencesWeber, J. (2004). “Youth cultural

competence: A pathway for achievingoutcomes with youth.” Focus on Basics,7A, 1-10. �

An inmate stood at themicrophone and reada poem by another

inmate, who was in “the hole”(segregation). Afterwards,Reggie Harris, a visiting poet,asked if any of the inmatesknew where he could findmore poems by the guy in thehole. From breast pockets,men pulled poems their absentfriend had written. “This iswhy I come into these spaces,”Reggie said, “Where else doyou find guys carrying poemsaround with them?”

In the BeginningTeaching offenders is

challenging. Many of those I teachdropped out of school in the 9th or10th grade due to boredom. Theyneed variety or theylose interest quickly.They also live in aregimented culture.They are told what towear and eat; whattime to eat, wake up,and sleep; when toparticipate in recre-ation; when theycan make phonecalls and to whom;when family andfriends can visit;what they can orcannot receive inthe mail. As a correc-tions educator I tryto grab their attention and thenmaintain it. I do so by providingactivities that not only stimulate

them intellectually but also engagethem emotionally. I have found that activities that connect them tomembers of the outside communitywork well.

I met Reggie Harris in 2003, whenhe came into the prison to speak andperform some of his poems as part ofthe Character Education class we offer.Harris is the co-founder of “in thebelly...”, a nonprofit collective of artistswho perform and conduct residenciesand workshops in prisons, substanceabuse rehabilitation centers, shelters,and alternative schools. I was awe-struck by his work and the students’reactions, so I decided to apply for a$3,000 grant through the EducationMinnesota Foundation to start “TheCritical Poetry Project” with him.Harris wrote a grant proposal andreceived an additional $3,000 from theMetropolitan Regional Arts Council(MRAC) to supplement my grant. Thegrants paid for visiting artists, supplies,videos, books, and music CDs to help

students learn to study poetry criticallyand to improve their writing and publicspeaking skills.

The Critical Poetry ProjectGiving Voice to the Oppressedby Pauline Geraci

Desdamona (Heather Ross)

continued on page 16

family, because the visiting room is sorestricted. I don’t care how hard youthink you are — gangster, killer, drugdealer — you want to express yourself,”commented an offender. Poetry pro-vides them with the opportunity toexpress themselves and to addressimportant issues. Spoken word poetry,performed aloud with more of anemphasis on performance than onprinted forms, has been particularlyeffective with my students. It is

known as a populist form,performed by male andfemale speakers andreaders of all races. Itinspires people who, intheir pasts, have foundpoetry to be irrelevant.According to MiguelAlgarin, founder of theNuyorican Poets Café, aspoken-word venue in NewYork City, spoken wordpoetry, or “rather the poetryof the nineties, seeks topromote a tolerance andunderstanding betweenpeople. The aim is to dis-solve the social, cultural, andpolitical boundaries thatgeneralize the human experi-ence and make it mean-ingless” (Miazga, 1998).

Goals The offenders I teach

represent a number of racial,ethnic, linguistic, and socialclass groups includingNative Americans, Asians,Hispanics, AfricanAmericans, and Caucasians.Some speak Spanish,others Khmer, and someOjibwae. Some of the stu-dents grew up on welfareor on the reservations.Some come from middle-class families. They comefrom various geographiclocations: large cities such asSt. Paul and Minneapolisand rural areas such as

A Spiritual Encounter by Sarith Peou

Vorn and I walk eastwardAs the KR directsAnd search for Vorn’s familyAnd reach Wat Chroy AmpilWhere the smell of dead humans isThick, and I hope my body is homeAnd I’m only here in spiritWhen we enter the templeAnd more dead bodies are strewnAnd weapons, uniforms, and amulets areStrewn like my hope for my nationLike my hope for my worldAnd free, terrified, we find no monksAnd we hear no one exceptThe cicadas’ buzz and the still leavesThe spirits of the dead possess meAnd the cicadas’ laugh and mockLike ghosts, my silent cry of fearAnd pain I can’t release, not evenTo Buddha whose defeat is before my eyes.I pray to my mother, without a resultAnd demons overpower me, terrify me,Poison my blood, tear out my soulThey have power I cannot fightAnd I want to surrender and obey.I could sing. I could dance.I could cry. I could laugh.But please let me do it peacefully and without fearBut they don’t want my surrenderThey want my destruction

Sarith Peou is a survivor of war and KhmerRouge genocide that ravaged Cambodia whenhe was a young boy. He escaped to a refugeecamp in Thailand in 1982 and was resettled inthe United States in 1987. He is now an inmateat Minnesota Correctional Facility Stillwater,serving a double life sentence. He has beenwriting his memoir and poems telling his warand Khmer Rouge experience. �


Focus onBasicsWhite Earth Reservation. Many wereeducationally disadvantaged beforethey came to prison. Most or all havetaken advantage of educational oppor-tunities offered here at Stillwater andattained their certificates of GeneralEducational Development (GED) orcollege diplomas. They live togetherwith the men on their unit, eattogether, go to recreation together,and go to school or work together.Their social connections are limitedto their unit. I hoped poetry wouldhave value as a tool for creatingcommunity and unity among diversegroups of male offenders; I wanted it to enhance the social interactionbetween racial and ethnic populationsin order to reduce conflict. I wantedpoetry to help students learn how toattain and improve their academicskills and cultivate positive attitudesabout themselves.

Where It AllHappens

Minnesota Correctional FacilityStillwater (MCF-STW) is Minnesota’slargest close-security institution foradult male offenders. Approximately200 of the 1,300 offenders participatein educational programming. Theaverage age of offenders is 34. Of thepopulation, about 50 percent arepeople of color. Approximately 72percent of the population has received a GED or high school equivalency,data documented by Minnesota’sDepartment of Corrections. Approxi-mately 70 percent of the prison popula-tion has committed violent offenses.

At Stillwater, a 13-member staffoffers adult education services in basicliteracy, adult basic education (ABE),preparation for the GED, vocationaltraining, English for speakers of otherlanguages (ESOL), life skills, andcollege courses available throughcorrespondence and the CorrectionsLearning Network (CLN).

I am the Literacy 3 instructor: I currently work with 25 men eachmorning and another 25 men eachafternoon for three hours, and conduct

Why Poetry?“Oppression, according to

Augusto Boal, is when one person isdominated by the monologue ofanother and has no chance to reply”(Gewertz, 2003). Inmates are toldwhat to do and often cannot replyunless they want to end up in segre-gation. “I feel more comfortable inthe circle of poets than I do sitting inthe visiting room with some of my

Focus onBasics


an evening literacy class once a weekfor men who work during the day. Atthe time I started using poetry withmy students, I was helping offendersraise their reading and math skills andget their GEDs. About a year ago, I

started working with offenders whohave their GED or high school diplomaand wanted to move on to highereducation.

Starting the Poetry Group

After we received the grant, Iposted a flier in the education depart-ment to see who would be interestedin joining a poetry group. I met with30 men from the various literacyclasses who responded to the flier.Since 1994, I have written andreceived more than 15 grants. Becauseof this and what the grants haveprovided in equipment and learningmaterials, the students were ecstaticto learn about the new grant that sup-ported Reggie Harris’s participation inthe program.

I explained the project and thetime involved. Criteria were minimal:Students could be at any academiclevel; they had to have an interest inpoetry and the ability to come for twohours on Tuesday evening and threehours one afternoon a week. Thatreduced the group to 20 members,which became the core Stillwater

Poetry Group (SPG). All but onehave their GED or high schooldiploma. Three have an associate’sdegree; only four have a reading levelbelow grade 13. The group fluctuatesin size somewhat because men go to

segregation, go home,or transfer to anotherprison. As in every-thing we do here,flexibility is the key.

TheWorkshops

Reggie Harris wasthe middle man inplanning the workshops.During a planningworkshop, the inmatessubmitted themes thatinterested them: man-hood, fatherhood,American dreams and

nightmares, and the value of a man orwoman. Then Harris contacted artiststo set up dates for them to come to theprison, connecting artists to themeshe felt were of interest to them andpairing them with offenders, includingsome who had never written poetrybefore. The outside artists e-mailedpoems and suggestionsfor the workshop tome to pass on to theoffenders and in turn I e-mailed work byoffenders to the artistsfor critique.

We ended uphaving an artist visitonce a week for threehours over the courseof almost nine months:spoken word artistDesdamona, writer J.Otis Powell, musicianDouglass Ewart, actorJames Williams, impro-visationalist MankweNdosi, meditation teacher/writer Jon Passi, poet Emmanuel Ortiz, andfilmmaker Rachel Raimist. All theseartists were involved in poetry in oneform or another.

SPG member David Doppler,who considers himself a visual artist,took on the job of offender facilitatorof the SPG, collecting poems fromthe offenders, placing them on afloppy disk, and handing it to me to e-mail to the outside artists.Offenders do not have access to e-mail, the Internet, or outside lines of communication while in theeducation department. Not only didDoppler help prepare for and runworkshops, but he also helped editpoems for others back in the cellblock where he and the offenders live.Sometimes, he and the other SPGmembers who live in the same blockgot together to produce group poems.

The community artists had nevermet members of the SPG until theactual workshops. The first workshopwas cofacilitated by Doppler andHarris. The theme, which Dopplercame up with, was The Message ofOur Poetry. “I started thinking aboutwhat is the meaning behind ourwriting. We can’t just come down hereand throw stuff together because itsounds nice, it has to have a message,”he said. Doppler helped create a lessonplan including readings, questions,and discussion and writing prompts.

Readings included “The RevolutionWill Not Be Televised” and “Messageto Messenger,” by Gil Scott-Heron.Other readings were original poems by Doppler and Harris. Discussions

Reggie Harris

Joey Davis and Carl Wesley


Focus onBasicsrevolved around these questions: Areself-development and social changeone and the same? Is there freedom ofexpression? Is there freedom in voicingyour truth? Who is the messenger and what makes a message relevant?During the discussion, a question wasasked about “Who gets to determinewho the messengers are?” Most of theoffenders commented, “The multi-media.” Another question was, “Caneveryone be the messenger?” Oneinmate replied, “No, I think you onlylisten to certain people. We don’t payattention to people who are nothing.”In the end, participants decided thatanyone could be the messenger,because if you can speak or write thenyou are a messenger. Students thenwrote using writing prompts such as “Iwrite because…,” “My voice trembleswhen…,” or “Freedom is…”

The workshops were held onThursday afternoons. The SPG thenmet the following Tuesday evening for two hours to make sure everythingwas ready for the new workshop aswell as to share and critique some oftheir poetry. Tuesday night is usuallyrecreation night or the night wheninmates have an opportunity to makephone calls to loved ones. Giving

those activities up showed the extentof the workshop participants’ concernfor their own work, interest in poetry,and genuine commitment to eachother’s writing and development. Theynow consider themselves as artists and

writers. According toDoppler, “We have acommunity providing for,nurturing for, and caring forone another. It’s not justabout writing but caring foreach other’s problems.”

Doppler explains, “In aprison environment inmatesare forced to developdefenses. Putting up walls in order to protect emotionsand reputations is the mostpopular way to deal withanyone when you areincarcerated. Some attemptto meet their social needs ingangs and cliques or try outsome new religion. Butmany find themselves evenmore alienated and buildeven stronger defenses.”

Evolution ofCriticism

An important part of the poetrywriting process is giving and receivingcriticism. I always try to be as honest asI can with my critiques in the regularclassroom and with the SPG —sometimes to a fault. Nonetheless, at

first, no one wanted to offendanyone by being too critical.Members read their poems to the group and then eachmember offered critique. Mostwould say, “That was a greatpoem, or good job.” As themen gained a certain comfortlevel, critiques became morehonest. The visiting artistsfacilitated this by sharing theirinner selves through theirpoetry, by role-modeling cri-tique, by talking to the men asfellow artists, and by treatingthem with respect. The mencommented, “This is the only

place where we can be honest andshare openly.”

A great example of honest cri-tique happened about three months intothe project, when the men rehearsedfor a spoken word presentation. They

organized into small groups and readtheir poetry while the others listened,then discussed how best to presenttheir work. The men no longer heldback their thoughts. One inmateshared a poem that used a negativeword about women. Other SPGmembers quickly spoke up about howthey felt. “I know you can do betterthan that. We have mothers, sisters,girlfriends. We don’t need to be usingthat word,” responded an inmate.

The day of the spoken wordevent was filled with anticipation.The men had practiced so hard tomemorize their work. In corners ofthe room you could see them, eyesclosed, lips moving as if in silentprayer, going over their poems.Several of the men asked if I couldprovide some water because theirmouths were becoming dry.

The event was a success. Aftereach man performed his poem, theaudience clapped. The men werepatted on the back and congratulated.Some of the men even garnered astanding ovation from the enthusiasticcrowd. Dan Frey, one of the outsidepoetry volunteers, commented, “Themen performed with closed eyes andclenched fists. The men spoke of theirlives, their anger, and their sadness. It

Reggie Harris

Juan Smith

Focus onBasics


was totally transformative. You couldsee eyes light up and high-voltagesmiles emanating from their faces.”

Everyone involved with the SPGdiscovered that poetry enables them toexpress anger about life, about prison,about the system, about families. “Ididn’t intend to write poetry ever. Ididn’t have any interest in poetrybecause it is so abstract. But now Iunderstand it better because it givesme another avenue to create,”remarked a member.

Another member stated, “BeforeI got involved with the SPG, I wrotepoetry but not for some time. When I joined the SPG, it rekindled mywriting of poetry a lot because I haveanother way of expressing myself on a larger scale other than personalcommunication like writing a letteror talking.”

In one workshop, outside artistMankwe Ndosi talked about movingthrough pain, not just writing aboutit. “I can’t keep blaming myparents; it’s time for me to takeresponsibility to transformmyself,” remarked an offender.

Another inmate, almost intears, revealed for the first time,a personal side, “Our history hasto start from me (referring to hisson). I’m here for 20 years of mylife for some stupid thing I didand now I can’t be a father tomy son. I have asked him, ‘Doyou realize why I am in here?’He tells me he does but I havenever told him I am in here forkilling a man.”

The men also learned abouteach other and their cultures.During a workshop about borders,an inmate wrote a play aboutcrossing the Mexican/Americanborder. He started out by talkingabout his Latino heritage andshared a poem about his mother.Then he had every SPG mem-ber play a part, including me.After the play, outside poetEmmanuel Ortiz told the men, “Ourstories are not told in high schooltextbooks or in libraries; we survive

culturally though the oral tradition.”Afterwards the men discussed whatkind of borders they find in theirlives. One inmate commented, “Weencounter borders everyday. Everyonehas their own groups, Black, White,or Hispanic. We only hang with thesame people in our groups. It’s likewalking into a different neighborhoodjust four cells down.”

Lessons LearnedEven though the grants are

coming to an end, the SPG stillwants to continue. The group and I have learned a lot this year. Thegroup suggested that next time wehave one artist come in four times amonth instead of a different one eachweek, so they could get to know theartist better and work through a thememore fully. Because we are in a prisonwe did encounter some difficulties.Most of the outside artists like to hug

when they greet others. I didn’trealize this until they hugged theinmates. We ended up having toinstitute a no hugging policy and just

shook hands for greeting. Sometimeswe had to work around lock-downs:when the cell blocks where theoffenders live are quarantined so thatofficers can go through their cellssearching for contraband. When thisoccurred, we had to reschedule theworkshop. Difficulties arose whenartists brought in restricted items. Ihad to write a letter noting everythingthe artist would bring in for the work-shop, including, for example, the nameof the CD or book and how many.Sometimes an artist decided to bringin another CD or five books insteadof two. Prison officials are not veryflexible because of security: if it wasn’ton the event letter, it could not bebrought in.

Appropriate forLower Skill Levels

Even though the SPG membershave higher skill levels than most

adult basic education students,this type of activity would workwell with students who arepreparing for the GED. Studentslearn a broad array of writingskills. They learn to organizetheir thoughts and express themcreatively. Not only do theyimprove on grammar andspelling but they also increasetheir vocabulary. They learn touse the rhyming dictionary, hip-hop dictionary, and thesaurus.Students can incorporate whatthey learn about history andpolitical science into theirpoems.

Benefits forParticipants andPrograms

The SPG has had a bigimpact on the local community.The Center for Media Arts in

Minneapolis hosted a Spoken Wordfundraising event for the SPG,featuring a videotape of the SPGgroup during their workshops, their

Emanuel Ortiz


Focus onBasicspoetry, and artistic collages depictingtheir poems. More than 100 peopleattended, including the offenders’parents and relatives, communitymembers, and local poets. One parentcame up to me in tears, saying, “TheSPG has been the best thing tohappen to my son while in prison.”Recently the SPG’s work has beendisplayed and presented atthe Macalester CollegeSixth Annual AfricanAmerican Studies Conferenceon “Incarcerated Intelligence:African Americans and thePrison Industrial Complex.”The SPG’s work is also being presented in Chicagocourtesy of the Illinois ArtsCouncil, by writer, director,and actor Michael Agnew.

Within the prisoncommunity, the SPG has ledothers to poetry. Part of thegrant included videotaping ofall the workshops to producea video later that could beused for presentations. We also tapedthe spoken word event and played it on our in-house educationaltelevision station for the rest of theinstitution to view. We had morepositive responses from the otheroffenders about what they saw.Requests to join the group came in aswell as requests to play other, similarvideos. Since then, the SPG hasreceived letters from offenders askingfor information on how to improvetheir writing skills, where they canget published, or if there are any moreopenings in the group.

Evidence of SuccessYou could say the SPG is a

success by the number of poems thatgot written, the goals that were met,or by the Best Practice Award itreceived from the CorrectionalEducation Association. In the end,however, the students are mosteloquent about the impact: “It issomething positive in here amongstall the negativity.”

“I would recommend this soothers can open up and share thingsthey hold inside. This workshop canbring truth and understanding to allparticipants.”

“These workshops have helpedme to open up.”

“This is one of the best ways tofoster positive rehabilitation.”

“I wish we had more time forthese workshops. I think it is kind offunny that someone in prison wouldrequest more time.”

Poetry did all of the above andmuch more. Men wrote and sharedpoems about their culture andupbringing. “We built a community ofguys who otherwise would never havetalked to each other,” commented onepoetry student.

Another noted, “When I listen toyou people talk, I see just how muchwe all have in common. I am justhappy to be here to listen andexperience this.”

As David Doppler wrote in theMarch 2005 issue of the prison’snewspaper The Prison Mirror, “TheSPG quickly transformed into muchmore than just writing and discussingthe rhythm and verse of poetry, butrather a place where the real life issuesthat lay beneath the surface of thepoems could be openly discussedwithout the fear of ridicule.”

The men wrote more, read more,and engaged more in discussions. One

offender, a victim of torture and asurvivor of Khmer Rouge genocide inCambodia, came to the group withthe idea that he could not writepoetry. He was very shy and hardlyspoke. Today, this same man is one ofthe most prolific poets in the groupand is not afraid to speak up about his work. “Poetry gave me a way to

write away some painfulexperiences. It’s hard to writethose experiences. I have tofeel the emotions again. Butwhen I get it onto paper, I feel like, wow, I’m happy.”

At the start of the pro-ject, another man mumbled ina soft voice, with head down,while he read his poetry.Gradually he listened to theencouragement of others andnow he speaks loudly, withconfidence. According to DanFrey, community volunteer forthe poetry group, “It has beeninteresting to see them matureas writers. You can see them

go through some of the same thingsyou went through as a writer. They arereally passionate about putting wordsto paper and sharing them.”

ReferencesGewertz, K. (2003). Augusto Boal’s

‘Theatre of the Oppressed’. HarvardUniversity Gazette. Retrieved March 9,2005, from http://www.hno.harvard.edu/gazette/2003/12.11/15-boal.html.

Miazga, M. (1998). The Spoken WordMovement of the 1990’s. RetrievedMarch 9, 2005, from http://www.msu.edu/~miazgama/spokenword.htm

About the AuthorPauline Geraci has worked in correctionseducation for 11 years in Florida andMinnesota. She is a literacy trainer forthe state of Minnesota and a readingcomprehension trainer for the AmericanFederation of Teachers. The author ofTeaching on the Inside, she is also a Lt.Colonel in the Army Reserves. Shecurrently teaches college preparatoryclasses and adult basic education atStillwater Correctional facility. �

Focus onBasics


Twelve women sataround the gracefullycurved table while the

autumn sun streamed throughthe high-arched library windows.In the late afternoon setting,the shadows of the tree limbsdanced long and tall againstthe spines of the books,countless books that lined the shelves like companionswaiting to be addressed. Some women scribbled notesfuriously while most listenedas the teacher read the line,“October has come again…”from Thomas Wolfe’s Of Time and the River.The sceneappears no different from thosethat take place in many adultliteracy classrooms in opera-tion across the United States,

except that these women werenot adult learners attendingclasses in the year 2005;instead, they were inmates atthe Massachusetts Reformatoryfor Women at Framinghamand the year was 1941.

At the time, the institutionoperated 26 other correctionaleducation classes. This number wouldcontinue to grow into the late 1950sand included classes in the visual arts,beginners’ English, poetry, typing,Bible study, metal craft, arithmetic,folk dancing, and a biography class runby the superintendent’s (warden’s)mother. This list does not include the correspondence courses, whichwere procured from the UniversityExtension Division of the StateDepartment of Education andincluded courses in chemistry, biology,Spanish, and Latin. In a span of 25

The Pendulum Swings 65 Years of Corrections Educationby Dominique T. Chlup

years, nearly 90 different classes wouldbe offered. In addition to the classes,the well known and well-to-docontributed significantly to the prison,including Robert Frost, ThorntonWilder, Eleanor Roosevelt, EuniceKennedy, and the entire BostonSymphony Orchestra (Chlup, 2004).

Legislative Changesin 1994

Enter that same institution todayand you will find that its educationaldepartment offers far fewer classes, themajority of which focus on basic educa-tion. Classes now include adult basiceducation (ABE), communicationslab (designed for graduates of theEnglish for speakers of other lan-guages [ESOL] who have a diploma ora certificate of General EducationalDevelopment [GED] in their nativelanguage), ESOL, GED, pre-GED,mandatory literacy, and special educa-tion. This situation differs markedlyfrom the 26 classes available in 1941.

To its credit, Framingham is one ofthe prisons that still offer inmates theopportunity to obtain a college degree.(A variety of academic classes areavailable to inmates

Chronology of Corrections Education

1789: Correctional Education Movement in the United Statesbegan with clergyman William Rogers offering instruction to inmates at Philadelphia’s Walnut Street Jail.

1816: Elizabeth Fry began teaching women inmates and theirchildren to read in London’s Newgate Gaol [Jail]. This examplelater served as a model for American women prison reformers.

1820s: Rival penitentiary plans were put into effect: The Auburn(New York) Plan had inmates sleep alone but come together towork. The Pennsylvania Model kept prisoners in solitaryconfinement for the entire period of their incarceration.

1820s & 1830s: American women concerned themselves with the plight of female prisoners during the Second GreatAwakening, which popularized perfectionist theology, advocatingthe possibility of individual and social salvation.

1825: The first institution for juvenile delinquents, the New YorkHouse of Refuge, opened its doors. Prior to this, children wereoften housed with adults in prisons.

1826: Jared Curtis became the first chaplain of New York’s AuburnPrison. He gave 160 students in 31 classes Bible instruction.

1824-1837: During the period surrounding and including AndrewJackson’s presidency, Americans believed that crime was posing a fundamental threat to the stability and order of republicansociety. This gave way to the Rehabilitative Ideal: the notion thatan individual’s behaviors could be changed through rehabilitativeefforts.

1833: The Boston Prison Discipline Society created the SabbathSchool Movement, which had 700 tutors in 10 prison schoolsinstructing 1,500 scholars (prisoners).

1833: During the same year, the chaplain remarked that whilebeing a male convict there was tolerable, to be a female convict[there] would be a fate worse than death.

1846: In England, corrections educator Mary Carpenter openedher first Ragged School: a charitable school dedicated toteaching poor children literacy skills, so that they could readthe Bible. Carpenter became renowned for her work withjuvenile offenders and her early influence on the field ofcorrectional education.



responded to their Prisoner Access toPostsecondary Education Survey, 685facilities offer inmates postsecondaryeducation of some type (Contardo,

personal communication, 2005). Ingeneral, it was offered by communitycolleges and often one college wouldoffer courses to multiple facilities.When the Institute for HigherEducation study is completed, itshould provide a more comprehensivepicture of the access that prisoners

currently have to postsecondaryprograms across the country. In 1994,some corrections directors predictedthat the financial commitment to

postsecondary education in thefuture would significantly increasedue to replacement or supplementalfunding for programs (Welsh,2002) — that is, funding procuredby organizations and individualswho would see the value of inmates’access to an education whileincarcerated.

One example of this can beseen in the agreement amongBoston University, Partaker’s Inc. (a nonprofit, faith-basedorganization), and several of thecorrectional institutions in thegreater Boston area, includingFramingham. This collaborationprovides tuition and mentoring for inmates enrolled in a collegeprogram. The amount and type of education

offered in corrections seem to changedepending on the approach andphilosophy to corrections that aredominant at the time. Historic links between prison reform andcorrections education show thatwhen a punitive approach (“lock


Focus onBasicsvia Boston University.) Many of thecountry’s corrections college educationprograms were eliminated with thepassage of the Violent CrimeControl and Law EnforcementAct of 1993 and the HigherEducation Reauthorization Act of1994. The acts, which repealedPell Grant funding for prisonersenrolled in college programs,significantly reduced the number ofpostsecondary programs availablefor inmates. Michele Welsh, whosurveyed corrections directors fromthe 50 states and the District ofColumbia about the effects of theelimination of Pell Grants, foundthat they perceived “a significantdecrease in access, quality, andsuccess due to the elimination ofPell Grant eligibility for inmates.”She concluded that “the loss ofPell Grant eligibility has reducedcorrectional education” (Welsh,2002, p. 157).

What’s BeingOffered Now?

Unpublished policy data fromthe Institute for Higher Educationindicate that of the 44 states that

1860s: Dorothea Dix surveyed 320 penal institutions andalmshouses (poorhouses) up and down the Atlantic seaboard in an effort to learn about and document the inmates’ livingconditions. Her findings indicated that extensive prison reformwas needed.

1864: Hannah B. Chickering, together with several of her contem-poraries, opened the Dedham Temporary Asylum for theDischarged in Massachusetts.

1867: Enoch Wines and Theodore Dwight were commissioned bythe New York Prison Association to conduct a nationwide surveyand evaluation of penal methods. Their Report on the Prisonsand Reformatories of the United States and Canada called forchanges to the prison system.

1869: The first statutory provision for separate male and femaleprison institutions was passed.

1870: Governor Rutherford B. Hayes (later 19th president of theUnited States) welcomed 130 wardens, chaplains, judges, andhumanitarians to the Cincinnati National Prison Congress tobegin the work that would later be termed the beginning of thecountry’s prison reformatory movement.

1873: The first Women’s Prison opened its doors in Indiana. Two

types of penal institutions were established for women: thetraditional penitentiary model was based on custodial andpunitive measures; and the model that emphasized reform wasbased on the notion of reforming and rehabilitating inmates.

1876-1900: Zebulon Brockway became Superintendent at theElmira Reformatory in New York. He set a pioneering example forthe social, academic, vocational, and special education ofprisoners.

1877: The second Reformatory for Women opened inFramingham, MA. Clara Barton, best-known for founding theAmerican Red Cross in 1881 at the age of 60, was Superinten-dent for the year 1883. She accepted the position only after thegovernor threatened to give the position to a man, whichchallenged the notion that women’s reformatories be run solelyby and for women.

1897: Construction of the first federal prison began inLeavenworth, Kentucky. It would take 30 years to complete.

1901-1929: Progressive Era included a focus on prison reformand an emphasis on educating prisoners.

1900-1914: Katharine Bement Davis, superintendent of BedfordHills [New York] Reformatory for Women, was the first female

“Historic links betweenprison reform and

corrections educationshow that when

a punitive approach(“lock them up and

throw away the key”) is ascendant, educational

programming is de-emphasized.”

Focus onBasics


them up and throw away the key”) isascendant, educational programmingis de-emphasized. Instead inmatesmay spend 17 hours a day locked in their cells, with one hour a dayoutside for exercise (Prison ActivistResource Center, retrieved May 16,2004). At present, this approach isfollowed by several correctionalinstitutions. This model differs froma rehabilitative approach in whichsentencing is viewed as the punish-ment and time spent in correctionalinstitutions focuses on rehabilitation,counseling, overcoming addictions,acquiring vocational skills, andacademic learning. Earlier reform-atory models sought to take aProgressive Era, rehabilitativeapproach (Gehring, 1995).

The Last Decade In 1994, during the congressional

hearings that debated the repeal ofPell Grant funding, a state judgedenounced this generation ofcriminals as “dead to us.” She arguedvehemently that they should all be locked in prison and the key be thrown away (Zahm, 1997).Unfortunately, this mentality still

forms the basis of the currentconservative attitudes towardcriminal justice. Howard Davidson(2000), a sociologist and researcheron prison education, has argued thatseveral prison administrators are inservice to this ideologically slantedview as they engage in the concept of “new penology.” In this approach,mandatory corrections educationclasses are used to control idleness,manage risk, and “maintain order bykeeping prisoners occupied atseemingly meaningful work” (p. 393).Missing in this new penology is thegoal of actually educating prisoners.

Loss of Pell Grants for collegeeducation in correctional facilitieswas not the only change effectedunder the 1994 legislation. Underthe Workforce Investment Act(WIA) of 1998, the requirements in effect under the Adult EducationAct (1964-1998) — that, at min-imum, 10 percent of federal ABEfunds be set aside for correctionsinstitutions — were changed. WIAallows only a maximum of 10 percentof ABE funds to be used for correc-tional facilities. Under the VocationalEducation Act, the minimum require-ment of one percent has likewise

now become a maximum of onepercent (Spangenberg, 2004, p. 5).

Future Directions The pendulum may have begun to

swing in a new direction. Accordingto a recent report, Current Issues inCorrectional Education: A Compilationand Discussion, the last few years havemarked a shift away from the “lockthem up” mentality. In the fall of2003, the Council for Advancementof Adult Literacy (CAAL), incooperation with the CorrectionalEducation Association (CEA),surveyed 15 leaders in corrections and adult education. These leadersbelieved that most recently “attitudeshave begun to turn back frompunishment to rehabilitation withmore emphasis being placed oneducation in corrections” (ibid, p. 5).These same individuals reported that“10 years ago, the trend was to cut off programs, including education,because the predominant impulse wastoward punishment” (ibid, p. 6).Today, the impulse is shiftingtoward programming that will helprehabilitate and transition prisonersback into society. However, the report

superintendent to attempt adapting school education to theparticular needs of the reformatory population, thereby settingan example for other reformatories.

1914: Davis was the first woman named head of the New YorkCity Department of Correction.

1913: Thomas Mott Osborne posed as the prisoner Tom Brown inAuburn Prison to learn first hand the conditions. Later that yearhe became the chairman of the commission established toreform the New York penal system. He established a system ofself-government run by and for the inmates called the MutualWelfare League at the Auburn Prison in New York State.

1914: Osborne was appointed warden of Sing Sing Prison, wherehe organized another Mutual Welfare League.

1928-1968: Edna Mahan’s tenure as Superintendent of ClintonFarms in New Jersey spanned these years. Her educational workwith female inmates is considered exemplary.

1929: Opposition from correctional officers and politiciansbrought about Osborne’s departure from Sing Sing Prison andthe collapse of the Mutual Welfare League.

1929: The Federal Bureau of Prisons turned rehabilitation into alegislated policy concerned with developing an effective

classification system and individualized decisions regardingdiscipline and treatment.

1931: Austin MacCormick founded the Correctional EducationAssociation. The professional organization is still in existence(www.ceanational.org).

1931: MacCormick completed a survey of 110 of 114 correc-tional programs for adults. His results were published in theseminal book The Education of Adult Prisoners: A Survey and a Program.

1932-1957: Dr. Miriam Van Waters’ tenure as Superintendent atthe Reformatory for Women in Framingham, MA, spanned theseyears. The reformatory made education one of its central tenets.She banned the term “prisoner” and had the inmates officiallycalled “students.”

1937: The Journal of Correctional Education was founded.

1946-1962: The murder rate decreased 6.9 percent, which gavefoundation to rehabilitative optimism.

1954: The American Prison Association changed its name tothe American Correctional Association and encouraged itsmembers to redesignate their prisons as “correctionalinstitutions.” continued on page 24


Focus onBasicsof Correctional Education, 46 (2), 52-59.

MacCormick, A. H. (1931). The Educationof Adult Prisoners: A Survey and aProgram. New York: The NationalSociety of Penal Information.

Prison Activist Resource Center, “Womenin Prison,” Retrieved May 16, 2005from http://prisonactivist.org/women/women-inprison.html.

Spangenberg, G. (2004). Current Issues inCorrectional Education: A Compilation andDiscussion. Washington, DC: Councilfor Advancement of Adult Literacy.

Welsh, M. (2002). “The effects of theelimination of Pell Grant eligibility forstate prison inmates.” The Journal ofCorrectional Education, 53 (4), 154-185.

Zahm, B. (Director). (1997). The LastGraduation. New York: Zahm Pro-ductions & Deep Dish TV.

About the AuthorDominique T. Chlup is an AssistantProfessor of Adult Education at TexasA&M University as well as CenterDirector of the Texas Center for theAdvancement of Literacy and Learning(TCALL). She worked in correctionseducation in New York and Massachusetts;in Texas she is on the Correctional Edu-cation Association Region V ConferenceSteering Committee. �

also reminds us that public policy is determined by the legislature. Atboth the federal and state levels,current legislatures are dominated byconservative members, who usuallylean toward the punitive rather thanreformative approach to corrections.

ConclusionFormer Supreme Court Chief

Justice Warren Burger once observedthat prisoners should be allowed to learn their way out of prison. Asurprising advocate of correctionaleducation programs, this conservativejustice, who served on the SupremeCourt during the 1970s, felt thatprisoners are entitled to educationprograms. He considered it aninjustice not to try to rehabilitateinmates while they are in institutionalcare. In the current climate, in whichsome policymakers and politicalofficials view correctional educationas unfashionable and unimportant,the Critical Poetry Project at theMinnesota Correctional FacilityStillwater presents an example ofwhat remains possible even whennationally the tide of support ebbs(see p. 15). This project seems to

show that we have more reasons thannot to support these programs. Earlierin our history, women’s reformatories,like the one described at the start ofthis piece, were credited with havingeducational work serve as “thebackbone of the institution’s program”(MacCormick, 1931, p. 292). Whilewe may seem a long way from thathistory, the project at Stillwatersuggests that the legacy of our pastfocus on education still persists,informing the work of manycorrections educators today.

ReferencesChlup, D. T. (2004). Educative Justice: The

History of the Educational Programs andPractices at the Massachusetts Reformatoryfor Women, 1930-1960. Unpublisheddoctoral dissertation, Harvard UniversityGraduate School of Education.

Contardo, J. (2005). Personal communi-cation with the author, 12 May.

Davidson , H. (2000). “Control anddemocracy in adult correctionaleducation.” In A. Wilson & E. Hayes(eds.), Handbook of Adult and ContinuingEducation (pp. 392-407). San Francisco:Jossey-Bass.

Gehring, T. (1995). “Characteristics of cor-rectional instruction, 1789-1875.” Journal

1955: An international rehabilitative emphasis was formalized inthe United Nations Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners.

1950s & 1960s: The Prisoners’ Rights Movement began duringthis period. Prisoners sought enforcement of their constitutionalrights through the writ of habeas corpus and the Civil Rights Act.

1960s: The Chino Experiment in California followed a therapeuticcommunity method designed to change the antisocial behaviorof offenders. The prison became a community center for specialtraining, work release, and family contacts.

1965: The Survey for the President’s Commission on LawEnforcement and Administration of Justice, carried out by theNational Council on Crime and Delinquency, found that manyinstitutions were brutal and degrading and did nothing to prepareprisoners for re-entry.

1965: The Texas Prison College system was established, alongwith an emphasis on higher education for inmates.

1970s: A movement arose to oppose and discredit the rehabilita-tive approaches because of the belief that the therapeutic modelof rehabilitation led to the abuse of intrusive therapies.

1971: Inmate uprising at Attica [New York] prison resulted in thedeaths of 11 prison employees and 32 unarmed prisoners. All of

the prisoners and four of the employees killed were killed bygunfire as the authorities reclaimed the prison.

1970-1994: Mandatory and minimum sentencing practices ledto the doubling and redoubling of incarceration rates.

1993 & 1994: The Violent Crime Control and Law EnforcementAct of 1993 and the Higher Education Reauthorization Act of 1994eliminated Pell Grant Funding for prisoners, prompting manycollege programs for prisoners to shut down.

1980s & 1990s: A new category of prisons was established:private prisons, built and sometimes operated by for-profitcorporations under contract to the federal and/or stategovernment.

1995-Present: A conservative approach to the treatment ofprisoners, with an emphasis on increased severity of punish-ment, reintroduction of capital punishment, lengthening of prisonterms, and continued incarceration for drug-related offenses.

Much of this information comes from Rothman, D., & Morris, N. Eds. (1998).The History of the Prison: The Practice of Punishment in Western Society. NewYork: Oxford University Press; and Gehring, T. “The History of CorrectionalEducation.” Available on the Correctional Education Association’s web site at:http://www.ceanational.org �

Focus onBasics


Everyone in Vermont isentitled to a free andappropriate public

education, and it must beequal for all Vermontersregardless of race, age, gender,religion, or personal condition.It is a basic civil right writteninto the state’s constitution.The overwhelming majority of the state’s incar-cerated population arehigh school dropouts.A great many of themare youth aged 17 to22 years. The statelegislature was con-cerned that offenders,especially youngoffenders, did not haveaccess to public educa-tion. In response, thestate enacted in its PublicInstitutions and Correc-tions statutes Public Law28VSA120, which created anindependent school within theDepartment of Corrections,approved by the VermontDepartment of Education,able to award secondary creditand high school diplomas.This independent school hascome to be known as theCommunity High School ofVermont (CHSVT).

With 47 full-time teachers andapproximately 350 part-time adjunctteachers distributed among the state’snine correctional facilities, the schooloffers courses and instruction to youthand adults. The CHSVT is also pre-sent in eight community probation andparole sites to allow students to com-plete schooling they started in prison.

The state law that createdCHSVT made educa-

tion mandatory for incarceratedoffenders who areunder 22 years ofage and who do notyet have a highschool diploma oran equivalent credential. School isvoluntary for older offenders and high school graduates. As Vermont’slargest high school, CHSVT has atotal enrollment of more than 4,100students: approximately 85 percentmale, 15 percent female. Of the 3,206

individuals served in 2004, 2,179 wereincarcerated in correctional facilitiesand 1,027 lived in community settings.These enrollment figures are deceptive,however. That they can be tabulatedand readily presented in two sentencesmight cause one to envision a large,static, and captive population ofstudents that is parceled out intovarious classrooms from September to June, completing coursework untilthey either graduate or their sentencesare completed. The reality is morecomplicated. A typical offender mayenter one correctional facility, thenmove numerous times to other facilitieswithin the system. Disciplinaryactions, threats of violence, healthand safety needs, failure to meetprogramming expectations, courtappearances, and population man-agement all contribute to inmatemovement. Offenders who reside in

the community under field super-vision or on probation can receivedisciplinary sanctions that sendthem back to prison for ruleviolations, causing individuals tobounce back and forth betweenprison and the community. It is not unusual to find that oneperson has moved as many as

16 times in a year.

As well as thestudent body being transitory, manystudents are also former dropouts andmany have long histories of schoolfailure. CHSVT faculty membershave created a structure and delivery

The Community HighSchool of VermontAn Uncommon High School in An Uncommon Settingby Tom Woods


Focus onBasicssystem to re-engage students. Theyhave had to cast off many traditionalpractices of public education becausethey didn’t work with the studentswhen they were in public school andthey aren’t effective with them now.The CHVST delivery system iseffective because it: motivatesstudents by providing a pathway to a real diploma; emphasizes student-centered approaches; accommodatesindividualized student needs; andfosters positive teacher-studentrelationships.

IndividualGraduation Plans

The CHSVT diploma is thesame as any other public schooldiploma awarded in Vermont. Tograduate, students must earn 20credits in the school’s course ofstudy, including credits in Englishlanguage arts, mathematics,science, social studies, health, art,trades and vocational studies, andcomputer studies. In addition,students must demonstrate aminimum level of proficiency inreading, writing, and mathematics.

Entering students’ gradua-tion needs vary greatly. Somewere expelled from school whenthey were in the eighth gradeand may not have earned anyhigh school credits. Others mayneed just one or two more credits toearn a high school diploma. At anygiven time, 40 percent of studentshave a prior history of being placed in special education classes. In manyinstances students’ academic skills aresignificantly behind those of their agepeers. Still other students may havecompleted the required coursework toearn credit in their public school, butwere not awarded any credit becausethey had too many absences. Somestudents are returning to school after30 or 40 years.

No matter what the student’sbackground may be, faculty work withhim or her to craft what CHSVT calls an individual graduation plan: a

roadmap for attainment of a highschool diploma. In the graduationplanning process, teachers interviewstudents to learn what their strengthsare. Teachers find out what thestudents want to learn more about,what they have done since leavingschool, and what they want to accom-plish in the future. The school obtainsstudents’ prior education records andtranscripts. Teachers and studentsdevise ways to assess and award creditfor the prior learning. Looking atwhat has already been accomplished

and what still remains, the studentand teacher map out a strategy forfulfilling the remaining graduationrequirements. The students choose thecourses to meet these requirements.

The individual graduation planbecomes a working document used torecord a student’s progress as he or sheearns credits. It includes transcripts,charts showing credits earned andcredits needed, worksheets detailinghow needed credits will be earned, anda statement verifying the student’s pro-ficiency in the basic skills of reading,writing, and mathematics. The gradua-tion plan resides physically in a student’seducation file and follows the studentwherever he or she goes in the system.

Choosing CoursesWorking within the school’s

graduation requirements, studentsdecide which courses to take. Teachersare encouraged to teach their passionsand, in turn, respond to students’interests. This has resulted in a widevariety of course offerings rangingfrom the traditional textbook course tohighly experiential, hands-on learning.

Classes tend to be small, withperhaps four to eight students in each.The hour-long classes are usually

scheduled two or three days perweek; occasionally they run justone day, or every day. The numberof classes students take at anyone time varies because studentshave different demands on theirtime. Some, for example, areparticipating in programmingrelated to their substanceaddiction; others have facilityjobs or work in correctionsindustries. As mentionedpreviously, students under 22years old are required by state law to go to school if they do notalready have a diploma. Theymust attend courses totaling atleast 15 hours of class time perweek, or approximately threehours of school per day.

The school enters intoindependent learning contractswith students. These contracts

may follow the prescribed course ofstudy, but the student does some or allof the work independently outside ofclass. As an alternative, a contractmay involve a unique set of learningobjectives that do not fit any existingcourse, but involve an area of studyabout which the student is passionate.For example, one student foundhimself in need of just one moreEnglish language arts credit, but noneof the language arts courses offered athis school appealed to him. He and ateacher worked out a plan wherebythe student would study dogs andkenneling, a subject about which hewas passionate. They agreed on courserequirements that addressed language

“The CHVST deliverysystem is effective

because it: motivatesstudents by providing a

pathway to a real diploma;emphasizes student-centered approaches;

accommodatesindividualized student

needs; and fosters positiveteacher-studentrelationships.”

Focus onBasics


arts topics of reading, responding,verbal and written expression, andresearch. The student was excitedabout coming away with not just thelanguage arts credit he needed butalso valuable information that wouldserve him well when he starts his ownkennel: a goal of his when he returnsto the community.

GED?Sometimes a new student, who

doesn’t know about graduation plans,says, “I don’t want school. I only wanta GED [certificate of completion of the tests of General EducationalDevelopment].” The CHSVT prefersa diploma, but it will assist anystudent in attaining a GED ifthat is the student’s goal. TheCHSVT will help studentsprepare, make arrangements fortesters to come to the site, andpay for the tests. Faculty mem-bers use this as an opportunityto connect with the studentsand encourage them to use theGED as a starting point forcontinuing their educationrather than as an end point.The school often finds thatgoals change for the student whoinitially “only wants a GED,” once he or she considers new options andis exposed to other students’ ideasthrough attendance in classes andgraduation ceremonies, and lookingat transcripts that list newly earnedcredits. Students see others makingprogress on their diplomas and theywant to experience that success too.Many students who earn a GED goon and work on their diploma.

MotivationWhen students meet with

CHSVT teachers for the first time,they often report a sense of hope-lessness about their prospects forgraduation. They say that theirprevious difficulties in school makethem think it will be impossible orpointless to try to earn a diploma.

The CHSVT faculty motivatestudents by showing them that gettinga diploma is not the impossible taskthey think it is. Teachers make theschool environment a place wherestudents will feel safe and be treatedrespectfully. In such an environment,there is kindness; there are no put-downs. Teachers work to create theidea that when students walk throughthe classroom door, they leave theprison environment and enter a worldthat respects and values learning, inwhich everyone has something to offer.Confidentiality is respected. In onlytwo situations are teachers required toreport to authorities what is said inthe classroom: when the teacherbelieves that a crime is being, or is

about to be, committed; and when theteacher believes that an individual’ssafety is at risk.

Commenting on the character ofthe CHSVT, students said:

You don’t remind us of teachers.You don’t come in and preach to us.You work around my needs. —J.H.

You treat us like we’re in school,not prison. It’s a student/teacherrelationship versus an inmate/guardrelationship. —D.S.

At first I didn’t want to come toschool, but I got to like it. I evengot another person to join the healthclass. Now he’s in school all thetime. —S.G.

Frequent feedback is anothermotivating factor. Students canmonitor their own progress by pullingout their graduation plans. Theyreceive credit awards soon after they

complete course requirements, andwith everyone talking about progress,credits, graduation plans, and diplo-mas, even the students who arrivedthinking a diploma was beyond reachbegin to see that a diploma is possible.

Receiving credit on the basis of what they know or can do ratherthan on time spent in class is alsomotivating. Tests, portfolios, projects,and other student-generated productsserve as assessments that documentstudents’ knowledge and skills. Theseproducts are used to fulfill courserequirements necessary to earn credit.For instance, a mathematics coursemay use a textbook that has chapterpretests and posttests. Students canleapfrog over chapters they already

know, or even the whole text,by passing chapter pretests.

In a creative writing course,the requirements may ask a stu-dent to compile a portfolio of avariety of types of writing. Thewriting must show evidence ofproper use of writing conven-tions, use of the writing process,and clear expression of ideas infinal drafts. A student may writevery quickly outside of class toproduce the finished portfolio. It

sometimes takes time for students toget used to the idea that, in CHSVT,they can work through the require-ments very quickly if they so choose.This provides a strong incentive forstudents to study outside the classroom.

The school recognizes learningthat takes place everywhere. Teachersassess prior learning through tests,portfolios, and assigned tasks thatrequire students to demonstrate skillsor use knowledge. Prior learningcredits are powerful motivators. Theyjump-start a student’s education,particularly when he or she has noacademic credits to begin with.

Instead of using grades, theschool measures progress by assessingstudents’ proficiency in fulfilling thecourse requirements. In a history class,for example, a student may be asked todemonstrate certain skills in archivingand handling old documents. This

“Instead of using grades,the school measures

progress by assessingstudents’ proficiency in

fulfilling the courserequirements.”


Focus onBasicscould be met by observing the studentas he or she uses proper techniques. Inan oil painting class, one requirementmay ask a student to use elements ofcomposition such as line, texture, andnegative space. A teacher might assessthe student’s ability by asking him orher to point out these elements in hisor her completed paintings. In a mathcourse in which the course objectivesinclude performing basic operationswith whole numbers, a math testthat asks the student to performthese operations will be a suit-able assessment. A definedminimum score on the test wouldsignify proficiency. The import-ant point is that if the studentdoes not demonstrate proficiency,it doesn’t mean the he or she hasfailed. It just means the studenthas not yet reached the necessarylevel of proficiency to receivecredit. The student is given asmuch time as he or she needsand is encouraged to keep tryinguntil he or she succeeds.

Open Entry/Open Exit

The CHSVT has adopted amodel it calls open-entry/open-exit to make it possible to accom-modate students who enter and leavein midstream. In this model, as muchas possible, courses are designed sothat each lesson can stand alone. A“stand-alone” class can be envisionedby thinking of a guest lecture series ata museum, or a guided nature walkwith a park ranger. People attendingsuch activities need not have attendedprevious sessions to benefit from thecurrent one. In the CHSVT Historyof the 20th Century course eachdecade is addressed separately overjust a few classes. A student may not have been present for the 1920slessons and started sometime duringthe 1960s lessons. The student canstart anywhere in the course and willeventually be able to pick up all thelessons when the cycle repeats. Thisworks very well for most subject areas,

and enables teachers to award partialcredits when students leave beforecompleting a course.

Mathematics requires both scope(what is taught) and sequence (inwhat order) because a student mustwork through a definite progression ofmath concepts and skills. In a CHSVTmathematics course, each studentworks at his or her own pace. In theclassroom some students may be

learning place value, others fractionaddition, still others algebra or geometry.The teacher does not say, “today we are going to study ______,” butinstead cruises among students, pro-viding individual help and feedback as needed.

Both stand-alone and the self-paced individualized methods ofinstruction are extremely well suitedto the transitory nature of the studentbody. Both are also very conducive toadaptations and accommodations forstudents with special needs or thosewith large gaps in their knowledgebase. They allow teachers to work withthe student at his or her level ratherthan force teachers to aim for themiddle of the class’s range of abilities.Each student gets exactly what he orshe needs.

Because failure in school has been

such a big part of CHSVT students’lives, the school works very hard toremove the possibility of failure. Moststudents who were once labeled aslearning disabled or emotionally dis-turbed in public schools do just fine inthe CHSVT regular education program.This is because features common tospecial education programs, such asindividualized self-paced instructionand small groups, are built in and

available to every student.

Challenges Old and New

CHSVT has had its bumps.Corrections education in Vermontwas essentially born of a problem.The state’s youth who ran afoul of the law and ended up in statecorrectional facilities were notbeing educated under local educa-tional jurisdictions. Moreover, thelocal school district did not wantto pay for students’ education oncethey were under the custody orsupervision of the Department ofCorrections. The legislation thatcreated the school opened up analternative way to provide educa-tion to the state’s incarceratedyouth. The political battle remains

over how to pay for it: should it befunded with general fund tax dollarsas it is now, or should education fundsbe used to pay for prison education?

Corrections issues are sometimesat odds with education issues. Securitymay deem it necessary to lock down a living unit, at worst putting a halt to all education for the day. At best,students come to classes, but they areagitated and distracted. The schoolcan live with lock-downs and othersecurity concerns. A more pressingand serious concern is attitudes. A fewindividuals (fortunately a very few)believe that inmates are incapable ofchange, that they will always con youif you let them, and that the onlyeffective means of management arepunishment and force. This attitude is out of step with the Department ofCorrections’ mission and runs counter

“. . . teachers try to informall corrections personnel of

the school’s activities.They seek to involve staff

in individual studentmatters, for example,

inviting officers to attend a graduation ceremony,

asking officers to assist inreminding a student to

attend a class, or toprovide encouragement.”

Focus onBasics


to fundamental beliefs of the school.To combat this attitude, teachers tryto inform all corrections personnel ofthe school’s activities. They seek toinvolve staff in individual student mat-ters, for example, inviting officers toattend a graduation ceremony, askingofficers to assist in reminding a studentto attend a class, or to provide encour-agement. A continual public relationscampaign is waged in which correctionsstaff are reminded that the school’ssuccesses with students are madepossible by the help and cooperationof all staff, and that the school assistssecurity by taking the young, difficultinmates and engaging them inproductive activity rather thanallowing them to be idle.

A form of détente has evolved be-tween the CHSVT and Departmentof Corrections. The school does notmake corrections decisions. Correctionsdoes not make education decisions.Occasionally the lines are crossed, but,for the most part, the détente holds.

Looking ahead, many challengesremain. The school has recentlycompleted what it considers to be itscore curriculum, and now must decidehow that core should be implementedat all of its sites. Faculty members arealso working to define better themethods for awarding credit for priorlearning, in much the same way thatprior learning credits are awarded at thecollege level. The school is attemptingto expand its use of course syllabi,which will improve the practice ofmaking credit requirements explicitfor students and keeping track ofstudents’ progress.

In the future, we will attempt toresolve our longstanding dispute withthe state Department of Education.The funding issue, especially fundingfor special education, is thorny. Sincemore than 40 percent of our studentshave a history of receiving specialeducation services, it must bedetermined whether the studentcontinues to be eligible for specialservices while incarcerated. Makingthese determinations and complyingwith special education law requires

personnel and resources. The schoolhas difficulty keeping up with thepaperwork requirements. In most cases,however, because of the school’s modelof education delivery, in which allstudents can work at their own paceand receive individual help when it isneeded, students don’t need specialeducation services while at CHSVT.They are able to make progress throughthe regular education program suc-cessfully. As a result, the schoolreceives very little special educationmoney from the state Department ofEducation. In fact, CHSVT specialeducation has been level funded since1987, despite a threefold increase instudent numbers.

The special education issue leadsinto the much larger and more com-plicated issue of providing educationat the school’s eight community sites.The CHSVT is at loggerheads withthe Department of Education overwho pays for special education at thecommunity sites. While acceptingfinancial responsibility for specialeducation students who are incar-cerated, the CHSVT maintains thatyouth in the community on probationare the financial responsibility of thecommunity, and local school districtsmust pick up the tab. The Depart-ment of Education disagrees. Theresult of this impasse is there is nospecial education for youth in theCHSVT community sites.

Hiding just under the surface ofthis disagreement is another issue.Right now, in a very few cases, localschool districts are referring studentsto the CHSVT community sites, asan alternative placement, and thestudents want to attend. The schoolwas never intended to serve youthwho are not under the custody orsupervision of the Department ofCorrections. At present the CHSVThas no authority to bill schooldistricts for services rendered. Thishas not stopped CHSVT fromaccepting community students.Where this will lead and whether it isgood for Vermonters is as yet unclear.CHSVT faculty members have

expertise with students who havetraditionally been labeled as difficult,and the school has establishedpractices that help meet thesestudents’ needs. The larger issue ofgovernance will need to be decided.Vermonters will have to ask them-selves: Do we want a statewide schoolto serve some of our citizens? If so, to what standards will it be heldaccountable? If not, how will weenable local schools to educate all of our youth?

A DecadeMeanwhile, CHSVT is entering

its tenth year as an independentschool. Last year it awarded 106diplomas. That’s a long way from the18 diplomas awarded in its first year.The school has changed attitudes ofoffenders from one of “I dropped outwhen I was 16 and you can’t make me go to school” to one in which anoffender enters a new correctionalfacility and stops at the school officeto ask, “Where is my grad plan, whereare my credits?” The school has seenits students participate in rowing raceson Lake Champlain; history studentshave worked in cooperation withmuseums and town historical societiesto help organize and preserve theircollections; CHSVT art exhibitionshave been held on college campuses;horticulture students have enteredprize-winning vegetables at state fairs.Graduates don their navy blue robesand mortarboards as the school itselfdons the common trappings of a highschool in a most uncommon setting,helping to ensure all Vermonters’constitutional entitlement to anappropriate public education.

About the AuthorTom Woods is member of the faculty ofthe Community High School of Vermont,where he works as a corrections instructorand special education instructor at theCaledonia Community Work Camp, aminimum security correctional facility inSt. Johnsbury. Tom also serves on theschool’s Curriculum Policy and PracticesCommittee. �


Focus onBasics

Iran my hand across thepile of clothes laid out onthe bed. This was not the

ordinary search for the perfectoutfit. I needed a pair of pantsthat did not require a belt,had pockets that could beturned inside out for inspection,and had no elastic in thewaistband. The shirt neededto be tucked in, have sleeves,and preferably not have but-tons. Denim material of anykind was forbidden. Socks hadto be worn with shoes thatcontained no metal, so sneakerswere out of the question as theeyelets were metal, and theshoes needed to be able to slipoff and on easily. The bra wasthe biggest obstacle. I couldnot wear an underwire bra,but it was absolutelymandated that Iwear a bra. At firstI had thought my only optionwould be towear a sportsbra, but when I asked theEducationalDirector aboutthat as a possibilityI was told that thatwould count as a secondshirt — and that was strictlyforbidden.

My question to her, “Do theyeven make non-underwire bras?” wasmet with a shrug and a quickresponse, “You’ll just set off the metal

detector and that’sa guaranteedsearch with thehandheld wand.Anything metalwill set thosethings offincluding a gumwrapper. Hey, butyou know you can’thave anything in yourpockets, not even tissues?You know that, right?”

Luckily, I did and luckier still Iwas able to find a bra without underwirein the juniors section of my localdepartment store. Unlike other impor-tant first days in my life, I would notbother to find the perfect jewelry oraccessories to go with this outfit. Nowatches, no scarves, bobby pins, orpony tail holders could be worn. Atraditional wedding band and medicalalert bracelet were the only types ofaccessories allowed. This posed a

problem: my grandmother’sring had adorned my

right hand for years.She had worn it

in lieu of awedding bandafter herdivorcenearly 50years earlier.As a sign of

affection I’dworn it every

day since it hadbeen passed on to

me. I slipped it frommy right hand over to my

left and figured no one would evennotice the little white lie.

Unlike other classrooms I hadtaught in, to this one I was not takinga briefcase stuffed with paper, books,and pens. Instead, I was only takingwhat I could carry in my hands and

exactly what I had already told myemployers I would have: 12 copies of

Jamaica Kincaid’s poem “Girl,”(unstapled and not paper-

clipped), 12 pens thatmet all of the safety

regulations (theycould not be taken apart, havesprings or clearplastic barrelsshowing the ink,and all had to be

ball points), andone pad of paper

from which I was todistribute individual

sheets of paper to my 12women learners as needed. I reviewed the Visitor’s Guide-

lines one last time, placed my driver’slicense in my pocket, and preparedmyself for the possibility that by theend of the night I might have theinside of my mouth swabbed and astranger’s hands padding down thelength of my inseam. Or worse yet,some tiny glitch or infraction coulddeny me admittance. I was tryingdesperately to get inside a place thatmost of us strive to stay out of. But Ihad a job to do. I had my very firstteaching job.

My first job in adult educationwas at Valhalla’s Women’s Jail in NewYork state. I did not have experienceas an adult educator on the outside tocompare this against until I latertaught courses in more “traditional”adult education settings. And while thesimilarities are great, the differencesare indeed striking. My inmate learnerswere not allowed to know my last nameor any other personal informationabout me. I had to monitor theamount of paper that I distributed.(Students are permitted only a certainarea of square footage in their cells tobe occupied by paper. When theyexceed this amount, they must eithermail the excess to an individual onthe outside for safekeeping or riskhaving it destroyed should it be foundduring an unannounced inspection.) Iwas never allowed to leave pens with

Teaching on the Inside…by Dominique T. Chlup

Focus onBasics


my students, making it nearly impossi-ble to assign written homework. Allof the supplies I brought into the jailhad to be accounted for before I left.The corrections officers once kept mystudents an extra 20 minutes as theclass searched for a missing pen. Ithad simply rolled away from the tableat which we had been working andanother student inmate had picked itup, thinking it belonged to her group.

I held class alongside five otherteachers in the jail’s gymnasium. A less than ideal working space: achair was always being scraped acrossthe floor, and when one group waswriting it seemed as if another wasalways reading aloud. It was neverquiet, but it was also never dull.Spanish and English flew through theair from woman to woman and theenergy was something palpable. Thatfirst job was the one that called me intoteaching. It is the continual thrill, joy,and reward of working with inmatesthat helps keep me there.

About the AuthorDominique T. Chlup is an AssistantProfessor of Adult Education at TexasA&M University with a dual appoint-ment as Center Director of the TexasCenter for the Advancement of Literacyand Learning (TCALL). She taught inNew York and Massachusetts, andgraduated from Harvard University’sGraduate School of Education, where herdissertation work focused on the history ofwomen’s and girls’ corrections educationat the Framingham Reformatory. �

Compared to the generalpopulation, the offenderpopulation is known

to have lower-than-averageacademic skills, with the vastmajority not having completedhigh school (Haigleret al., 1994; Bureauof Justice Statistics,1988). To com-plicate this, theoffender populationhas a significantlyhigher incidence ofdisabilities, includinglearning disabilities(LD) (Haigler et al.,1994; Mears & Aron, 2003;Steurer, 1996). Estimates ofthose in corrections facilitiesneeding special educationhover near 40 percent ofjuveniles and at least 50 per-cent of adult prisoners (Winters,1997; Mears & Aron, 2003;Corley, 1996). Added to thesechallenges are high incidencesof mental illness, poverty, and substance abuse amongoffenders (Califano, 2000;Winters, 1997).

Many of the physical and learningdisabilities among the offender popula-tion were unsuspected and undiagnosedor, if noticed, were misdiagnosed(Mears & Aron, 2003). School hasbeen a painful experience for manyand their feelings of shame and angerat being unsuccessful in a world

where academic achievement is highlyvalued run deep (Winters, 1997). Inaddition to learning problems, Wintersnotes, incarcerated youth “…usuallyhave maladaptive, passive learningstyles, and attribute their lack ofacademic success to extra-individual

factors” (p. 2).Based on these well-

documented observations,Missouri and Ohio decidedto institute holisticscreenings to obtainspecific information onoffenders’ underlyinglearning challenges thatcan lead to more effectiveinstructional program-ming. We examine herethe initial findings from

those two states and the relatedchanges they are making in theircorrections education systems toaddress offenders’ many learning issues.

Screening Procedure Both the Missouri Department of

Corrections and the Ohio Departmentof Rehabilitation and Correctionchose to administer PowerPath to BasicLearning (Weisel, 2003), a holisticdiagnostic screening and interventionsystem. In Missouri, offenders enteringthe corrections system who met thecriteria of being struggling learnerswere screened; in Ohio, offendersalready in the system who met thecriteria of being struggling learnerswere screened. The criteria includeextremely weak reading and otheracademic skills (as indicated inMissouri by a reading level of 5.0 orbelow on the Wide Range Achieve-ment Test [Jastak, 1998], or in Ohio

Understanding theComplexities of Offenders’Special Learning Needs by Laura Weisel, Alan Toops, & Robin Schwarz


Focus onBasicsby a score of below 220 on the Compre-hensive Adult Student AssessmentSystem, or CASAS [2005]), togetherwith a score of 12 or higher on theWashington State Screening forLearning Disabilities (Giovengo et al., 1998).

A holistic diagnostic screeningfor struggling learners consists ofevaluating the basic processingfunctions and skills needed to learnand perform academic and workplacetasks successfully (Weisel,1998). These processingfunctions and skills include:• Vision functions: ability to

use both eyes to see at nearand far point; andbinocularity, defined as theintegration of both eyes tofocus on a single object andto move smoothly alonglines of print.

• Hearing function.• Scotopic sensitivity: a

neural pathway dysfunctionthat leads to sensitivity to light and difficulty with reading black letterson white paper. Thissensitivity can negativelyaffect reading fluency andsustained reading ability.

• Attention difficulties:hyperactivity, distractibilityand impulsiveness, difficultywith completing tasks,hypersensitivity to criticism.

• Information Processing– Visual processing skills:

visual–spatial orientation;memory; closure; discrimination;figure–ground discrimination,such as looking at a page filledwith text and easily finding aspecific word or sentence, orlooking at a graph and focusingon a specific element.

– Visual motor integration:transferring visual information to motor output (the ability to copy).

– Auditory processing: (working)memory and comprehension.

– Basic reading encoding and

decoding skills: sound–symbolassociations, auditory and visualsequencing.

In an extended interview,offenders are asked to tell aboutthemselves, their learning and workhistories, family learning histories,medical issues that could affectlearning, and other aspects of theirlives that may be relevant to theirdifficulty in learning.

The ResultsMissouri and Ohio collected

interview and screening data on 510offenders from 2003 through 2004 whomet their states’ criteria for screeningfor special learning needs. These datareveal the complexity of the issuesfaced by these struggling learners.

Individuals were screened for visualand auditory function difficultieswhile wearing any prescribed glasses,contacts, and/or hearing aids. Thesedata include results from those whohad weaknesses despite using correc-tive lenses or hearing aids as well asresults from those without any correc-tive lenses or hearing aids.

• More than 30 percent had weak-nesses in distance acuity.

• About 38 percent showed weaknessesin near acuity at reading distance.

• Nearly 40 percent had problemswith binocularity including:tracking: moving eyes togetheralong a line of print; convergence:focusing at the same point; align-ment: seeing the same thing withboth eyes; or amblyopia: so-calledlazy eye.

• About 38 percent had weak-nesses in basic hearingfunction.

Screening for informationprocessing difficulties yieldedsimilarly revealing results.• Approximately 35 percent

indicated a weakness invisual motor integration:copying or transferringwritten information fromone place to another.

More than 50 percent hadweaknesses in auditory compre-hension for both short–termrecall of facts and inference-making. Attention difficultieswere identified as well.• Nearly 40 percent were

identified as having mildattention difficulties.

• Another 35 percent wereidentified as havingmoderate to severeattention difficulties.

Scotopic sensitivity greatly affectsa learner’s capacity for sustainedreading, fluency, and comprehension.Not surprisingly, it also compoundsfrustration levels. Slightly more than50 percent of the offenders wereidentified as having moderate tosevere scotopic sensitivity. Another 35percent were identified as having mildscotopic sensitivity. The majority ofoffenders screened made phonologicalerrors (problems correctly matchingletters to sounds) in reading singlewords and spelling.

Of the offenders screened in theMissouri and Ohio systems, fewer than 20 percent did not have anylearning difficulties with functions or

Focus onBasics


information processing, 20 percenthad no attention difficulties, and only15 percent indicated no difficultieswith scotopic sensitivity. In otherwords, 80 to 85 percent of theselearners had documented function orprocessing challenges that interferedwith their efforts to learn.

Offender History Just as a majority of offenders

screened had learning challenges, ininterviews most offenders reported thattheir learning challenges were presentfrom their earliest years in elementaryschool. More than 50 percent statedthat they had been told theyhad a “learning disability,” withalmost equal numbers reportingthey had received specialeducation, Title 1, or otherremedial services while inschool. The others had eithernever been told or helped.Whether or not their learningdifficulties were ever actuallyidentified, these offenders feltthat their learning needs hadnot been fully recognized and/orthat their learning needs werenot met by the educational servicesthey had received. They felt they hadbeen left in the dark about why theystruggled to learn and stated they hadnot been offered specific interven-tions they could use to becomesuccessful learners. Many describedpainful and frustrating interactions with family members and teachers thatoccurred when what was said or howit was said was misinterpreted.

How do these results compare withthe incidence of such problems in thenon-incarcerated population? Littleagreement exists as to the incidenceof learning problems in the adult basiceducation and literacy populationsexcept that it is high. Estimatesobtained from nonspecific screeningsrange from 30 to as high as 80 percentof the adult learners having learningchallenges that have had a negativeimpact on their learning (see http://www.nifl.gov/niflgaqs.html#learning).

Little is known in the wider scope ofadult learning problems about vision,hearing, or other types of problems.Except where diagnostic screeningshave been instituted by program ini-tiative or where diagnostic screeningsare mandated by the state, no system-atic approach has been taken in adulteducation to identify the specific issuesunderlying academic challengesamong adult learners.

After the ScreeningIn Missouri and Ohio, the

screening process is the first step inthe correction system for offenders

who meet the criteria for being at riskof special learning needs. The twostates have established somewhatdifferent criteria for deciding whichentering offenders are administeredthe diagnostic screenings. Eachsystem is working to create a way forthe screening results to be sent withthe offender to his or her homeinstitution for follow-up and to allowfor access to needed interventions.

Having implemented a protocolfor new admissions, Missouri andOhio have recognized the importanceof establishing models and protocolsfor conducting screenings at theinstitution level for current studentsin education programming. Ohio has decided to establish five modelinstitution sites at which a processwill be created with input frominstitution-based administrators andinstructional staff. Elements fromeach of these model sites will be

adapted and used in the implemen-tation of institution-based screeningprotocols that the entire educationsystem can use.

Missouri has chosen to implementscreenings for students with speciallearning needs at all institutions. Eachinstitution uses special education andliteracy staff, trained in implementingthe screenings and interventions, tosupport institution-based screenings.Education administrators, in turn, aredesigning local approaches to supportscreening and ensure implementationof methods that use the informationgained from screenings to accommo-date learners’ special learning needs.

Both Missouri’s Central Office of Special Education and theliteracy administrators provideadditional training sessions andon-site technical assistance asneeded.

With one year of experience,both systems are looking atrevising their initial roll-outplans to ensure that individualinstitutions identify the speciallearning needs of offendersalready in the system.

At the state level, service col-laboration agreements are beginningto be discussed with health, mentalhealth, and recovery services so thatthese departments can address issuesthat have contributed to and grownfrom the learning challenges identifiedin the data. State departments areoften so-called silos — they tend torun autonomously and independentlyof each other. Moving to a holisticservice approach for offenders withspecial learning needs will requirethat departments collaborate in newways at the state level. Only then cancollaborative actions at the institu-tional level follow.

Part of the focus of the collab-orative efforts in Ohio and Missouricorrections systems is on creating waysof supporting professional develop-ment to ensure that instructors canlearn and demonstrate the skillsneeded to do the following:• Provide offenders with meaningful

“Moving to a holisticservice approach for

offenders with speciallearning needs will

require that departmentscollaborate in new ways

at the state level.”


Focus onBasicsfeedback from their diagnosticscreenings on the nature of theirstrengths and challenges and allow fora conversation about how these havehad an impact on the offender’s life.

• Help offenders learn how to selectinstructional accommodations thataddress their learning challenges.

• Provide explicit, continuing,purposefully structured instructionin the skills of learning(metacognitive skills) including:– breaking down tasks into

manageable pieces– applying selected instructional

accommodations – managing time and selecting

materials– transferring learning from one

situation to another• Offer learning situations that:

– are active– are project-based– use multiple ways of learning– rely on groups of students co-

planning learning sessions andworking collaboratively: partici-pating in evaluating the successof the planned instructional timeand identifying ways to improvethe next session.

ConclusionThe data from the two state ini-

tiatives provide a clearer picture of thechallenges facing offenders strugglingto learn. As a result, new approachesare being tried to address the systemicfactors that have kept strugglinglearners struggling. New questions arebeing asked that will, when addressed,drive services that are based on real,identified needs instead of assump-tions. As these two states continue intheir efforts, more offenders who havenot been successful with learning willbe able to find success. They will beable to learn needed academic skills,skills for better management of life,and ultimately have a better chanceat sustaining employment after theirrelease from prison.

The experiences and examples ofMissouri and Ohio will provide models

that other states’ departments of correc-tion education can use as they establishpolicies and procedures to institutediagnostic screening for the most vulner-able offenders. Specific professionaldevelopment activities that enableinstructors to identify, understand, andprovide better interventions for offenderswith special learning needs will undoubt-edly be included. States will find waysto shift the paradigm of educationservices to align with these data andother research findings on the elementsfor success in learning, life, and employ-ment for persons with multiple learningchallenges (Raskind et al., 1999; Mears& Arons, 2003).

ReferencesBureau of Justice Statistics, (1988).

“Education and correctional populations.”National Archive of Criminal JusticeData (1988). Washington, DC: USDepartment of Justice, Office of JusticePrograms. (http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/abstract/ecp.html)

CASAS Life Skills (2005). ComprehensiveAdult Student Assessment System. SanDiego, CA.

Califano, J. (2000). Substance Abuse andLearning Disabilities: Peas in a Pod orApples and Oranges. New York: NationalCenter on Addiction and SubstanceAbuse at Columbia University.

Corley, M.A. (1996). “Correctionaleducation programs for adults withlearning disabilities.” Linkages 3, 2.Washington, DC: National Adult Literacyand Learning Disabilities Center.

Giovengo, M., Moore, E., & Young, G.(1998). “Screening and assessmentresults of the learning disabilitiesinitiative: Identification of individualswith learning disabilities in the jobopportunities and basic skills program.”In Vogel, S. & Reder, S. (eds.).Learning Disabilities, Literacy, and AdultEducation. Baltimore, MD: Paul H.Brooks Publishing, pp. 133-154.

Haigler, K., Harlow, C., O’Connor, P., &Campbell, A. (1994). Literacy BehindPrison Walls. Washington, DC: USGovernment Printing Office.

Jastak, J. (1998). Wide Range Achievement Test.Wilmington, DE: Jastak Associates, Inc.

Mears, D., & Aron, L. (2003). Addressing

the Needs of Youth with Disabilities in theJuvenile Justice System: The Current Stateof Knowledge. Washington, DC: UrbanInstitute.

Raskind, M., Goldberg, R., Higgins, E., &Herman, K. (1999). “Patterns of changeand predictors of success in individualswith learning disabilities: Results from atwenty-year longitudinal study.” LearningDisabilities: Research & Practice, 14, 35-49.

Steurer, S. (1996) “Correctionaleducation: A worthwhile investment.”Linkages, 3,2. Washington, DC:National Adult Literacy and LearningDisabilities Center.

Weisel, L. (1998). “PowerPath to adultbasic learning: A diagnostic screeningsystem for adults who are at high risk ofbeing diagnosed as having learning dis-abilities.” In Vogel, S. & Reder, S. (eds.).Learning Disabilities, Literacy, and AdultEducation. Baltimore, MD: Paul H.Brooks Publishing, pp. 133–154.

Weisel, L. (2003). PowerPath to Basic Learning.Columbus, OH: The TLP Group, Inc.

Winters, C. (1997). Learning Disabilities,Crime, Delinquency, and Special Educa-tion Placement. Adolescence. Retrieved onJune 15, 2005, from http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2248/is_n126_v32/ai_19619426

About the AuthorsLaura Weisel has 30 years of experiencein community and institutional-basedadult basic, literacy, special education, andmental health services as an instructor,program administrator, researcher, trainer,consultant, and author of PowerPath toBasic Learning, an intake, diagnosticscreening and intervention system.

Alan Toops has spent the last 30 years as a corrections educator in Ohio’s prisonsystem with positions as instructor, schoolprincipal, and assistant superintendent ofthe Ohio Department of Rehabilitationand Correction’s school system. Currentlyhe is executive director of the OhioLiteracy Network and the CorrectionEducation Specialist with The TLP Group.

Robin Schwarz has been a teacher ofEnglish for speakers of other languages(ESOL) for nearly 40 years and a specialistin learning disabilities for more than 35years. She is now a partner with the TLPGroup, broadening PowerPath’s scope toinclude multicultural students and ESOLinitiatives. �

Focus onBasics


As corrections educators,everything about ourtask is complex: the

rigors of teaching reading, theneeds of the prisoners, thelearning spaces in which weteach, the nature of literacyitself. Thus what we need to know about the literacylearners in our classrooms ismultifaceted and extensive, yetour instructional decisions andour ability to support learningare only as good as theknowledge we possess aboutthem. For a recent study offederal prisoners, I created a two-pronged assessmentprotocol to address theseneeds. The protocol was based on two pioneeringprojects: The Adult ReadingComponents Study (Strucker& Davidson, 2003) and theAdult Literacy EvaluationProject (Lytle, 2001). In thisarticle I share some of theresults of my study and arguethat corrections educators can use similar assessmentprotocols to gain a wide baseof knowledge about theirliteracy learners.

What do teachers who work inprisons need to know about theirstudents? The answer to this questiondepends on the stated and unstatedpurposes of their programs (Moore &Readence, 2001) and the beliefsabout literacy and learning thatunderpin them. I believe that prison-

based programs should support suchimmediate and long-term literacyneeds as communicating withchildren and other loved ones athome, improving reading skills andstrategies, earning a certificate ofGeneral Educational Development(GED), reflecting on one’s life, andpreparing to re-entersociety. To support thesebroad literacy purposes,the assessment protocoldescribed in this articleembraces two different,but complementary,ways of knowing aboutliteracy and learning.These ways of knowingpertain to inmates’strengths and needsacross components of reading such asvocabulary, decoding,fluency, and comprehension; and theways in which they view and practiceliteracy and learning.

Ways of KnowingAbout Literacy andLearning

Knowledge about the inmates’reading strengths and needs is neededto place learners appropriately intoprograms and to inform instruction.Prisoners display an extremely diverserange of abilities. Many are Englishlanguage learners; received specialeducational support in school; areunschooled; or have histories ofhead trauma, drug abuse, anddifficulty paying attention andremembering things (Travis et al.,2001). Assessing inmates’ abilities in key reading component areas —such as decoding, fluency, vocab-

ulary, and comprehension — canempower corrections educators toembrace skill diversity by identifyingdistinct learning profiles and usingthem as instructional starting points. Iassessed federal prisoners’ ability patternswith traditional reading tests andeducational history questionnaires.

Traditional tests of reading skillshave limitations. They often cannottell us if readers are actually using theskills they possess, or whether theytake spelling risks when they writeletters home, or what strategies theyuse to check comprehension or attacka new word in print. Questionnaires

may tell us which literacy practicesinmates engage in during leisure timeand how often, but they are notdesigned to assess how learners feelabout the prison’s literacy program. Norare they designed to determine whattheir personal purposes for learning are, and whether these purposes areconsistent with official purposes suchas passing the GED exam.

Qualitative interviews enableteachers to understand the viewsand practices of their students. Theneed to create structures to assessthe views of students may beunnecessary in other settings, butprisons can be places of profoundmistrust and miscommunication.Without some understanding ofprisoners’ literacy-related beliefs —about, for example, their ownabilities and purposes for learning,or what aspects of the program aremost threatening — great divides

Two Ways to AssessLiteracy Learners in Prisonby Bill Muth

“Knowledge about theinmates’ reading

strengths and needs isneeded to place learners

appropriately intoprograms and to inform

instruction.”


Focus onBasicsbetween student and teacher canarise, especially in compulsoryliteracy programs.

Reading ComponentsI assessed the reading abilities

of 120 prisoners using a protocoladapted from The Adult ReadingComponent Study (ARCS), whichwas devised to examine the readingpatterns of 955 adult learners fromcommunities throughout theUnited States. Strucker andDavidson found distinctive patternsamong these learners, whose demo-graphics resembled those of federalprisoners (e.g., overwhelminglyminority and poor, linguisticallydiverse, with limited formalschooling).

Using traditional, easy-to-administer, and relatively inexpen-sive tests, I assessed three componentareas of reading. Tests of phonemicawareness, decoding, and wordrecognition (in and out of context)measured print skills. Tests of oralexpressive and receptive vocabularymeasured meaning skills. Tests ofrapid naming and a timed oralreading test measured reading rate. I used a questionnaire, based on theARCS questionnaire and modifiedfor use with prisoners, in conjunction

with the tests to provide backgroundinformation about prisoners’ firstlanguage, education and workhistory, and other family- and health-related areas.

Qualitative InterviewsTo gain an understanding of

prisoners’ views about literacy andlearning in prison, I engaged sixprisoners in open-ended interviews.Each interview lasted one-and-a-halfto two hours. My qualitative researchquestions were based on Lytle’s (2001)theory of adult literacy development.Lytle suggests that development canbe measured along four dimensions of literacy: beliefs about literacy andlearning, literacy practices (such ashelping children with homework,using an ATM machine), the processesused to decode and gain meaningfrom print, and plans that reflectedstudents’ purposes for learning.

I encouraged the participants —all were currently enrolled in literacyclasses — to “tell their story aboutwhat it was like to learn here” (inprison). I attempted to ask thisquestion in a neutral way and to keepthe conversation on topic. However, I allowed them to take the discussionof their views about literacy in anydirection they wished. They described

childhood experiences in school, theirstruggle to stay in touch with familymembers through letter writing, thetrouble that a nephew was currentlyhaving in school, the materials theymost liked to read and what they gotout of it, what it was like trying toprocess print and get meaning out ofvarious texts. They speculated abouthow their lives might have turned outif they had completed school, voicedtheir embarrassment about not beingable to read or spell as well as others,and described unsafe prison spaceswhere ridicule (for being “stupid”)could lead to confrontation, which, inturn, could lead to more prison time.Some resented being forced to attendschool but revealed learning purposesand goals that were personal andimmediate (e.g., being able to writeletters without having to ask othersfor help; proving to others that theyhad reformed; reading the newspaper).They noted how infrequently theycould express the kind of ideas wewere discussing in the interviews, andhow they typically kept their personalgoals, fears, worries, and hopes tothemselves.

Two LearnersThe following examples illustrate

how the two-pronged approach toassessment can build a rich knowledgebase from which instructional decisionscan be made. These decisions areinformed by both the strengths andneeds of the learners and their personalpurposes for learning.

Mark Harrison Mark was 41 years old at the time

of the interview. A white male, he wasborn in a major port city in the mid-Atlantic region of the United States.He experienced extreme difficultiestrying to learn to read in the firstgrade, which persisted through themiddle of the eighth grade when hequit school. In the interviews hedescribed how he coped with school,siblings, and peers, knowing that hewas not stupid but also knowing that

Getting StartedCorrections educators can construct their own relatively inexpensive initialassessment protocol that requires about two hours to administer: one hour for tests and questionnaire, and one hour for the qualitative interview. Sinceteachers often have large classes, meager resources, and little time to conductin-depth assessments, they will need the support of their administration inorder to implement this.

More information on Adult Reading Components Tests and Questionnaires isavailable from:

• http://www.nifl.gov/readingprofiles/MC_Test_Bank.htm

• http://www.nifl.gov/readingprofiles/MC_Questionnaire.htm

More information on qualitative, open-ended Interviews is available from:

• Muth (2004): Chapter 3 provides an overview of how the authordesigned his qualitative interviews

• Weiss (1994): This is an excellent primer on qualitative interviews. �

Focus onBasics


he could not read. “… When I was a kid …

my sister…used to call me stupid.And then I started to think, hey …something’s wrong with you, youknow?

“… She called me this and thensometimes other people would call meit too …

“… If she wanted something, [she’dsay] ‘Get that!’ or ‘Do this!’ ‘Don’task me dork!’ ‘Stupid!’…you know.

“… [In second grade] I behavedbad because I couldn’t do thework … I had to find a way …when that work was beinggiven out instead of beingembarrassed because I couldn’tdo it, to do something bad toget out of the way … or sent …to the office, put … in thecoatroom … or stand out inthe hall.”

Once Mark quit school, he experienced depression buteventually managed to get andkeep a well-paying, meaningfuljob. He compensated for hisinability to read by assertinghimself and by having a strongmemory. Unfortunately, afterhis mother died he startedtaking drugs, which eventuallycost him his job, his marriage,and custody of his children.The habit also resulted in hisimprisonment.

Mark reported ingestinglead-based paint as a child and being in a car accident that left himunconscious. Despite this troublinghistory, he was intensely motivated to learn to read. Since Mark enteredthe prison literacy program four years earlier, he had been enrolled inclass for six to eight hours a day andreported reading for four hours everyevening in his housing unit. Hecharacterized his reading as laboredand noted that he frequently hadtrouble pronouncing words, read veryslowly, often forgot what he just read,and lost his place while reading,forcing him to reread the samepassage over and over again.

Presented below is a profile of hisreading test scores, represented in thechart by his scores on the DiagnosticAssessment of Reading (DAR): _____________________________

Print MeaningSkill Skill

Word WordRecognition Meaning

GE GE_____________________________Grade

Equivalent 5.0 10.1_____________________________

Despite fours years of intense study,Mark’s print skills (Word RecognitionTest) were far surpassed by his fairlyextensive meaning skills, representedhere by his Word Meaning Test score(a measure of oral expressive vocab-ulary). Mark’s oral reading was laboredand slow. While his performance onthe untimed Adult Basic LearningExamination (ABLE) ReadingComprehension test was equal to the strongest learners in the study(10.1 GE), his reading rate score wascomparable to the lowest-performinginmates.

Mark’s learning profile across keycomponent areas of reading provides

a much richer understanding of hisactual strengths and needs than couldbe gained from a single reading compre-hension test score. However, silentreading comprehension scores aresometimes the only data available tocorrections educators to aid them inplacing learners into programs andmaking initial instructional decisions.(See Strucker, 1997, http://ncsall.gse.harvard.edu/fob/1997/strucker.htm, fora compelling argument against thispractice.)

Mark’s strong readingcomprehension test score mightindicate that he is ready totake the GED. If oral readingactivities were not part of theclassroom routine, his extremelyslow reading performance mightgo undetected. His failure tocomplete tests might suggest to some that he was lazy or just gave up. Yet his learningprofile demonstrates howdifficult it is for Mark todecode, despite his strongvocabulary knowledge. Hiseducational history suggeststhat this struggle with print hasbeen going on since first grade.The qualitative data revealMark’s profound and sustaineddrive to learn to read.

When all the data — from tests, questionnaire, andinterview — are reviewed, a picture of Mark Harrison

emerges: a highly motivated, brightlearner who has struggled withdecoding and fluency his entire life.We learn that he continues to benefitfrom explicit instruction that buildson his hard-earned print skills, and that placing him in a GEDpreparation class (which he wouldresist, but, based on his readingcomprehension scores, might happen)would almost guarantee that his needfor intense support to gain print skills would be unmet. We also learnthat careful selections of ability-appropriate, authentic texts (Purcell-Gates et al., 2002), such as USA Todayand books about his hometown, are

“They speculated abouthow their lives might have

turned out if they hadcompleted school, voiced

their embarrassment aboutnot being able to read or

spell as well as others, anddescribed unsafe prison

spaces where ridicule (forbeing “stupid”) could leadto confrontation, which, inturn, could lead to more

prison time.”


Focus onBasicsexcellent ways to reinforce his printknowledge and his budding image ofhimself as a reader:

“… I was raised on the TV. Assoon as I got up in the morning [I]turned the TV on when I was a kid. It was like, that was the babysitter …until it was time to go to bed or fallasleep in front of the TV … And here[in prison] when the reading startedcoming to me … I cut down on TV. Isit in the room and read a lot. I try tokeep feeding the dog and feeding it,feeding it. Keep reading becausethat’s what everybody says. It’s like abike. If you stay on it you get betterand better every day … By the timeI get off of work, eat, and shower,and go through to the room, [I readfrom] eight to twelve — four hoursa night … I just bought my first $35 book, Small Town, Maryland …It’s got the pictures back from theforties, and thirties and everything.It is awesome.

“[Now, for the first time in mylife] in my spare time, any time I can [I read]. I’ll find myself in thebathroom with the toilet paperwrapper that somebody threw downand I’ll [notice the wrapper] and say‘Hey! This is made in Maryland! …’…The reading, I wanted to read! Iwanted to read! I wanted to see if Iwas stupid [like] my sister and peoplecall me, [or if] something else iscausing it [because] I wasn’t learningright. So, I don’t think I was juststupid. I guess I wanted to provepeople wrong. I want to be able toread. I want to be able to look atthings and, you know, and read it!

Anne BlanchardAnne was a 33-year-old African-

American woman serving time at aminimum-security camp. She wasborn in upstate New York but movedthroughout the South as a child. Hermother was a migrant worker, and herschooling was frequently interrupted.She reported that she repeated thefourth grade and was enrolled innumerous elementary schools. Sheleft school in the middle of the sixth

grade in part because she becamepregnant, and in part to escape theembarrassment of being placed inspecial education classes with secondgraders. Anne described herself as a“slow learner.” (For more details aboutAnne’s story, see the College ReadingAssociation’s Twenty-Seventh Yearbook,in press.)

Despite participating in theprison’s literacy program for four years,Anne’s scores remained quite low acrossprint and meaning component areas:_____________________________

Print MeaningSkill Skill

Word WordRecognition Meaning

GE GE_____________________________Grade

Equivalent 1.5 2.0_____________________________

Anne’s flat learning profile andmodest gains contrast surprisingly withthe literacy practices she describedduring the qualitative interview. Since she entered prison, she read forpleasure at least 30 minutes every day,and she engaged in letter writing andreading as a primary way of remainingconnected to, and at the center of,her family of six children. “… All[family news] comes through me. Itcomes from a letter. They want towrite me a lot. And then I write andtell them what they were saying.”

In the interview Anne revealedother strengths. She described theself-control it took to put worries ofprison and home beside as she preparedmentally for class.

“Well, when I come in theclassroom, I say ‘Okay,’ and some ofthem have been a lousy day … like[when] I had just lost my mom [in]August…It gets frustrating because,you know, we have a lot of stuff onour minds ... especially home … But… me, I’m a calm person that I wouldcalm it off, and I wouldn’t show mytrue feelings [in the classroom] ...

Anne described her role as acounselor to new women entering theprison camp. She explained the

‘mother’ and ‘sister’ roles that thefemale inmates adopted at her prisoncamp.

“… We have prison mommas, wehave prison sisters ... Somebody thatyou can go to and talk to, and finallyshow you … a shoulder to cry on.And somebody who’ll be there for youalways … ain’t gonna never leave yourside … make sure you do well …won’t lead you in the wrong way …”

Anne herself was a prison sister;she described how she helped anotherprisoner by counseling her to let go ofa family problem that was beyond hercontrol.

Anne described how the care-taker of three of her children was also going to assist her when she wasreleased. Travis and colleagues (2001)reported on the numerous logisticalhurdles (in addition to other, morefundamental, needs such as literacy,job skills, and drug treatment) thatex-offenders must face from themoment of their release from prison.Anne’s last sentence reflects a gooddeal of wisdom in this regard.

“He [the caretaker of three of herdaughters was a preacher] seem likehe’s very nice … He loves the kids …He came from the ghetto, too … He’dsay, ‘You kids are living good, youknow. They got their own rooms …’He say, ‘I don’t want your kids, whenyou get out, me and my wife aregonna try to help you, get you somework so you and your kids can betogether.’

“… I need his help, and I’mgonna accept his help because I doneed to get back on my feet. Maybehe can find me a job. I can try to getback on my feet and get a nice placeto stay … When you get out somebodyelse has got to lead you.”

The data from the interview giveus a new understanding of Anne,quite distinct from the informationgathered from the reading tests.Anne’s reading scores might lead eventhe most caring teachers to believethat her literacy practices would beinfrequent. Her education historymight reinforce this, since she

Focus onBasics


dropped out of school in sixth gradewhile functioning at the second-gradelevel. Yet the qualitative data revealhow Anne views reading and writingletters as essential to her role asmother: a role she strongly, evendefiantly, identifies with. Anne’s storysuggests that she has numerous assets:the capacity for great self-control; anability to help other women; socialnetworks that have supported herchildren and will also be used to helpAnne as she re-enters society. Further,she strives to remain a good parent toher children; and she has a strongdesire to learn as much as she can(both to prove to others that she isreformed, and to gain a skilled jobonce she is released).

With this rich knowledge base,we might decide to place Anne in a literacy program with a life-skillsorientation. The program mightprovide support for letter writing, jobseeking, and coping with the vastarray of forms and other texts she willbe encountering in the year ahead(housing applications, bus schedules,legal documents, etc.). Her literacypurposes are well-defined and haveimmediate importance to her childrenand her efforts to prepare for release.

“My dream is getting a goodjob…I want to sit there and besomebody and know how to do thingsand type [things]. That’s why it’s veryimportant when you got to prison youdon’t just sit down and wonder whatit’s like in here … Get out there anddo something with your life! …”

ReflectionsWhen only a single test score is

used to place learners like Anne andMark into programs, when we do nothave sufficient knowledge of theireducational histories, their strengthsand needs across the component areasof reading, or their personal beliefsabout literacy and learning, we lackthe rich base of data required to meettheir literacy needs most effectively.When we are equipped with thisunderstanding, our own views might

change, as we notice that inmates areboth learners with specific needs andwhole human beings capable of guidingtheir own learning.

ReferencesLytle, S. L. (2001). “Living literacy:

Rethinking development in adulthood.”In E. Cushman, E. R. Kintgen, B. M.Kroll, & M. Rose (eds.), Literacy: ACritical Sourcebook (pp. 376-401).Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s.

Moore, D. W., & Readence, J. E. (2001).“Situating secondary school literacyresearch.” In E. B. Moje & D. G.O’Brien (eds.), Constructions of Literacy:Studies of Teaching and Learning in andout of Secondary Schools (pp. 3-25).Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Muth, W. (2005). “Building bridges ofliteracy.” Yearbook of the College ReadingAssociation (27).

Purcell-Gates, V., Degener, S., Jacobson,E., & Soler, M. (2002). “Impact ofauthentic adult literacy instruction onadult literacy practices.” ReadingResearch Quarterly, 37, 70-92.

Strucker, J. (1997). “What silent readingtests alone can’t tell you: Two casestudies in adult reading differences.”Focus on Basics, 1B, 13-17.

Strucker, J., & Davidson, R. (2003). TheAdult Reading Components Study. ANCSALL Research Brief. NationalCenter for the Study of Adult Learningand Literacy. Retrieved February 20,2005, from http://www.gse.harvard.edu/~ncsall/research/brief_strucker2.pdf

Travis, J., Solomon, A., & Waul, M.(2001). From Prison to Home: TheDimensions and Consequences of PrisonerReentry. Urban Institute. Retrieved July12, 2004, from: http://www.urban.org/UploadedPDF/from_prison_to_home.pdf

Weiss, R. (1994). Learning from Strangers.The Art and Method of QualitativeInterview Studies. New York: TheFree Press.

About the AuthorBill Muth is currently the EducationAdministrator of the Federal Bureau ofPrisons. In 2004 he received his Ph.D. inadult literacy from George MasonUniversity, where he is now an adjunctprofessor of reading. �

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Editorial BoardVolume 7D

August 2005Don Berryman, Montana State Prison,Deer Lodge, MT

Dominique Chlup, Texas A&MUniversity, Texas Center for theAdvancement of Literacy andLearning (TCALL), CollegeStation, TX

Ki Kim, World Education, Boston, MA

Maureen Lawlor, Olympic College,Bremerton, WA

Shelia Pope, AISD Even Start FamilyLiteracy Program, Angleton, TX


Focus onBasics

Admit it: Haven’t youbeen part of anadvisory board that

was no more than a rubberstamp, meeting because ofsome mandate, traveling forhalf a day for what seemedlike nothing more than coffeeand a fresh chocolate chipcookie? It doesn’t have to bethat way. These county jails’experience proves it.

—The Editor

Northcentral Technical College(NTC) and Marathon County Jail(MCJ) in Wausau, WI, have beenpartnering to provide basic educationand career services to inmates sincethe fall of 1989. At that time, theAdult Education Act (AEA) provided

funding for incarcerated individualswith matching funds coming fromlocal jails. In 1994, the grant requiredthat the grantee, MCJ, form anadvisory council consisting of thefollowing: a judge, a district attorney,representatives from the publicdefender’s office, probation and paroledepartments, law enforcement, thecommunity, jail officials, andinstructors and officials of NTC.

Over the next few years, the rest of the county jails (Taylor,Lincoln, Price, and Langlade) and theMenominee Tribal Detention Facilityin the NTC district requested basiceducation services at their jails. Asthese jails were added to the grant, wewere faced with this issue: Do we formsix separate advisory committees (onefor each jail) or do we group all thejails together and find a way to meetso that we have representation fromeach? If we combine, how can we

share information and resources whensome of our jails are 80 miles apart?

We decided that it would bedifficult to coordinate six separateadvisory groups throughout the district.NTC uses a communication systemcalled interactive television (ITV) toconduct classes so that students canattend classes at campus sites neartheir homes. In 1999, we combined allthe jails into one group and since thenhave used this ITV system to hold jointadvisory meetings. It is cost-efficientand has allowed jail administrators,judges, district attorneys, instructors,NTC staff, and others to attend themeetings near their places of workrather than traveling for several hoursto one location.

Cross-InstitutionBenefits

The convenience factor was notthe strongest argument for a district-wide jail advisory council. Thestrongest argument was that national,state, and local issues would be dis-cussed by a diverse cross-representationfrom each jail. All members wouldbenefit from the input of others, andthen be able to translate the ideas anddecisions to fit their situations.

The decision to hold one cross-

An Active Advisory BoardMeets Via InteractiveTelevisionby Marianna Ruprecht

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institution advisory meeting has had apositive impact upon funding. Fundingis continually being reduced, andduring the 1999 advisory meeting,funding issues were brought up. Thechairperson asked if anyone had ideasabout how we could get morefunding to expand services atMCJ, since that jail needed toadd basic education and careerservices to its newly built addition.One of the advisory members,the justice system’s coordinator,said that she would look intosome possibilities. She did someresearch and discovered that theWisconsin Office of JusticeAssistance had a Request forProposal (RFP) out for theEdward Byrne Law EnforcementAssistance Program to providefunding for education in thecounty jails. However, thatfunding could not be used tosupplant any activities already inplace: it had to be for new activities.Because MCJ was the only jail atthat time in a position to expand itsservices, it was the only institutioneligible to apply. The justice system’scoordinator, the MCJ jail captain,and the NTC instructor/coordinatorcollaborated to write a new proposalthat would enhance and expand basiceducation and career services at thejail. The funding started in 2000; thegrant application and funding wererenewed every year for the four-yearmaximum allowed. The advisorycouncil member not only alerted MCJto the availability of the grant but shealso made the collaborative writing ofthe grant proposal easy to do.

One Thing Leads to Another

The grant at MCJ, in turn, hadan impact on other programs via theadvisory group. With additionalinstructional staffing provided by the grant, MCJ initiated a recog-nition ceremony to honor students’successful completion of the cer-tificates of General Educational

Development (GED), Wisconsin’shigh school equivalency diploma(HSED), and other learning accom-plishments. The ceremony has beenused as a model by other regionaljail sites. The additional staffing

enabled the jail to start new classessuch as financial literacy classes.Information about these classes has been shared with the other jail instructors in the NTC districtvia the advisory meetings, and theTaylor County Jail instructor hasalready launched her own financialliteracy class. These financialliteracy classes have been verysuccessful at MCJ. The jailinstructors have been requested to present at conferences including the state-called jail conference in February, 2005, and curriculumconference for all adult basiceducation instructors in theWisconsin Technical CollegeSystem in April, 2005. Without the additional staffing support, theinstructors could not have spent the time required to create the newenhancements to the programming.When MCJ was no longer eligiblefor this funding, advisory councilmembers had its history, reports,and grant proposal to draw on whencrafting their own proposals.

Generating New IdeasCollaboration and the different

perspectives from the six sites greatlybenefit the students we serve in otherways as well. Throughout the years,

ideas shared via the advisorycouncil have included parentsreading books on audiotapes,which they send home to theirchildren; piloting a financialliteracy program; group readingand discussion of current events;and finding ways to recognizeour students’ successes, such asholding a Recognition Ceremony.

Other benefits of the advisorymeetings include opportunitiesto discuss the appropriateness ofindividualized vs. group sessions,especially for certain topics suchas financial literacy and careers;computer-based instruction; andinstruction for limited Englishproficient (LEP) individuals. Inaddition, the meetings provide atime for jail staff members to share

and compare their jail guidelines andrules, for community representativesto share outside resources that may beavailable for the inmates, and for thesharing of resources among the jailsand NTC. We are very fortunate tohave advisory council members whoare team players and are very willingto share their expertise to assist us inproviding the best education possiblefor our institutions’ inmates.

In summary, partnering withother local jails throughout the NTCdistrict generates new ideas, reinforcesthe guidelines of the grant, and com-municates information to all advisorycouncil members. After these meetingswe are a little more energized to helpour students.

About the AuthorMarianna F. Ruprecht has been JailProgram Coordinator for NorthcentralTechnical College District since 1989, andan ABE instructor at Marathon County Jail,Wausau, Wisconsin. She has also taughtin the workplace, in a learning center, in aprogram for disadvantaged youth, and atthe elementary school level.�

“The convenience factor was not the

strongest argument for adistrict-wide jail advisory

council. The strongestargument was thatnational, state, and

local issues would bediscussed by a diversecross-representation

from each jail.”


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NCSALL Reports — studies that inform policymakers and practitioners on up-to-date researchfindings on key topics in the field. Reports #26: The Characteristics and Concerns of AdultBasic Education Teachers. Smith, C. & Hofer, J. (2003) $10

Reports #25a & #25: How Teachers Change: A Study ofProfessional Development in Adult Education. Smith, C.,Hofer, J., Gillespie, M., Solomon, M., & Rowe, K. (2003)Report Summary (#25a) $5, Full Report (#25) $10

Reports #24: Living with It: Federal Policy Implementationin Adult Basic Education. Belzer, A. (2003) $10

Reports #23: The First Five Years: National Center for theStudy of Adult Learning and Literacy 1996–2001. (2002) $10

Reports #22a & #22: Connecting Practitioners andResearchers: An Evaluation of NCSALL’s PractitionerDissemination Research Network. Smith, C., Bingman, B.,Hofer, J., Medina, P. & Practitioner Leaders. (2002) ReportSummary (#22a) $2.50, Full Report (#22) $10

Reports #21: Open to Interpretation: Multiple IntelligencesTheory in Adult Literacy Education. Findings from the AdultMultiple Intelligences Study. Kallenbach, S. & Viens, J. (2002) $10

Reports #20: Documenting Outcomes for Learners and TheirCommunities: A Report on a NCSALL Action ResearchProject. Bingman, B. with Ebert, O. & Bell, B. (2002) $5

Reports #19a & #19: Toward a New Pluralism in ABE/ESOLClassrooms: Teaching to Multiple “Cultures of Mind.”Executive Summary. Kegan, R., Broderick, M., Drago-Severson, E., Helsing, D., Popp, N. & Portnow, K. (2001)Executive Summary (#19a) $5, Research Monograph (#19) $35

Reports #18a & #18: Classroom Dynamics in Adult LiteracyEducation. Beder, H. & Medina, P. (2001) Report Summary(#18a) $5, Full Report (#18) $10

Reports #17: Effecting Change in the Literacy Practice of AdultLearners: Impact of Two Dimensions of Instruction. Purcell-Gates, V., Degener, S., Jacobson, E. & Soler, M. (2000) $10

Reports #16: The Devil is in the Details: Evidence from the GEDon the Role of Examination System Details in DeterminingWho Passes. Tyler, J., Murnane, R. & Willett, J. (2000) $5

Reports #15: Cognitive Skills Matter in the Labor Market, Evenfor School Dropouts. Tyler, J., Murnane, R. & Willett, J. (2000) $5

Reports #14: An Overview of Medical and Public HealthLiterature Addressing Literacy Issues: An AnnotatedBibliography. Rudd, R., Colton, T. & Schacht, R. (2000) $5

Reports #13: “I’ve Come A Long Way”: Learner-IdentifiedOutcomes of Participation in Adult Literacy Programs.Bingman, B. & Ebert, O. (2000) $10

Reports #12: Persistence Among Adult Basic EducationStudents in Pre-GED Classes. Comings, J., Parrella, A. &Soricone, L. (1999) $10

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TO ORDER, CALL CAYE CAPLAN AT(617) 482-9485 OR GO TO HTTP://WWW.NCSALL.NET

Reports #11: Changes in Learners’ Lives One Year AfterEnrollment in Literacy Programs: An Analysis from theLongitudinal Study of Adult Literacy Participants inTennessee. Bingman, B., Ebert, O. & Smith, M. (1999) $5

Reports #10: The Impact of Welfare Reform on AdultLiteracy Education: Conference Papers and Themes fromSmall Group Sessions. D’Amico, D., Levenson, A. & White, C.(1999) $5

Reports #9: Findings from a National Survey of State Directorsof Adult Education. Rudd, R., Zahner, L. & Banh, M. (1999) $5

Reports #8: Adult Educators’ Perceptions of Health Issuesand Topics in Adult Basic Education Programs. Rudd, R. &Moeykens, B. (2000) $5

For a complete list of NCSALL Reports, call Caye Caplan or go to the NCSALL web site.

NCSALL Occasional Papers — articles thatallow individuals in the field to better understandresearch processes and to be informed on key up-to-date research and policy issues.Research Methods for Studying ABE/ESOL Populations.Drago-Severson, E. (2004) $5

Transportation and Work: Exploring Car Usage andEmployment Outcomes in the LSAL Data. Sullivan, K.(2003) On-line only — FREE

Establishing an Evidence-Based Adult Education System.Comings, J., Beder, H., Bingman, M.B., Reder, S., & Smith,C. (2003) $5

The Influences of Social Capital on Lifelong Learning AmongAdults Who Did Not Finish High School. Strawn, C. (2003) $10

Expanding Access to Adult Literacy with Online DistanceEducation. Askov, E., Johnston, J., Petty, L. & Young, S.(2003) $10

Building a Level Playing Field: The Need to Expand andImprove the National and State Adult Education and LiteracySystems. Comings, J., Reder, S., & Sum, A. (2001) $10

NCSALL Teaching and Training Materials — including Study Circle Guides, are designed for use by teachers and professionaldevelopment staff working in adult basic education.Creating Authentic Materials and Activities for the AdultLiteracy Classroom. Jacobson, E., Degener, S., & Purcell-Gates, V. (2003) $10

NCSALL Study Circle Guide: Adult Multiple Intelligences.Parrella, A., Hofer, J., with Bubp, S., Finn-Mille, S., Graves,N., & Meader, P. (2004) On-line only — FREE

NCSALL Study Circle Guide: Learner Persistence in AdultBasic Education. (2003) On-line only — FREE

ResourcesThe Correctional EducationAssociation’s goals are to increasethe effectiveness, expertise, andskills of its members; to involve itsmembers in an active and supportivenetwork of professionals who areleaders in the field of correctionaleducation; to help increase thequality of educational programs andservice through technical assistanceas well as advocacy; to offer timelyand practical information to fellowstaff members; and to represent thecollective interest of correctionaleducation before the government,the press, and the public on thenational, state, provincial, and local levels. Its web site ishttp://www.ceanational.org/.

The National Institute forCorrectional Education has a website with a useful list of links. Go tohttp://coents2.coe.iup.edu/nice/clearinghouse/links/index1.htm

“Current Issues in CorrectionalEducation” by Gail Spangenberg,February 2004, published by theCouncil for Advancement of AdultLiteracy, available at http://www.caalusa.org/correct_ed_paper.pdf, is thecompilation of discussions held with 15 leaders in corrections and adulteducation on topics such as criticalpublic policy issues in corrections,funding issues in corrections education,and the relationship between theDepartments of Education andCorrections at the state level. Issuesdeemed critical by this group includethe need to prepare inmates foreveryday functioning and jobs aftertheir release, the need for better publicrelations on the part of correctionseducation, and the importance ofevaluating program impact andappropriateness.

CorrectionsEducation ReportsTwo reports from MPR Associates,Inc., examine the state of knowledge

on NCSALL’s web site: http://ncsall.gse.harvard.edu.

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year, by sending a check, money order, orpurchase order for the appropriate amount,payable to World Education, to: Focus onBasics, World Education, 44 Farnsworth Street,Boston, MA 02210-1211. To discuss discountrates for bulk orders, call Caye Caplan atWorld Education, (617) 482-9485, or e-mailher at [email protected].

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about the scope, content, andoutcomes of corrections education.The first, “Correctional Education:Assessing the Status of PrisonPrograms and Information Needs,”looks at national data and findssignificant gaps. It is available athttp://www.mprinc.com/pubs/summary.asp?pubID=309. The second,“Common Measures of Perfor-mance: Using State Data toAssess the Status of CorrectionalEducation Programs in the UnitedStates,” reports on a pilot project in eight states to unify data andreporting. The goal was to generatecomparable information acrossstates that could be aggregated toform a more comprehensive pictureof corrections education in theUnited States. It is available athttp://www.mprinc.com/pubs/summary.asp?pubID=349. Formore information, contact JohnLinton at the US Department ofEducation at 202-205-7942 [email protected]. �

� NCSALL works to improve the quality ofpractice in adult basic education programsnationwide through basic and appliedresearch; by building partnerships amongresearchers, policymakers, and practition-ers; and through dissemination of researchresults. A joint effort of World Education,the Harvard Graduate School of Edu-cation, Portland State University, RutgersUniversity, and the Center for LiteracyStudies at The University of Tennessee,NCSALL is funded by the US Departmentof Education’s Institute of EducationalSciences.

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NCSALL Research BriefsThe Relationship of the Component Skills ofReading to Performance on theInternational Adult Literacy Survey (IALS)by John Strucker, Kentaro Yamamoto, and IrwinKirsch (Educational Testing Service [ETS]).This brief highlights key findings from astudy that is a subset of a larger study. It

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“One Day I Will Make It”: A Study of AdultStudent Persistence in Library LiteracyPrograms by John Comings, Kristin E. Porter,and Sondra Cuban, with Valerie Chase. Thisbrief provides findings from the last report inthe Literacy in Libraries Across America(LILAA) initiative, which was established in1996 with the goal of helping public librariesaround the country come up with new waysto increase adult learners’ persistence. In thestudy, the planning and implementation ofstrategies to improve student persistencewere investigated in well-established libraryliteracy programs in nine branches of fivelibraries. This Research Brief is adapted fromthe MDRC-produced Executive Summary ofthe same title. The complete report can bedownloaded from MDRC’s web site at:http://www.mdrc.org/publications/401/full.pdf

NCSALL TeachingMaterialsUnderstanding What Reading Is All About.This guide provides teaching materials forABE instructors to use in classrooms.

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NCSALL Training MaterialsAccessing and Using Research for Evidence-Based Practice. This brochure guidesprofessional developers in accessing and usingNCSALL materials to promote evidence-basedpractice. In addition to a concise overview ofthe key terms that underlie “evidence-basedpractice” (as defined by Institute forEducation Science’s Director GroverWhitehurst), this brochure describes each ofthe major types of NCSALL publications.

NCSALL ResearchBecoming Adult Learners: Principles andPractices for Effective Development, byEleanor Drago-Severson, offers a way tosupport adults in adult basic education (ABE)and English for speakers of other languagesprograms (ESOL). The book grew out of theNCSALL Adult Development research (seehttp://www.ncsall.net/?id=258 and relatedarticles on the NCSALL web site) andprovides practical suggestions for applyingadult development theory in the classroom,curriculum, program design, and policy. It’savailable via Teachers College Press, athttp://www.tcpress.com.

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