Presented By:Fatimatuz Zahro Khoirun Nisa’

Abdul Hamid Aly

PRINCIPLES OF ACADEMIC WRIT-

ING

Basic Principles of Academic Writ-ing

Basic Principles

Co-hes-ion Clarity

Logi-cal

Order

Con-sis-

tency

Unity

Con-cise-ness

Com-plete-ness

Vari-ety

For-mal-ity

Cohesion

Cohesion means as the smooth move-ment or flow between sentences and paragraphs. It refers to connectivity in a text.  Coherence refers to how easy it is to understand the writing. Cohesion is also a very important aspect of aca-demic writing, because it immediately affects the tone of your writing.

Clarity

Clarity is the meaning of what you are intending to communicate is perfectly clear; the reader does not have to “read between the lines” to guess what you are saying, or in the other word is clear purpose.

Logical order

Logical order refers to a logical ordering of information. In academic writing, writers tend to move from general to specific. Developing points and ordering information in a certain way can help keep the reader centered on the focus of the paragraph. It can also help the writer create a paragraph with a clear purpose that is easy for readers to fol-low.

Consistency

Consistency refers to uniformity of writ-ing style. The writer should be consis-tent: either use note form or complete sentences. The principle of parallelism also exemplifies consistency (the same grammatical structures should be con-sistently used in a list). Finally, in citing sources, consistency of style is also es-sential.

Unity

Unity refers to the exclusion of informa-tion that does not directly relate to the topic being discussed in a given para-graph. In its broadest sense, an entire essay should be unified; that is, within the paragraphs, the minor supports must support the major supports, which in turn must support the topic sen-tences.

Conciseness

Conciseness is economy in the use of words. Good writing quickly gets to the point and eliminates unnecessary words and needless repetition. The exclusion of unnecessary information promotes unity and cohesion.

Completeness

Just because a source you have chosen does not include certain information, you are not excused from supplying all the basics in your essay. For this reason as well as others, you must consult a va-riety of sources.

Variety

Variety helps the reader by adding some “spice” to the text. It is achieved in part by using various methods of joining ideas. In addition to constructing sen-tences of various types and lengths, the writer should try to use synonyms when possible.

Formality

Academic writing is formal in tone. This means that sophisticated vocabulary and grammatical structures are used. In addition, the use of pronouns such as “I” and contractions is avoided.

Developing Speaking Skills Using Three Communicative Activities (Discussion, Prob-lem-Solving, and Role-Playing)

English teaching and learning have the goal of focusing students so that they are able to use English for communication and as a tool for furthering their studies [1]. In the process of teaching and learning, the four language skills (listening, speak-ing, reading, and writing) are simultaneously performed. Nor-mally, learners in an EFL context do not use the language in au-thentic situations. They possess inability in communicating ap-propriately and correctly. This leads to learners’ lack of self-confi-dence and avoidance when communicating with native English speakers.

In foreign language teaching and learning, ability to speak is the most essential skill since it is the basic for communication [2] and it is the most difficult skill. Reference [3] stated that speaking English is the most difficult for learners. In particular, EFL learners often stammer when speaking English. This results from learners’ lack of exposure to authentic English language en-vironments that allow them to use English for communication and expression. Furthermore, learners are not exposed to the cultures of the native English speakers. Speaking is the most important and essential skill. Reference [4] stated that mastery of this skill illustrates that the speaker possesses precise knowledge of lan-guage.

According to many teaching theorists, speaking skill can be developed through communicative activities which in-clude an information gap, a jigsaw puzzle, games, problem-solving, and Role-playing. In addition, [5] supported this idea that the activities that can assist better speaking skills are free discussion and role-playing. Also, [6] stated that the language activities are important factors in teaching lan-guage for communication. Activities help create interaction in the language classroom. Additionally, communicative activ-ities can motivate the learners and establish good relation-ships between the teacher and the students as well as among the students thereby encouraging a supportive environment for language learning.

The state and conditions of language learning and teaching at Satri Rachinuthit School, Udon Thani, were un-satisfactory. According to the report of [7] it was found that their foreign language learning strand was 50.83%, which was at the average level and at the lowest among the other strands of the school. From the study of teaching theories in developing speaking skills using communicative activities and many related research studies, it was hypothesized that three communicative activities , discussion, problem-solving and role-playing, might help solve the problem.

On the basis of this literature, as the researcher would study the impacts of these three communicative activities, discussion, problem-solving and role-playing up students’ de-velopment of speaking skills and students’ attitude towards teaching English speaking using the three communicative ac-tivities.