BASIC BASIC COMPONENTS OF COMPONENTS OF LIVING THINGSLIVING THINGSBOOK PAGE BOOK PAGE 21-2921-29

14-2014-20

What are plants made up What are plants made up of?of?

What are animals made up What are animals made up of?of?

All living things are made All living things are made up of cells. But what are up of cells. But what are

cells made up of?cells made up of?

Atoms and moleculesAtoms and molecules An atom contains charged An atom contains charged

particles.It consists of nucleus particles.It consists of nucleus and electrons. Nucleus is and electrons. Nucleus is positive, containing positive positive, containing positive protons and neutral protons. protons and neutral protons. Electrons are negative. Normaly Electrons are negative. Normaly the number of electrons is the the number of electrons is the same as the number of protons same as the number of protons and the atom is neutral.and the atom is neutral.

It is possible to remove or add It is possible to remove or add one or more electrons to one or more electrons to atom.Then the atoms becomes atom.Then the atoms becomes charged ions.charged ions.

Molecules-WaterMolecules-Water

A molecule is a collection of atoms linked by a network of bonds

Chemical bondsChemical bonds When atoms combine with each other When atoms combine with each other

they form they form chemical bondschemical bonds between the between the atoms. atoms.

To attain a stable electron configuration To attain a stable electron configuration they have to achieve the maximum they have to achieve the maximum number of electrons in the outermost number of electrons in the outermost energy level, atoms can either : energy level, atoms can either : donate, donate, accept, or accept, or share share

Ionic bondsIonic bonds

Opposite charges attract so the Opposite charges attract so the ions ions in sodium chloride are held together in sodium chloride are held together by the attraction between Na+ and by the attraction between Na+ and Cl -. This forms an Cl -. This forms an ionic bondionic bond. .

NaNa Cl Cl

Covalent bondsCovalent bonds In this type of bond 1, 2 or 3 In this type of bond 1, 2 or 3

pairs of electrons are pairs of electrons are shared shared between between participating atoms. The participating atoms. The shared electrons now shared electrons now circulate about both atoms circulate about both atoms participating in the bond. participating in the bond. covalent bonds are covalent bonds are

relatively strong relatively strong covalent bonds are much covalent bonds are much

more common in organic more common in organic compounds (and compounds (and therefore in the therefore in the biological world) biological world)

Hydrogen bondsHydrogen bonds One special type of One special type of

interaction between polar interaction between polar molecules occurs in many molecules occurs in many organic (and hence organic (and hence biological) molecules where biological) molecules where the weak attraction of the the weak attraction of the partial charge on a partial charge on a hydrogen atom in a covalent hydrogen atom in a covalent bond for the partial bond for the partial negative charge on an atom negative charge on an atom in another molecule is in another molecule is termed atermed a hydrogen bond. hydrogen bond.

LIVING THINGS

INORGANIC ORGANIC

WATERCARBO

HYDRATESPROTEINSMINERALSACIDS, BASES LIPIDS VITAMINS

ENZYMES

NUCLEIC ACIDS

ATP

Inorganic and Organic Inorganic and Organic moleculesmolecules

Cannot synthesizeCannot synthesize Take in readilyTake in readily Important in Important in

structurestructure Can have different Can have different

kind of elementskind of elements Can not be digested Can not be digested

or hydrolyzed.or hydrolyzed. Never used as Never used as

energy sourceenergy source Water, salt, Water, salt,

minerals, acid and minerals, acid and basesbases

Can synthesizeCan synthesize Important in structure, Important in structure,

energy and homeostasisenergy and homeostasis Always have C,H,O Always have C,H,O Can be broken down(not Can be broken down(not

vitamins)vitamins) Can be used as energy Can be used as energy

sourcesource Proteins, carbohydrates, Proteins, carbohydrates,

lipids, vitamins, enzymes, lipids, vitamins, enzymes, nucleic acidsnucleic acids

WaterWater

SourceSource FoodFood Chemical reactionsChemical reactions Drinking waterDrinking water

FunctionFunction Good SolventGood Solvent Breaking up Breaking up

macromolecules macromolecules (hydrolysis)(hydrolysis)

Cell Membrane Cell Membrane transport (in/out)transport (in/out)

Keep body temparature Keep body temparature constant constant

In photosynthesisIn photosynthesis Chemical Chemical

reactions/enzymesreactions/enzymes

Acids and BasesAcids and Bases Acids give out H ionsAcids give out H ions Turns blue turnusol Turns blue turnusol

paper into redpaper into red Sour tasteSour taste

Bases give out OH Bases give out OH ionsions

Turns red turnusol Turns red turnusol paper into bluepaper into blue

Bitter tasteBitter taste

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

If H ion concentration increases, acidity increases. pH decreases.

If H ion concentration decreases basicity increases. pH increases.

pH is important for chemical reactions to occur. Because it effects the enzyme activity.

Minerals and SaltsMinerals and Salts Salts form as a result of reaction between a strong Salts form as a result of reaction between a strong

acid and a strong baseacid and a strong base HCl + NaOH NaCl + HHCl + NaOH NaCl + H22OO (Neutralisation reaction)(Neutralisation reaction)Salt and mineral concentrations are always kept Salt and mineral concentrations are always kept

constant.constant. Important in muscle contractionImportant in muscle contraction Important in water exchange. Important in water exchange. Important component in Bones(Ca, P), Chlorophyll Important component in Bones(Ca, P), Chlorophyll

(Mg)and hemoglobin (Fe), ATP (P) energy molecule.(Mg)and hemoglobin (Fe), ATP (P) energy molecule. Activates enzymes for chemical reactionsActivates enzymes for chemical reactions Cannot broken into parts(can not digested or Cannot broken into parts(can not digested or

hydrolysed), cannot give energyhydrolysed), cannot give energy Exess of the minerals are stored (Ca P in bones) or Exess of the minerals are stored (Ca P in bones) or

thrown out by urine(Na, Cl, K).thrown out by urine(Na, Cl, K).

Name of the Name of the mineralmineral

Food rich in Food rich in mineralmineral

Function of Function of the mineralthe mineral

CalciumCalcium Milk,cheese, Milk,cheese, breadbread

For bones, For bones, teethteeth

PhosphorusPhosphorus Milk, fish, meatMilk, fish, meat For For bones,teeth, bones,teeth, eyeseyes

FlourineFlourine Toothpaste, Toothpaste, waterwater

For teethFor teeth

IodineIodine Sea food, saltSea food, salt For hormone For hormone thyroxinethyroxine

IronIron Liver, egg yolkLiver, egg yolk hemoglobinhemoglobinSodiumSodium Meat, milk, egg, Meat, milk, egg,

saltsaltFor nervesFor nerves

ChlorineChlorine Salt, vegetablesSalt, vegetables Chemical Chemical reactionsreactions

CopperCopper Liver, egg, fishLiver, egg, fish Chemical Chemical reactionsreactions

ZincZinc Meat, milk, Meat, milk, yogurt, riceyogurt, rice

For wound For wound healheal

MagnesiumMagnesium Nut, green Nut, green vegetablesvegetables

For For chlorophyllchlorophyll

Hydrolysis and Hydrolysis and DehydrationDehydration

Organic molecules are large molecules. Organic molecules are large molecules. They are called polymers. Polymers are They are called polymers. Polymers are made up of small molecules, small made up of small molecules, small molecules are called monomers.molecules are called monomers.

HYDROLYSISHYDROLYSIS Polymers are broken down by Polymers are broken down by

hydrolysis reaction.hydrolysis reaction.Polymer + H2O monomer+monomer+Polymer + H2O monomer+monomer+

…………

In hydrolysis water is usedIn hydrolysis water is used

DEHYDRATIONDEHYDRATION Monomers form polymers by dehydration Monomers form polymers by dehydration

reaction.reaction.Monomer+monomer+monomer…… Polymer+ H2OMonomer+monomer+monomer…… Polymer+ H2O In dehydration water is formedIn dehydration water is formed

Number of small Number of small molecules molecules formedformed

--

Number of small Number of small molecules usedmolecules used

Number of Number of bonds that are bonds that are broken downbroken down

Number of water Number of water molecules usedmolecules used 11====

(n)(n)

In hydrolysis polymers are broken down by using water.

In Dehydration monomers form polymers by forming water.

(n)(n)

-- 11==Number of water Number of water

molecules molecules formedformed

==Number of Number of

bonds that bonds that are formedare formed

If you want to form a large If you want to form a large molecule from 2 small units, how molecule from 2 small units, how

many bonds occur? many bonds occur? 1 bond1 bondIf you want to form a large molecule If you want to form a large molecule from 10 small units, how many bonds from 10 small units, how many bonds

occur?occur? 10-1=9 bonds10-1=9 bonds

If you want to form a large molecule If you want to form a large molecule from 10 small molecule , how many from 10 small molecule , how many

HH22O molecules can form?O molecules can form? 10-1=9 water mol.10-1=9 water mol.You have a large molecule which is You have a large molecule which is

composed of 8 units. If you want to composed of 8 units. If you want to breakdown this large molecule, how breakdown this large molecule, how many water molecules should you many water molecules should you

use?use? 8-1= 7 water mol.8-1= 7 water mol.

CARBOHYDRATESCARBOHYDRATES Organic moleculesOrganic molecules Contain C, H, O formula- (CHContain C, H, O formula- (CH22O)O)nn

Gives energy by the breakdown of the Gives energy by the breakdown of the chemical bondschemical bonds

Photosynthetic living things synthesize Photosynthetic living things synthesize their carbohydrates by themselves.their carbohydrates by themselves.

6 CO6 CO22+6 H+6 H22OO CC66HH1212OO66 + 6 O+ 6 O22

Structural component of living things Structural component of living things (DNA, RNA, ATP)(DNA, RNA, ATP)

CARBOHYDRATESCARBOHYDRATES

Structural component of living Structural component of living things (DNA, RNA, ATP), They have things (DNA, RNA, ATP), They have 5 C sugars(pentose)5 C sugars(pentose)

DeoxyriboseDeoxyribose Ribose Ribose

CARBOHYDRATES

MONOSACCHARIDES DISACCHARIDES POLYSACCHARIDES

•Simple sugars CC66HH1212OO66

•Can not be hydrolysed into smaller units (monomers)

•5C- deoxyribose, ribose, ATP

•6C- glucose, fructose, galactose and are solublesoluble

•Plants can synthesize but animals get it readily.

•Composed of 2 monosaccharides.

•Formed by dehydration. Bond’s name is Glycoside bond.

•Can be broken down by hydrolysis into monomers.

•Mono+mono disacch+H2O

•Lactose– glucose+galactose

•sucrose-or saccharose- glucose+fructose

•Maltose- glucose+glucose

• composed of many monosaccharides

•Formed by dehydration. Bond’s name is Glycoside bond.

•Can be broken down by hydrolysis into monomers

• (n)mono poly+(n-1) H2O

•Starch

•Cellulose glucose

•glycogen

•Unsoluble, change color with iodine

2 monomers form disaccharides. 1 mol H2O is formed2 monomers form disaccharides. 1 mol H2O is formedDisaccharidesDisaccharides

Polysaccharidesn( monosaccharide)

Polysaccharide+ (n-1) water

Starch, cellulose, glycogen have the monomer of glucose. But they have different bonding.

Importance of Importance of carbohydratescarbohydrates

They are used as energy source in cellular They are used as energy source in cellular respiration.respiration.

They are broken down to monosaccharides They are broken down to monosaccharides in the digestive system and absorbed like in the digestive system and absorbed like that. that.

They are stored as starch in plants. Animals They are stored as starch in plants. Animals can not store starch. Cellulose functions in can not store starch. Cellulose functions in structure, not in storage.structure, not in storage.

They are stored as glycogen in animals, most They are stored as glycogen in animals, most of them are soluble in water. Plants can not of them are soluble in water. Plants can not store glycogen.store glycogen.

Important in regulation of blood sugar level. Important in regulation of blood sugar level.

Found in Cell membrane-with lipids and Found in Cell membrane-with lipids and proteins for Recognition of foreign proteins for Recognition of foreign moleculesmolecules

Excess of the carbohydrates are converted Excess of the carbohydrates are converted into fat and stored like that. into fat and stored like that.

Human can not digest cellulose. Special Human can not digest cellulose. Special animals digest it with the help of the animals digest it with the help of the bacteries.bacteries.

Plant carbohydrates(cellulose-rouphage) Plant carbohydrates(cellulose-rouphage) are important in the proper working of the are important in the proper working of the digestive system. digestive system.

Sugar cane, banana, apple, grape, grains, Sugar cane, banana, apple, grape, grains, liver, meat, potato are sources of liver, meat, potato are sources of carbohydrates. carbohydrates.

REVIEW QUESTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATESREVIEW QUESTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES Describe the chemical makeup of carbohydrates ?Describe the chemical makeup of carbohydrates ?

(CH2O)n How can you classify carbohydrates?How can you classify carbohydrates?

We can classify carbohydrates according We can classify carbohydrates according to their monomer number. to their monomer number.

Monosaccharides_have one monomerMonosaccharides_have one monomer Disaccahrides_have 2 monomersDisaccahrides_have 2 monomers Polysaccharides_have many monomersPolysaccharides_have many monomers

Gives energy by the breakdown of the chemical bondsGives energy by the breakdown of the chemical bonds Structural component of living things (DNA, RNA, ATP)Structural component of living things (DNA, RNA, ATP) Found in Cell membrane-with lipids and proteins, Found in Cell membrane-with lipids and proteins,

Recognition of foreign moleculesRecognition of foreign molecules Found in cell wall as cellulose, found in insects as chitin.Found in cell wall as cellulose, found in insects as chitin.

What are the functions of carbohydrates?What are the functions of carbohydrates?

Explain how disaccharides form?Explain how disaccharides form? 2 monosaccharides form disaccharides by 2 monosaccharides form disaccharides by

dehydration reaction. 1 mol H2O and 1 bond dehydration reaction. 1 mol H2O and 1 bond are formed. Bond’s name is Glycoside bond.are formed. Bond’s name is Glycoside bond.

Compare hydrolysis and dehydration reaction.Compare hydrolysis and dehydration reaction.

Monomers form polymers by dehydration Monomers form polymers by dehydration reaction. In dehydration water is formedreaction. In dehydration water is formed

Polymers are broken down by hydrolysis Polymers are broken down by hydrolysis reaction.. In hydrolysis water is usedreaction.. In hydrolysis water is used

Classify the reactions below:Classify the reactions below:

Formation of sucrose from glucose and Formation of sucrose from glucose and fructose fructose

DehydrationDehydration....

Synthesis of starch from glucoseSynthesis of starch from glucose

Formation of glucose from cellulose. Formation of glucose from cellulose.

Breakdown of maltose to form glucoseBreakdown of maltose to form glucose

DehydrationDehydration....

HydrolysisHydrolysis

HydrolysisHydrolysis

LIPIDSLIPIDS

Lipids are not soluble in water. They can Lipids are not soluble in water. They can solve in aceton, alcohol, chloroform or solve in aceton, alcohol, chloroform or benzene.benzene.

Contain C,H,O Contain C,H,O Monomers are: Fatty acids and Glycerol. Monomers are: Fatty acids and Glycerol. In a molecule of lipid, there are 3 molecules In a molecule of lipid, there are 3 molecules

of fatty acids and one molecule of glycerol. of fatty acids and one molecule of glycerol. Lipids are formed by dehydration reaction. Lipids are formed by dehydration reaction. 3 molecules of water is formed.3 molecules of water is formed.

There are esther bonds between fatty acid There are esther bonds between fatty acid molecules and glycerol. molecules and glycerol.

Lipid structure- Lipid structure- Triglycerides Triglycerides

1 glycerol + 3 fatty acids 1 lipid+ 3 1 glycerol + 3 fatty acids 1 lipid+ 3 waterwater

PropertiesProperties Important energy source. It has energy Important energy source. It has energy

twice as much as carbohydrates and twice as much as carbohydrates and proteins. But they are used as second proteins. But they are used as second energy source.energy source.

They are used as storage molecule. They are used as storage molecule. They are the main component of the cell They are the main component of the cell

membrane. (ın membrane they are membrane. (ın membrane they are found as phospholipids)found as phospholipids)

Lipids are classified according to their Lipids are classified according to their fatty acid structure: saturated and fatty acid structure: saturated and unsaturated lipids.unsaturated lipids.

Saturated and Saturated and Unsaturated lipidsUnsaturated lipids Fatty acids have long Fatty acids have long

carbon chains. 2 molecules carbon chains. 2 molecules of H can be bound to of H can be bound to Carbons. Carbons.

If there is only one bond If there is only one bond between carbon molecules, between carbon molecules, they are saturated lipids. they are saturated lipids. (All carbons are saturated (All carbons are saturated with maximum number of with maximum number of H). Butter, margarine. H). Butter, margarine. (Found mostly in animals)(Found mostly in animals)

If there is some double If there is some double bonds between carbon bonds between carbon molecules, they are molecules, they are unsaturated lipids. Oils, unsaturated lipids. Oils, olive oil (found mostly in olive oil (found mostly in plants)plants)

Importance of LipidsImportance of Lipids Protects internal organs. Heart, intestineProtects internal organs. Heart, intestine Insulates the body, keeps the temperature Insulates the body, keeps the temperature

constant. constant. Excess of carbohydrates and proteins are Excess of carbohydrates and proteins are

converted into fats. It causes obesity.converted into fats. It causes obesity. Fat soluble vitamins(ADEK) are dissolved in Fat soluble vitamins(ADEK) are dissolved in

the fats and absorbed with them. the fats and absorbed with them. Some fatty acid molecules(essential fatty Some fatty acid molecules(essential fatty

acids) can not be synthesized by animals. They acids) can not be synthesized by animals. They have to take these fatty acid from plants. have to take these fatty acid from plants. Plants can synthesize all.Plants can synthesize all.

Meat, milk, cheese, egg, sesame,sunflower Meat, milk, cheese, egg, sesame,sunflower seed, nuts are rich in lipids. seed, nuts are rich in lipids.

Phosoholipids in cell membrane give fluidity Phosoholipids in cell membrane give fluidity and flexibility.and flexibility.

Cell membrane lipid- Cell membrane lipid- PhospholipidPhospholipid

They are found in cell They are found in cell membrane. membrane.

A phosphate group is A phosphate group is bound to the glycerol. bound to the glycerol.

It has 2 fatty acid It has 2 fatty acid chains.chains.

Phosphate group Phosphate group loves water loves water (hydrophilic), Fatty (hydrophilic), Fatty acid part hates water acid part hates water (hydrophobic). (hydrophobic).

By their Hydrophilic and hydrophobic parts, a By their Hydrophilic and hydrophobic parts, a double layered cell membrane is formed. double layered cell membrane is formed. Hydrophobic part stays inside and Hydrophilic part Hydrophobic part stays inside and Hydrophilic part stays outside (face cytoplasm or outer part)stays outside (face cytoplasm or outer part)

Cell membrane lipid- PhospholipidIt is composed of 1 glycerol, 1 phosphate, 2 fatty acid chain.

REVIEW QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW QUESTIONS FOR LIPIDSLIPIDS

What is a esther bond?What is a esther bond? It is the bond between fatty acids and glycerolIt is the bond between fatty acids and glycerol

How a lipid molecule is formed?How a lipid molecule is formed? It is formed by the dehydration between 1 molecule of glycerol It is formed by the dehydration between 1 molecule of glycerol

and 3 molecules of fatty acidand 3 molecules of fatty acid

If we want to form 5 molecules of lipid, How many monomers of the If we want to form 5 molecules of lipid, How many monomers of the lipids we need?lipids we need?

For the one molecule of lipid, we need 1 molecule of glycerol For the one molecule of lipid, we need 1 molecule of glycerol and 3 molecules of fatty acid. and 3 molecules of fatty acid.

1 glycerol x 5= 5 glycerol 3 fatty acid x 5= 15 fatty acid1 glycerol x 5= 5 glycerol 3 fatty acid x 5= 15 fatty acid

Molecules are needed.Molecules are needed.

If we we use 12 molecules of water to breakdown lipid, can If we we use 12 molecules of water to breakdown lipid, can you determine how many lipid molecule do we have at the you determine how many lipid molecule do we have at the beginning? And how many bonds did we break?beginning? And how many bonds did we break?

1 mol of lipid is broken down by 3 mol of water1 mol of lipid is broken down by 3 mol of water

12 mol of water can broke down 4 mol of lipid12 mol of water can broke down 4 mol of lipid

List the organic compounds according their energy List the organic compounds according their energy amount?(high to low)amount?(high to low)

Lipids-carbohydrates-proteinsLipids-carbohydrates-proteins

List the organic compounds according to their usage List the organic compounds according to their usage for energy?(high to low)for energy?(high to low)

Carbohydrates-lipids-proteinsCarbohydrates-lipids-proteins

Compare saturated and unsaturated lipids?Compare saturated and unsaturated lipids?

saturatedsaturated unsaturatedunsaturated

Solid at room Solid at room temp.temp.

Liquid at room Liquid at room temp.temp.

Fatty acid chains Fatty acid chains have only single have only single bonds.bonds.

Found mostly in Found mostly in animal cellsanimal cells

Fatty acid chains Fatty acid chains have double have double bonds.bonds.

Found mostly in Found mostly in plant cellsplant cells

List importance of lipids.List importance of lipids. Protects internal organs. Heart, intestineProtects internal organs. Heart, intestine Insulates the body, keep the temperature. Insulates the body, keep the temperature. Excess of carbohydrates and proteins are Excess of carbohydrates and proteins are

converted into fats. It causes obesity.converted into fats. It causes obesity. Fat soluble vitamins are dissolved in the fats and Fat soluble vitamins are dissolved in the fats and

absorbed with them. absorbed with them. When they are broken down, 3 molecules of When they are broken down, 3 molecules of

water are used and energy is given out.water are used and energy is given out. Some fatty acid molecules can not synthesized by Some fatty acid molecules can not synthesized by

animals. They have to take these fatty acid from animals. They have to take these fatty acid from plants. plants.

Meat, milk, cheese, egg, sesame,sunflower sedd, Meat, milk, cheese, egg, sesame,sunflower sedd, nuts are rich in lipids. nuts are rich in lipids.

They are the main component of the cell They are the main component of the cell membranemembrane

Give energyGive energy

Organic molecule

Organic molecule

time

Structural use of the organic molecules

Usage of molecules as energy source

Energy amount of the molecule

By looking at the charts below, find out By looking at the charts below, find out the names of the organic molecules?the names of the organic molecules?

IIII

IIIIII II

II IIII IIIIIIa. Carbohydratea. Carbohydrate lipidlipid proteinproteinb. proteinb. protein carbohydratecarbohydrate lipidlipidc. lipidc. lipid proteinprotein carbohydratecarbohydrated. proteind. protein lipidlipid carbohydratecarbohydratee.carbohydratee.carbohydrate proteinprotein lipidlipid

By looking at the charts below, find out By looking at the charts below, find out what kind of reactions are they?what kind of reactions are they?

I. hydrolysis

II. dehydration

I

II

Colors: Black Brown-orange Dark Blue Green-Colors: Black Brown-orange Dark Blue Green-light orangelight orange

These are the results of an experiment (determination of These are the results of an experiment (determination of carbohydrates) done in the laboratory. Can you list the carbohydrates) done in the laboratory. Can you list the foods ( X and Y) according to their carbohydrate content foods ( X and Y) according to their carbohydrate content from high to low?from high to low?

Food X+ lugol

Food X+ Fehling A Fehling B Food Y+

lugol

Food Y+ Fehling A Fehling B

X > Y

Write the monomers of the Write the monomers of the moleculesmolecules

lipidlipid sucrosesucrose lactoselactose cellulosecellulose galactosegalactose glycogenglycogen

Fatty acid + glycerolGlucose + FructoseGalactose + glucoseGlucose (many)

it is a monomer

Glucose (many)

How a lipid molecule is formed?How a lipid molecule is formed?1 glycerol and 3 fatty acid combined with 3 esther 1 glycerol and 3 fatty acid combined with 3 esther

bondsbonds

. How many water molecule is formed from the . How many water molecule is formed from the polysaccharide made up of 19 polysaccharide made up of 19 monosaccharides?monosaccharides?

19-1 =18 water formed19-1 =18 water formed

. If we want to form 6 molecules of lipid, How . If we want to form 6 molecules of lipid, How many monomers should we use? Give their many monomers should we use? Give their exact names and numbers.exact names and numbers.

6 lipid has 6 glycerol and 6x3=fatty acid6 lipid has 6 glycerol and 6x3=fatty acid

. A lipid molecule has 30 esther bonds inside. . A lipid molecule has 30 esther bonds inside. Howmany monomers does it have ? (give Howmany monomers does it have ? (give their exact name and number)their exact name and number)

30 fatty acid 10 glycerol30 fatty acid 10 glycerol

1. In a lipid synthesizing cell, 240 molecules of water is formed during synthesis. How many glycerol molecule is used?

2.2. Liquid lipids :Liquid lipids : i. Contain esther bonds between glycerol and fatty acidi. Contain esther bonds between glycerol and fatty acidii.They give higher energy than carbohydrates and proteinsii.They give higher energy than carbohydrates and proteinsiii. They have double bonds in fatty acidsiii. They have double bonds in fatty acids

Which of the statements above is not a property of solid lipids?Which of the statements above is not a property of solid lipids?

240 / 3=

3. Glycerol + 3 fatty acid A Lipid + 3 H2O B According to the reactions above:According to the reactions above:

i.i. A is a hydrolysis, and B is a dehydration reactionA is a hydrolysis, and B is a dehydration reactionii.ii. The amount of water formed at the end of the The amount of water formed at the end of the

reaction is equal to the bonds formedreaction is equal to the bonds formediii.iii. The chemical make up of the reactant molecules The chemical make up of the reactant molecules

change.change.Which of them is true?Which of them is true?

4. To get all of the fatty acid types , What 4. To get all of the fatty acid types , What kind of a lipid molecule should be eaten? kind of a lipid molecule should be eaten?

PROTEINSPROTEINS Proteins are the most essential compounds Proteins are the most essential compounds

for the living things. They are the half of for the living things. They are the half of our weight. our weight.

Proteins contain N and sometimes, Proteins contain N and sometimes, Phosphorus and sulphur. Phosphorus and sulphur.

The building block of the proteins are The building block of the proteins are amino acids. Amino acis contain amino amino acids. Amino acis contain amino group(NH3), carboxyl group(COOH) and group(NH3), carboxyl group(COOH) and radical® group. Amino acids are bound radical® group. Amino acids are bound together by together by peptide bondspeptide bonds between the between the amino group of an amino acid and the amino group of an amino acid and the carboxyl groupcarboxyl group of the other. of the other.

Amino and carboxyl Amino and carboxyl groups are same for groups are same for each amino acid, each amino acid, but radical groups but radical groups are different.are different.

There are 20 There are 20 aminoacids in aminoacids in nature. nature.

So there are 20 So there are 20 radical groups.radical groups.

How do proteins differ from How do proteins differ from each other?each other? Proteins differ in their total number of Proteins differ in their total number of

amino acid units they contain. (some have 2, amino acid units they contain. (some have 2, some have 3, some have 6,7 or 100 or more)some have 3, some have 6,7 or 100 or more)

Proteins differ in their diversity of Proteins differ in their diversity of aminoacids(type of aminoacid).aminoacids(type of aminoacid).

Proteins differ in their amino acid sequence.Proteins differ in their amino acid sequence. ABCABC BACBAC ABCAABCA Each organism has a different protein Each organism has a different protein

structure because DNA differs in all structure because DNA differs in all organisms except twins(clones). Proteins are organisms except twins(clones). Proteins are synthesized by ribosomes, they get the synthesized by ribosomes, they get the information from nucleic acid.information from nucleic acid.

Proteins can have a lipid or carbohydrate Proteins can have a lipid or carbohydrate group. Glycoprotein, Lipoprotein.group. Glycoprotein, Lipoprotein.

aa-peptide bond-aa-peptide bondaa-peptide bond-aa-peptide bond

Essential aminoacids:  methionine or Essential aminoacids:  methionine or cysteine, leucine, isoleucine, lysine, cysteine, leucine, isoleucine, lysine, phenylalanine (or tyrosine), phenylalanine (or tyrosine), threonine, tryptophan, and valinethreonine, tryptophan, and valine

Humans can not synthesize them; Humans can not synthesize them; they are dietary requirementsthey are dietary requirements

Foods with no limiting amino acids:  Foods with no limiting amino acids:  legumes (soybean), cereal grains, legumes (soybean), cereal grains, nuts, dairy products, eggs, meat, nuts, dairy products, eggs, meat, and fish, liver, milk, cheese.and fish, liver, milk, cheese.

Importance of proteins:Importance of proteins: Structure: found in membranes and organelles for Structure: found in membranes and organelles for

transport , catalysis and recognition.transport , catalysis and recognition. Catalysis: They have role in reactions as enzymes.Catalysis: They have role in reactions as enzymes. Control: Some hormones in our body are protein.Control: Some hormones in our body are protein.

Transport: Hemoglobin is a protein which carries Transport: Hemoglobin is a protein which carries Oxygen Oxygen

Movement: Muscle structure(actin and myosin)Movement: Muscle structure(actin and myosin) Protection: immune system-antibodies are proteinProtection: immune system-antibodies are protein

Energy: they are important in structure , so body Energy: they are important in structure , so body doesn’t want to use them as energy source. But in doesn’t want to use them as energy source. But in some cases it can be used(starvation).some cases it can be used(starvation).

Meat, poultry, fish, eggs, milk, cheese, beans, Meat, poultry, fish, eggs, milk, cheese, beans, cereals are rich in proteinscereals are rich in proteins

1.1. A one celled organism is treated with X rays. X rays changed the genetic make up (DNA) of the cell. When A one celled organism is treated with X rays. X rays changed the genetic make up (DNA) of the cell. When the cell is examined, it is detected that the cell can’t produce a protein which was produced before.the cell is examined, it is detected that the cell can’t produce a protein which was produced before.

What can be said at the end of the experiment?What can be said at the end of the experiment?a. Genes are located in the DNA.a. Genes are located in the DNA.b. Proteins are synthesized from DNA.b. Proteins are synthesized from DNA.c. Proteins are synthesized by ribosomes.c. Proteins are synthesized by ribosomes.d. Changes in the DNA doesn’t effect protein productiond. Changes in the DNA doesn’t effect protein productione. If proteins are changed, the DNA will be changed.e. If proteins are changed, the DNA will be changed.

2. Which of the following reactions is different from the others?

a.a. Amino acid + amino acid DipeptideAmino acid + amino acid Dipeptideb.b. Fatty acid + glycerol Lipid Fatty acid + glycerol Lipid c.c. Starch + H2O MaltoseStarch + H2O Maltosed.d. Fructose + glucose Sucrose Fructose + glucose Sucrose e.e. Glucose(n) CelluloseGlucose(n) Cellulose

3. The diversity of amino acids depends on:i. Amino groupii. Carboxyl groupiii.Radical group

4. Essential aminoacids:i. Can’t be synthesized in human bodyii.Is different in individuals of the same speciesiii. Is different in the individuals of the different speciesiv. Can’t be synthesized at older ages.

Which of them is true?

5. Protein similarities are used in:i. Determination of relationships among organismsii. Tissue and organ transplantationiii. Classification of animals

6.6. Which of the following is not effective in protein Which of the following is not effective in protein diversity?diversity?

a.a. Number of aaNumber of aab.b. Bonds between aaBonds between aac.c. Type of aaType of aad.d. Sequence of aaSequence of aae.e. DNA make up (genes)DNA make up (genes)

ENZYMESENZYMES

Enzymes are biological Enzymes are biological catalystscatalysts produced by living produced by living things. things.

They are protein molecules and They are protein molecules and not living things themselves. All not living things themselves. All reactions need energy to start. reactions need energy to start. This energy is called This energy is called activation activation energyenergy. To speed up reactions . To speed up reactions we have to lower the energy we have to lower the energy required. Enzymes or catalysts required. Enzymes or catalysts lower the activation energy. In lower the activation energy. In this way they increase the this way they increase the speed of the reactions.speed of the reactions.

1. According to the graphic ,which of the 1. According to the graphic ,which of the statements can not be reached?statements can not be reached?

a.a. Enzyme usage reduces the required Enzyme usage reduces the required energyenergy

b.b. Enzyme speeds up the reactionEnzyme speeds up the reactionc.c. Reactioons can occur without enzymesReactioons can occur without enzymesd.d. Many types of enzymes can be used.Many types of enzymes can be used.e.e. ATP is used for reaction to proceed.ATP is used for reaction to proceed.

Number of ATP used

Without enzymes With

enzymes

time

Enzyme names Enzyme names

The names of the different types of The names of the different types of enzymes usually end in the letters enzymes usually end in the letters -ase-ase. . Three of the most common enzymes Three of the most common enzymes (with their chemical actions) are(with their chemical actions) are

lipaselipase, which breaks down fats , which breaks down fats proteaseprotease, which breaks down proteins, , which breaks down proteins,

and and carbohydrasecarbohydrase, which breaks down , which breaks down

carbohydrates carbohydrates

Structure and function of Structure and function of enzymesenzymes

Enzymes are very specific in the reactions Enzymes are very specific in the reactions they catalyse: different enzymes catalyse they catalyse: different enzymes catalyse different reactions. different reactions.

For a given enzyme molecule, only certain For a given enzyme molecule, only certain reactant molecules (the reactant molecules (the substratesubstrate) can fit ) can fit into its into its active site.active site.

Some enzymes don’t have only proteins , they Some enzymes don’t have only proteins , they sometimes have non protein part. Protein part sometimes have non protein part. Protein part of the enzyme is called of the enzyme is called apoenzyme.apoenzyme.

If non protein part contains If non protein part contains minerals(inorganic),minerals(inorganic), this part is called this part is called cofactor. cofactor. Same mineral can activate different Same mineral can activate different enzymes.enzymes.

If non protein part contains If non protein part contains vitamins(organic),vitamins(organic), this part is called this part is called coenzyme. coenzyme. Same vitamin can activate different Same vitamin can activate different enzymes.enzymes.

The parts of the enzymes are:The parts of the enzymes are:i.i. ApoenzymeApoenzyme

ii.ii. CoenzymeCoenzyme

iii.iii. CofactorCofactor

Which part makes the enzyme specific for Which part makes the enzyme specific for one kind of reaction?one kind of reaction?

Properties of enzymesProperties of enzymes1. When an enzyme and a substrate are joined, 1. When an enzyme and a substrate are joined,

they lower the activation energy, reaction can they lower the activation energy, reaction can occur easily.occur easily.

2. The enzymes can work in reverse directions. 2. The enzymes can work in reverse directions. The reactions are reversible. Same enzymes The reactions are reversible. Same enzymes take part in both reactions.take part in both reactions.

3. An enzyme is not used in the reaction. It 3. An enzyme is not used in the reaction. It stays same. It can not change its structure stays same. It can not change its structure during the reactions. So it can be used many during the reactions. So it can be used many times.times.

4. Enzymes are specific. Each enzyme is 4. Enzymes are specific. Each enzyme is specific for one kind of reaction. It can not be specific for one kind of reaction. It can not be used in other reactions.used in other reactions.

5. They can work inside and outside of 5. They can work inside and outside of the cell. Digestive enzymes work the cell. Digestive enzymes work outside, catalase works inside. outside, catalase works inside.

6. They speed up the reactions.6. They speed up the reactions.

7. Reactions can be in chains. One 7. Reactions can be in chains. One product of the reaction , can be a product of the reaction , can be a substrate of the other reaction.substrate of the other reaction.

In a protein synthesizing cell, Which In a protein synthesizing cell, Which graphic is true for the changes of the graphic is true for the changes of the amount of water molecules, enzyme and amount of water molecules, enzyme and amino acids.amino acids. I shows the waterI shows the water II shows the aaII shows the aa III shows the enzymeIII shows the enzyme

III

III

time

Number of molecules

II

I

III

Number of molecules

time

Factors affecting the rate of Factors affecting the rate of the enzymesthe enzymes

1. Temperature1. Temperature Enzymes usually work best in warm Enzymes usually work best in warm

conditions (around 36-40 °C).conditions (around 36-40 °C). Enzyme shape is changed at high temp. Enzyme shape is changed at high temp.

Reaction stops and never start again.Reaction stops and never start again.

Low temp. (1-10 °° C) slows down the reaction. The shape is not changed.

2. pH2. pH An enzyme will work best at a particular An enzyme will work best at a particular

temperature and temperature and pHpH, called its optimum , called its optimum conditions.conditions.

stomach enzymes work in pH 1-2.stomach enzymes work in pH 1-2. Salivary enzymes work in pH 7-8.Salivary enzymes work in pH 7-8.

Stomach enzyme

Salivary enzyme

3. Concentration of enzyme3. Concentration of enzyme If the concentration of enzyme little If the concentration of enzyme little

and substrate is large, increasing the and substrate is large, increasing the enzyme concentration increases the enzyme concentration increases the rate of reaction. But after all rate of reaction. But after all substrate molecules are used and no substrate molecules are used and no change will be in the rate of reaction change will be in the rate of reaction

4. Concentration of substrate4. Concentration of substrate If there are more enzyme molecules, If we If there are more enzyme molecules, If we

increase the concentration of substrate, increase the concentration of substrate, the rate of the reaction increases . But the rate of the reaction increases . But after all enzyme molecules are full, they after all enzyme molecules are full, they can not change the rate of reaction. can not change the rate of reaction.

5. Surface area5. Surface area: the reactions starts at the : the reactions starts at the outer area of the substrate. Increasing the outer area of the substrate. Increasing the surface area, increases the rate of enzyme surface area, increases the rate of enzyme activity.activity.

SASA==66 =6=6 SASA==600 =600 = 0.6 0.6

V 1V 1 11 V 1000 V 1000 1010

6. Water6. Water: Water content affects the activity : Water content affects the activity of enzymes. Dry seeds don’t of enzymes. Dry seeds don’t germinate.Their enzymes are not active.germinate.Their enzymes are not active.

7. Inhibitors / activators:7. Inhibitors / activators: Poisons, heavy Poisons, heavy metals inhibit the action of the enzymes. metals inhibit the action of the enzymes. Some minerals can activate the enzyme.Some minerals can activate the enzyme.

If the amount of substrate of a If the amount of substrate of a hydrolysis enzyme is maximum, hydrolysis enzyme is maximum, Which of the factors changes the Which of the factors changes the amount of the product?amount of the product?I. Optimum temperatureI. Optimum temperature

II. Addition of enzyme to the reactionII. Addition of enzyme to the reaction

III. Increasing the surface area of the III. Increasing the surface area of the substratesubstrate

VITAMINSVITAMINS Vitamins are a group of substances essential for Vitamins are a group of substances essential for

normal normal metabolismmetabolism, growth and development, , growth and development, and regulation of cell function.and regulation of cell function. Animals can’t Animals can’t synthesize vitamins but plants do.synthesize vitamins but plants do.

Vitamins work together with enzymes, as Vitamins work together with enzymes, as co-co-enzymesenzymes

Important in development and growth of the Important in development and growth of the body.body.

Important in bone formationImportant in bone formation Blood cell formation, Blood clottingBlood cell formation, Blood clotting Prevents diseases, increase resistance of the Prevents diseases, increase resistance of the

bodybody

Types of VitaminsTypes of Vitamins fat-solublefat-soluble vitamins vitamins the vitamins are the vitamins are

stored in the fat stored in the fat tissues in your body tissues in your body and in your liver. and in your liver.

They can be They can be poisonous.poisonous.

Vitamins A, D, E, and Vitamins A, D, E, and K are all fat-soluble K are all fat-soluble vitamins. vitamins.

water-solublewater-soluble vitaminsvitamins

When you eat foods that When you eat foods that have water-soluble have water-soluble vitamins, the vitamins vitamins, the vitamins don't get stored in your don't get stored in your body .body .

The excess is thrown The excess is thrown out by urine.out by urine.

B group and C vitamins B group and C vitamins are water solubleare water soluble

NUCLEIC ACIDSNUCLEIC ACIDSNucleic acids are made up of nucleotides.

Nucleotides have Phosphate group, 5 C sugar (monosaccharide) and Base(nitrogenous).

Property DNA RNA

Location Nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts,

Cytoplasm, mitochondria, chloroplasts, nucleus, ribosomes

Bases A,T,G,C U,A,G,C

Sugar (5C) Deoxribose Ribose

Phosphate same same

Number of chains

2 (double stranded) 1(single strand)

Replication Yes No

Kinds 1 3 mRNA(messenger), tRNA(transfer), rRNA(ribosomal)

Function Store genetic codes Protein synthesis

DNADNA RNA RNA

DNADNA DNA molecular structure is established by DNA molecular structure is established by

Watson and Crick in 1953 .Watson and Crick in 1953 . There are two chains linked together in DNA There are two chains linked together in DNA

molecule.(Double stranded) . Nucleotides are molecule.(Double stranded) . Nucleotides are bound together by hydrogen bonds.bound together by hydrogen bonds.

And always And always an Adenine combines with a an Adenine combines with a ThymineThymine. A= T (2 bonds) “So number of A . A= T (2 bonds) “So number of A equals to number of T”equals to number of T”

A Cytosine combines with a GuanineA Cytosine combines with a Guanine. C ≡ G . C ≡ G (3 bonds) “So number of C equals to number of (3 bonds) “So number of C equals to number of G”G”

If A number is equal to T number, then C If A number is equal to T number, then C number equals to G number.number equals to G number.

A + C = T + G or A + G = T + C A + C = T + G or A + G = T + C

A =A = T T C ≡ GC ≡ G DNA chainDNA chain A =A = T T A =A = T DNA T DNA

complementary chaincomplementary chain T = AT = A G ≡ CG ≡ C G ≡G ≡ C C C ≡C ≡ G G

Classification of basesPurine Pyrimidine2 rings 1 ring

A +G =1 Chargaff’s ruleT + C

QuestionQuestion1. The order of nucleotides in a chain of 1. The order of nucleotides in a chain of

DNA is AGCTTA.DNA is AGCTTA.

a. What is the order of nucleotides in the a. What is the order of nucleotides in the complementary chain of this DNA?complementary chain of this DNA?

b. What is the total number of hydrogen b. What is the total number of hydrogen bonds between chains?bonds between chains?

1. a. DNA AGCTTA Complementary DNA TCGAAT

b. between A= T there should be 2 bonds between G ≡ C there should be 3 bonds. So A= T 2 x 4 = 8 bonds , G ≡ C 3 x 2 = 6 8 + 6 = 14 total hydrogen bonds.

There are 3600 nucleotides in a DNA There are 3600 nucleotides in a DNA molecule. If 400 of them are adenine, Findmolecule. If 400 of them are adenine, Find

a. The number of the other a. The number of the other nucleotides.nucleotides. b. Give number of purines and b. Give number of purines and pyrimidines.pyrimidines. c. the number of deoxyribose c. the number of deoxyribose sugars and phosphate groups.sugars and phosphate groups.a. . A= 400 so T= 400 too. 400+400= 800 a. . A= 400 so T= 400 too. 400+400= 800

3600 – 800= 2800 2800 / 2 = 1400 Guanine and 1400 3600 – 800= 2800 2800 / 2 = 1400 Guanine and 1400 CytosineCytosine

b. A, G are purines 400 + 1400 = 1800 purines C, T are pyrimidines 400 + 1400 = 1800 pyrimidines c. Number of nucleotides = number of deoxribose = number of phosphate 3600 nucleotides = 3600 deoxyribose = 3600 phosphate

3. In a DNA molecule there are 1000 pairs of nucleotide. If 300 of them are guanine, what is the number of T?

1000 pairs of nucleotide= 2000 nucleotides1000 pairs of nucleotide= 2000 nucleotides

If G= C , then G+C= 600 nucleotidesIf G= C , then G+C= 600 nucleotides

2000-600= 1400 nucleotides= T+A2000-600= 1400 nucleotides= T+A

If T=A then T is 1400 / 2 = 700 nucleotides of If T=A then T is 1400 / 2 = 700 nucleotides of TT

In an experimental condition, there are 1500 A, 500 T, 1100 G, 800 C and 3000 deoxyribose and 3000 phosphate. How many nucleotides can be formed?How many nucleotides can be formed?1500+500+1100+800= 3900 bases can be used but there are only 3000 deoxyribose and phosphate only 3000 nucleotides can be formed.

How many nucleotide long DNA can be formed?A should be equal to T

G should be equal to C because DNA is double chained.

If T number is 500, A=T= 500

G= C= 800 DNA should be 1300 nucleotides long

But we spent 2600 nucleotides because it is double stranded.!!

In a DNA molecule with 220 nucleotide, there are 50 A, what is the number of C?

A= 50=T A+T= 100A= 50=T A+T= 100 220 – (A+T)= G+C220 – (A+T)= G+C 220- 100= 120= G+C if G= C then 220- 100= 120= G+C if G= C then G= 120 / 2= 60 G= 120 / 2= 60

In a DNA molecule 30 % of nucleotides are Guanine ,what is the percentage of Thymine?

G= 30 % = C C+G= 60 %G= 30 % = C C+G= 60 % 100 – (30+30)= A+T= 40 % if A=T100 – (30+30)= A+T= 40 % if A=T T= 40/2= 20 %T= 40/2= 20 %

In an experimental procedure 60 A, 80 T, 50 C, 50 G and 250 deoxiribose and phosphate molecules are found. How many nucleotide long DNA can be formed? How many nucleotide long DNA can be formed? A should be equal to T A should be equal to T C should be equal to GC should be equal to G 60 A 80T only 60 of then combine together to 60 A 80T only 60 of then combine together to

form DNA double chain.form DNA double chain. 50 C 50 G all of C and G combine together.50 C 50 G all of C and G combine together.

60A=60T60A=60T

+ 50C=50T+ 50C=50T

110 = 110 nucleotide long ; but 220 110 = 110 nucleotide long ; but 220 nucleotides are usednucleotides are used

If a DNA molecule has 6400 hydrogen bonds and 600 guanine molecules ,What is the number of Thymine nucleotides? Guanine has 3 H bond with CytosineGuanine has 3 H bond with Cytosine So 600 x 3 = 1800 H bond between G and So 600 x 3 = 1800 H bond between G and

CC The remaining bonds are between A and TThe remaining bonds are between A and T 6400 – 1800 = 4600 bonds between A and 6400 – 1800 = 4600 bonds between A and

TT There are 2 bonds between A and TThere are 2 bonds between A and T 4600/2 = 2300 is the number of A = 4600/2 = 2300 is the number of A =

number of Tnumber of T

If G + C number is 600 and there are If G + C number is 600 and there are total 2600 deoxyribose molecules, What total 2600 deoxyribose molecules, What is the H bond number?is the H bond number? If G + C = 600 , G should be 300.If G + C = 600 , G should be 300. The bonds between G and C = 300 x 3= The bonds between G and C = 300 x 3=

900900 If G+C= 600 then A+T= 2600 – If G+C= 600 then A+T= 2600 –

600=2000600=2000 And A should be 1000And A should be 1000 The bond between A and T = 1000 x 2= The bond between A and T = 1000 x 2=

20002000 Total bond number = 2000+900=2900Total bond number = 2000+900=2900

Glycoside bond

Phospho-Diesther bond

Esther bonds

Importance of Importance of nucleotides:nucleotides:

DNA carries the genetic code of the DNA carries the genetic code of the organism. Genetic code of each organism. Genetic code of each organism is different from each organism is different from each other(except identical twins). Genetic other(except identical twins). Genetic code differs in the base sequences.code differs in the base sequences.

Each organism has same chromosome Each organism has same chromosome number and same base sequence in number and same base sequence in his/her all cells.his/her all cells.

DNA can copy itself. This DNA can copy itself. This process is necessary for process is necessary for cell division. As a result cell division. As a result each cell will take equal each cell will take equal amount of DNA. The amount of DNA. The copying process is called as copying process is called as replicationreplication. DNA . DNA replication is a replication is a semi semi conservativeconservative process. 2 process. 2 chains of the DNA open chains of the DNA open and each strand replicates and each strand replicates itself. As a result each new itself. As a result each new DNA recieves one old an DNA recieves one old an done new strand. done new strand.

DNA also carries information for DNA also carries information for protein synthesis in the cell. It sends protein synthesis in the cell. It sends message for protein synthesis to the message for protein synthesis to the cytoplasm. These processes are shown cytoplasm. These processes are shown by this figure.by this figure.

Transcription TranslationTranscription Translation DNADNA mRNA mRNA Protein Protein

ReplicationReplicationReplication always occurs where the DNA is.

Transcription also always occurs where the DNA is.

Translation also always occurs where the m RNA and ribosomes are.

DNA replication is a semi DNA replication is a semi conservative process. 2 chains conservative process. 2 chains of the DNA open and each of the DNA open and each strand replicates itself. As a strand replicates itself. As a result each new DNA recieves result each new DNA recieves one old and one new strand. one old and one new strand.

Replication occurs where Replication occurs where the DNA is.(In bacteria the DNA is.(In bacteria there is no nucleus )there is no nucleus )

•Transcription occurs where the DNA is, because it copies DNA

•Translation occurs where the ribosome is, because it needs ribosomes.

If a cell can’t divide, it can not replicate its DNA (sperm cells, nerve cells, red blood cells)

RNARNA RNAs also are synthesized from DNA. RNAs also are synthesized from DNA.

RNAs are important for protein synthesis. RNAs are important for protein synthesis. There are 3 types of RNA. There are 3 types of RNA.

mRNAmRNA –messenger RNA. It carries –messenger RNA. It carries information from DNA to ribosome. The information from DNA to ribosome. The formed mRNA is complementary to one of formed mRNA is complementary to one of the strand of DNA(meaningful strand) . the strand of DNA(meaningful strand) .

r RNAr RNA-ribosomal RNA. It forms the -ribosomal RNA. It forms the ribosome structure with proteins. It is ribosome structure with proteins. It is synthesized from nucleolus. synthesized from nucleolus.

t-RNA transfer RNAt-RNA transfer RNA It carries It carries aminoacids for protein synthesis. aminoacids for protein synthesis.

GENETIC CODEGENETIC CODE As we said before protein is synthesized As we said before protein is synthesized

from DNA. The code for Protein synthesis from DNA. The code for Protein synthesis comes from the DNA, It is coded with bases comes from the DNA, It is coded with bases in the DNA.in the DNA.

The 4 bases in the DNA forms chains of The 4 bases in the DNA forms chains of nucleotides. The 3 base code for one nucleotides. The 3 base code for one aminoacid.This 3 base structure is aminoacid.This 3 base structure is called as “code” . If we have 4 bases, called as “code” . If we have 4 bases, we can form 4we can form 433=64 different codes. =64 different codes. This 64 codes are responsible for the This 64 codes are responsible for the synthesis of proteins. One code is for synthesis of proteins. One code is for start and 3 codes are for stop.start and 3 codes are for stop.

ENERGY MOLECULE ENERGY MOLECULE - ATP- ATP

ATP is formed by cellular ATP is formed by cellular respiration. Every cell needs energy respiration. Every cell needs energy as ATP (Adenosine Tri Phosphate)as ATP (Adenosine Tri Phosphate)

Structure of ATPStructure of ATP

5C sugar- Ribose and Adenine base: they are called 5C sugar- Ribose and Adenine base: they are called AdenosineAdenosine

3 phosphate groups can be added to the adenosine. If one is 3 phosphate groups can be added to the adenosine. If one is added It is Adenosine mono phosphate,added It is Adenosine mono phosphate,

2- Adenosine di phosphate ; 3- Adenosine tri phosphate2- Adenosine di phosphate ; 3- Adenosine tri phosphate

Function and importance Function and importance of ATPof ATP Hydrolysis of 3rd bond gives 7300 cal.(7.3 Hydrolysis of 3rd bond gives 7300 cal.(7.3

kcal)kcal) It is ONLY produced and used within the cell.It is ONLY produced and used within the cell. It can not be stored.It can not be stored. Hydrolysis gives out energy, dehydration takes Hydrolysis gives out energy, dehydration takes

in energy.in energy. Used in dehydration reactions, muscle Used in dehydration reactions, muscle

contraction, nerve impulses not in hydrolysis.contraction, nerve impulses not in hydrolysis. Phosphorylation: Adding P to ADP(occurs in Phosphorylation: Adding P to ADP(occurs in

cytoplasm, mitochondria and chloroplasts)cytoplasm, mitochondria and chloroplasts) Dephosphorylation: breaking P bond from Dephosphorylation: breaking P bond from

ATP(occurs in cytoplasm and chloroplasts and ATP(occurs in cytoplasm and chloroplasts and in anabolic(dehydration reactions))in anabolic(dehydration reactions))

METABOLISMMETABOLISM All chemical activities within the cell are called All chemical activities within the cell are called

metabolic activities or metabolic activities or metabolismmetabolism of the organism. of the organism. There are two kinds of metabolic activities.There are two kinds of metabolic activities.

AnabolismAnabolism or the anabolic reactions are synthesis or the anabolic reactions are synthesis reactions. They produce polymers. For example reactions. They produce polymers. For example formation of proteins, polypeptides.Water is formation of proteins, polypeptides.Water is formed.Needs energy.formed.Needs energy.

CatabolismCatabolism or catabolic reactions are the or catabolic reactions are the breakdown reactions. They produce monomers. breakdown reactions. They produce monomers. For example formation of amino acids from For example formation of amino acids from proteins, monosaccharides from carbohydrates. proteins, monosaccharides from carbohydrates. Water is used.Water is used.

needs energy(ATP)