barrett_diversity management - the common thread binding compliance, organizational culture, and...

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DIVERSITY MANAGEMENT: THE COMMON THREAD BINDING COMPLIANCE,

ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE, AND BEST PRACTICES

by

Nicole Hasson Barrett

LILBURN HOEHN, PhD, Faculty Mentor and Chair

MARSHA COVINGTON, PhD, Committee Member

ROBERT BIGELOW, JD, Committee Member

William A. Reed, PhD, Dean, School of Business and Technology

A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment

Of the Requirements for the Degree

Doctor of Philosophy

Capella University

March 2012


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Nicole Hasson Barrett, 2012


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Abstract

The problem addressed in this study was the lack of a strategic framework for a human

resource or diversity professional to effectively manage diversity based on various

perceptions. The purpose of this quantitative study was to explore diversity management

perceptions of African American human resource (HR) professionals across

organizations in the United States. The hypotheses for this study were as follows: (a)

There is a statistical difference between African American HR professionals perceptions

of the work climate that support diversity and their organizational type as measured by a

diversity climate instrument; (b) There is a statistical difference between African

American HR professionals perceptions of the work climate that support diversity and

their gender as measured by a diversity climate instrument; and (c) There is a statistical

relationship between African American HR professionals perceptions of the work

climate that support diversity and their Human Resource Certification Institute HR

certification as measured by a diversity climate instrument. The target population for this

study was African American HR professionals. A simple random sampling technique was

used for the active members of the National Association of African American Human

Resource for the sample population. The results found that African American HR

professionals voiced discontent when compared to a nonminority group in regard to

getting additional staff assistance or additional compensation increases above the average

merit rate. The African American HR professionals responded that they were treated the

same as nonminority employees when requesting time off, but the data revealed women

may view that they are working harder and are as qualified as men but inequalities exist

regarding compensation, upward mobility, and acknowledgement. The data revealed that


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attitudes toward the employment qualifications of racioethnic minorities and equality of

department support of women were about the same when compared to nonminorities. The

findings also provided a glimpse of the need for further analysis of the necessary

requirements that HR professionals must possess in order to remain competitive in the

work environment. An implication from the data was the necessity to further investigate

organizational policies correlated to diversity management.


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iv

Dedication

This dissertation is dedicated to my first family: Richard Sr., Beverly, April and Richard

Johnson and Anthony S. Hasson who developed my initial intellectual foundation; and all of

my extended families who provided positive reinforcement and support to propel me to

complete whatever I start. Absolutely, my husband, Reuben who without fail always saw the

light at the end of the tunnel.


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v

Acknowledgments

With humility I thank God for everything. This dissertation would not be complete if I

did not acknowledge those who believed the unimaginable and those who prepared me

with the survival skills to weather the storms of life.

My deepest gratitude is given to Dr. Lilburn Hoehn dissertation mentor and chair, for his

direction, guidance, and support. The recommendations and suggestions he provided

during every milestone were vital to the completion of this process.

I also wish to thank Dr. Marsha Covington and Robert Bieglow, J.D. for being a part of

the committee. Their insight was truly appreciated because it enriched the crafting of the

final dissertation.

An additional thank you to my husband and friend, Dr. Reuben E. Barrett, DC, JD. You

always give me the advice, guidance and support I need. You always bring out the best in

me. I am thankful for the support from my dissertation editor Marjorie Metts, family,

friends and sorors, especially Dr. Margaret A. Evans who I could always count on for

precise direction in this doctoral journey.

Finally, I humbly thank the NAAAHR organization for volunteering to be a part of this

study. Their contribution to the study not only adds to the diversity management

discourse but further highlights the need for diversity management across organizations

should be researched and evaluated.


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vi

Table of Contents

Acknowledgments v

List of Tables ix

List of Figures xi

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 1

Introduction to the Problem 1

Background of the Study 3

Statement of the Problem 9

Purpose of the Study 10

Rationale 11

Research Questions 13

Hypotheses 14

Significance of the Study 15

Definition of Terms 17

Assumptions 19

Limitations 20

Nature of the Study 21

Organization of the Remainder of the Study 23

CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW 25

Historical Perceptions of Diversity Management 26

Compliance 34

Organizational Culture 37

Best Practices 41


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vii

Gender 43

Affirmative Action 44

Performance Outcomes 47

Societal Context 49

Diversity Perceptions 50

Social Identity 56

Summary 58

CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY 60

Research Design 60

Sample 62

Sample Population 64

Hypotheses 65

Instrumentation/Measures 67

Data Collection 69

Data Analysis 70

Validity and Reliability 72

Ethical Considerations 74

Informed Consent 75

CHAPTER 4. RESULTS 77

Pilot Study Results 77

Data Collection 78

Demographics 80

Data Analysis 81


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viii

Summary 99

CHAPTER 5. DISCUSSION, IMPLICATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS 100

Discussion 100

Implications 105

Limitations 107

Recommendations for Future Research 107

Summary 109

REFERENCES 111


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ix

List of Tables

Table 1. Questionnaire Statement/Null Hypothesis/Variable 67

Table 2. Statistical Analysis for Hypotheses 72

Table 3. Pilot Study Cronbachs Alpha Results 78

Table 4. Demographic Information 81

Table 5. Survey Statements 16 Used to Test Null Hypothesis 1 83

Table 6. Cross-Tabulation of Value Efforts to Promote and Organizational Type 84

Table 7. Mann-Whitney UTest Statistics for Null Hypothesis 1 Statements 16 85

Table 8. Test Statistics for Null Hypothesis 1 Statements 16 87


Table 10. Cross-Tabulation of Equality of Department Support of RacioethnicMinorities and Organizational Type 89

Table 11. Mann-Whitney UTest Statistics for Null Hypothesis 1 Statements 1113 90


Table 13. Survey Statements 9-10 Used to Test Null Hypothesis 2 91

Table 14. Cross-Tabulation of Attitudes Toward Womens Qualifications and Gender 92

Table 15. Mann Whitney UTest Statistics Hypothesis 2 Statements 9-10 92

Table 16. Test Statistics for Null Hypothesis 2 Statements 9-10 93

Table 17. Survey Statements 7-8 Used to Test Null Hypothesis 3 94

Table 18. Cross-Tabulation of Attitudes Toward Qualifications of Racioethnic

Minorities and HRCI 95

Table 19. Kruskal-Wallis Test Statistics for Null Hypothesis 3 Statements 7-8 96

Table 20. Test Statistics for Null Hypothesis 3 Statements 7-8 96



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x

Table 22. Cross-Tabulation of Department Support of Women and HRCI 98

Table 23. Kruskal-Wallis Test Statistics for Null Hypothesis 3 Statements 1416 98



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xi

List of Figures

Figure 1. Conceptual framework. 22

Figure 2. Strategic conceptual framework. 110


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CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

Introduction to the Problem

Visualize an area in the work environment where people congregate. This area is

a snapshot of the work environments human capital.If you adjust the lens of perception

to the National Mall during the inauguration of Barack Hussein Obama, the first African

American president of the United States, one will see characteristics of the American

workforce. The characteristics are both salient and non-salient. The crowd mirrors

demographic compositions of a labor force exemplifying diversity in gender, age, race,

religion, national origin, disability, and language, level of education, sexual orientation,

class, experiences and perceptions. According to Dr. John Sullivan (2008) of Workforce

Management, the mere fact that the United States has an African American president will

heighten the attention of diversity and inclusion discourse in the country.

African American human resource professionals observe the diversity climate in

their organizations through their own personal view master. The perceptions of the

diversity climate impel their reality of the implementation of diversity management

initiatives. According to Bhadury, Mighty, and Damar (2000), it is the diversity climate

that determines the impact of diversity rather than diversity itself. To obtain an

understanding of diversity management it has been analyzed through various perceptions

(Buttner, Lowe, & Billings-Harris, 2009; Ely & Thomas, 2001, Pitts, 2009). The

literature review identifies people of color were often selected to test diversity-related


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hypotheses (Pitts, 2009). People of color were synonymous to canaries advancing into an

unexplored area to provide additional feedback on the condition (Buttner et al., 2009).

The relevance of diversity in the work environment has created a multibillion

dollar industry (Hansen, 2003). Diversity in the workforce is projected to continue based

on the demographics of racial and ethnic minorities and older workers. According to U.S.

Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics (2009a) data, the historical trend of

racial and ethnic diversity, older workers remaining in the workforce, and immigration

will continue until the year 2018. U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics

(2009a) projections for the years 20082018 provide employment growth in the area of

employment services. According to projections from the U.S. Department of Labor,

Bureau of Labor Statistics (2010), African Americans will from 41.1 million people in

2008 to 65.7 million people in 2050 and the nation will be 54% minority in 2050. The

dilemma that human resource professionals face is that monetary capital is expended for

diversity initiatives, but an absolute understanding of diversity management has not

materialized. In order to manage the growing diversity of the workforce, organizations

need to implement systems and practices so potential advantages are maximized and

potential disadvantages are minimized (Cox, 1994).

This study was an exploration to determine if a relationship exists between

perceptions of the work climate that support diversity and human resource professionals

organization, gender, and certification when assessing an organizations diversity climate.

The diversity climate encompasses the scope to which the input of diversity is valued and

the eradication of discrimination and bias occurs (Buttner et al., 2009). Human resource

professionals can add value to an organization when they engender a cultural mix in an


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organizations human capital, but they have to be proactive and manage diversity

(Orlando, 2000). The problems associated with diversity management, according to

Jackson and Joshi (2004), are going to take many years of diversity research in order to

obtain a superior knowledge of how diversity outcomes are created.

Background of the Study

According to U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics projections to

2050, the labor force will continue to become more diverse and the total population will

be comprised of 50% ethnic minorities (Seyman, 2006). The labor force has identified

that African Americans will achieve a participation rate of 63.3% in 2020 and 59.1% in

2050. Other ethnicities who will experience a decline in their participation rate are Asian

Americans and Hispanics. Asian American and Hispanic participation rates

comparatively are 65.7 in 2020 and 59.9 in 2050; and 68.7 in 2020 and 63.2 in 2050, The

labor force projections from 2020 to 2050 in the percentage of men and women are

70.0% in 2020 and 66.3% in 2050 for men; and 59.4% in 2020 and 55.1% in 2050 for

women. The participation rate of men versus women has always shown men

outnumbering women in the workforce (Toossi, 2006).

Diversity Management Overview

Diversity management has been defined as a human resource strategy to

effectively manage a diverse workforce (Cox & Blake, 1991; Groschl & Doherty, 1999;

Morrison, Oladunjoye, & Rose, 2008; Seyman, 2006). The advantages of diversity

management of women, individuals from a variety of cultural backgrounds and ethnic

minorities is to create a competitive advantage, attract best talent and reduce absenteeism

and turnover in organizations (Cox & Blake, 1991; McMahon, 2010; Ogbonna & Harris,


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2006; Oliver, 2005). Even though turnover in organizations is inevitable, Jackson and

Joshi (2004) posited that turnover may be the cloud with the silver lining to bring in new

team members with fresh ideas and perceptions. A work environment contrary to a

homogenous one, demands forward thinking of new perceptions to manage a diverse

workforce. A gap of perceptions exists on behalf of human resource professionals

assessment of diversity climates in the work environment. There is a need for human

resource professionals to acquire a superior level of understanding in the study of

diversity management in order to remain competitive and augment their understanding of

diverse work teams. According to Toossi (2009) , the three major demographic trends of

the 21st century in regards to the labor force are slowing growth, aging, and increasing

diversity (p. 30) and are expectedto continue. The identification of diversity perceptions

of human resource professionals may contribute to the goal to attract and retain diverse

employees. Human resource professionals who are cognizant of the diversity of the

workforce will also have to understand an evolving work environment is often thwarted

by societal conditions. Examples of societal conditions include but are not limited to

changes or new employment legislation, economic downturn that causes massive layoffs

and hiring freezes, and increases in minority populations. Diversity management

perceptions create an opportunity for human resource professionals to assess the diversity

climate of the work environment.

Diversity Management in the Work Environment

Diversity management literature produced a plethora of mutually positive and

negative conclusions to diverse work group outcomes (Ely & Thomas, 2001; Jackson,

Joshi, & Erhardt, 2003, Seyman, 2006). The duplicitous nature of diversity work group


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outcomes increase the opportunity for creativity, but also increase dissatisfaction with

group members who do not identify with a diverse group (Jehn & Bezrukova, 2004).

Prejudice, discrimination, inequity, bigotry, racism and bias are attributes to describe

when people do not identify with one another. The implication of diversity in the work

environment is people are going to be dissimilar in their backgrounds, language, and

perceptions and cultural. When the organization manages cultural differences they are

signaling they value diversity (Cox & Blake, 1991).

Evaluation of the seminal literature of diversity management, presented a work

environment that acknowledged and constantly referenced the role antidiscrimination

legislation served in its development. Antidiscrimination legislation provided

fundamental rights to protect employees against discrimination. Protection was sought in

Title VII law, U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission representation,

American with Disabilities Act (ADA), and affirmative action (McMillan-Capehart,

2003). The positive consequence of affirmative action programs created diversity of

women and minorities in the workplace. The other side of the spectrum revealed research

on hiring decisions based on affirmative action that were intended to promote creativity

that resulted in allegations by two minority groups as unfair labor practices. These two

groups were identified as Hispanic and African American (McMillan-Capehart, Grubb, &

Herdman, 2009).

Many people experience demographic changes in diversity in their daily

transactions in government offices, financial institutions, restaurants and while shopping

and talking with customer service personnel and coworkers. Organizations not reluctant

to recognize this human resource management opportunity have strategically


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incorporated diversity and inclusion positions in organizational structures. The paradigm

shift beyond compliance, adherence to legislation and employment laws illustrate the

growth of a systematic approach to diversity management. Diversity management

subsidized with human capital in charge of organizational diversity initiatives is a

business trend that values diversity and denotes leadership support. In order for diversity

to render positive results, organizations must establish a collaborative partnership

between HR professionals and senior management defining their motive for diversity

objectives (Kreitz, 2008),

The diversity management focus in human resource management is analogous to

the evolution of the responsibilities of the human resource professional. As diversity

management evolved, so did human resource management, which is currently known as

strategic human resource management. It is the responsibility of human resource

executives and executive management to advance an organizational agenda that promotes

diversity (Richard, 2000). Human resource professionals, who are engaged with putting

forth the strategic agenda of the human resources profession, must continue to stay

abreast on current employment legislation and best practices, and obtain certifications

from the Society of Human Resource Managements Human Resource Certification

Institute (HRCI; Pilenzo, 2009).

Diversity Management Integral to Strategic Human Resource Management

The impetus to focus on diversity management from a human resource

professional standpoint developed from the literature review and research which was

insufficient in correlating the impact human resource practices had on racial and gender

diversity (McMillan-Capehart & Simerly, 2008). Evaluating necessary skill sets, McEvoy


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et al. (2005) and Grossman (2007) argued that cultural management is definitely a

competency for high-performing human resource professionals. There has been an influx

in diversity positions holding titles such as senior vice president and global chief

diversity officer, diversity recruiting executive, director of diversity engagement and

inclusion and vice president of cultural competence and diversity system, to validate

organizations attempts to invest and commit to diversity management. However,

according to a study by Kalev, Kelly, and Dobbin (2006), diversity committees and staff

are effective but only 11% of establishments are utilizing them.

The argument to accept diversity management practices based purely on positive

review is futile. Jehn and Bezrukova (2004) suggested that to simply assert diversity is

either good or bad for business is not the argument for a business case for diversity.

Ogbonna and Harris (2006) speculated the business case as one of two rationales for

workforce diversity. The other rationale was equality in their study to explore

relationships in an ethnically diverse workforce. Diversity management that has a central

focal point on antidiscrimination employment practices is still valid, but other diversity

perceptions must continue to materialize.

Diversity perceptions identified in the qualitative research findings of Ely and

Thomas (2001) propagate the initial attempt to identify diversity perceptions from an

employee perception. Ely and Thomas (2001) classified the perceptions as integration

and learning, access and legitimacy, and discrimination and fairness. These dissimilar

diversity perceptions emerged to make possible explanations of the mixed reviews of

work group outcomes and cultural diversity. Ely and Thomas discovered that these

diversity perceptions shaped the identity of members in the work environment. These


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perceptions were formulated from employee observation and how employees managed

and handled apprehension to a diverse work environment.

Contrary to Ely and Thomas (2001), this researcher used human resource

professionals as the unit of analysis. The decision to use this cohort was based on

McMillan-Capehart and Simerlys (2008) empirical study of race and gender diversity

that detoured from previous research by looking through innovative lens of observation.

Further, I explored relationships between organizational type, gender, and human

resource professional certification and human resource professionals diversity

perceptions. The Human Resource Certification Institute (HRCI) was founded in 1975 as

a national certification program for human resource professionals to award certification

to human resource professionals who mastered the human resources body of knowledge

(Sunoo & Laabs, 1999). The application of gender and race in research is imperative to

understand human connections (Herring, 2009). In order for an organization to

effectively manage diversity, perceptions must be identified to determine the appropriate

strategy to converge on the benefits of diversity or mitigate the negative. In a societal

context, diversity management is very complex and is influenced by many social

conditions, including legislative and economic conditions. The study is currently relevant

based on todays economic decline and will continue to be relevant as long as societal

conditions influence who will be a participant in the workforce. McWilliams and Patel

(2009) argued that to incorporate diversity management strategies during economic

downturn is prudent in order to minimize risk exposure during company restructuring.

The complexity of diversity in the 21st century was succinctly articulated when Kreitz

(2008) stated, Twenty-first century organizations are living with and being challenged


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an important human resource management strategy in todays global economy as

business struggle to maintain their competitive advantage (Cox & Blake, 1991).

The gap of knowledge in diversity management literature points to a lack of a

clear and consistent paradigm for managing diversity (Anand & Winters, 2008; Carrell &

Mann, 2006). The problem to be addressed in this study is the lack of a strategic

framework for a human resource or diversity professional to effectively manage diversity

based on various perceptions. Previous diversity management research calculated

diversity in regard to demographic terms such as gender, race, and education (McMahon,

2010). The diversity perceptions for this study were measured in terms of their statistical

relationship to organizational type, gender, and human resource professional certification.

Purpose of the Study

The intent is to explore diversity management perceptions of African American

human resource professionals across organizations in the United States. The need for the

research emerged from review and synthesis of the diversity management literature

which uncovered a gap in knowledge of the significance of diversity perceptions from the

perceptions of a human resource professional. The human resource professional with the

support of upper management is the first line of defense in implementing diversity

management initiatives (Seyman, 2006). The value of the study is the documentation of

quantifiable results of diversity perceptions to assess the diversity climate of an

organization. The transgression of a strategic diversity management process in an

organization may or may not be detrimental to its success. The direction of the study was

to explore the relationship between the independent variables across nonprofit and profit

organizations, gender and human resource professionals certification, and the dependent


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variable of diversity perceptions. Survey design provides numerical descriptions of

trends, attitudes, and opinions in the study of a sample population (Creswell, 2009). The

importance and value of surveying the work environment and employing a diversity

climate survey provides a foundation to explore future diversity management strategies.

According to Cooper and Schindler (2003), surveys provide a versatile platform to study

a particular subject matter.

Human resource professionals subscribe to the initiative that diversity

management within an organization must occur. Managers are concerned with how to

manage diversity (McMillan-Capehart, 2003). The assessment of the diversity climate of

the organizations will serve as the nexus to evaluate diversity perceptions of human

resource professionals. The information is then evaluated to formulate a strategic

framework for human resource professionals to manage and leverage diversity

management in the work environment. Researchers have suggested that diversity climate,

diversity perceptions and diversity management matters to people of color (Buttner et al.,

2009; Pitts, 2009). An explanation of why this is the case, just as with the business case

for diversity management, is going to take years of research. This defends the use of

African Americans as the unit of analysis for the research to gain insight from an African

American perception of the diversity climates in organizations.

Rationale

The rationale for the study is to evaluate diversity perceptions and acquire

knowledge to shift the paradigm from merely accepting diversity management as either a

positive or negative outcome on workgroups but to document quantifiable relationships

between independent or dependent variables. Previous studies took into consideration


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work group outcomes and team performance, but were limited in analyzing diversity

perceptions. At the present time the dialogue on the merits of diversity management in

organizations present assorted results. Ely and Thomas (2001) argued that diversity

perceptions shape the identity of members in the work environment. If perceptions shape

the identity of the workforce, then human resource professionals must be cognizant of

various perceptions in order to manage diversity. According to Foldy (2004), broader

diversity literature is advanced with diversity perceptions because it helps us understand

diverse groups and why some are more effective than others. The responsibilities of

human resource professionals have increased as human resource professionals pursue a

strategic role within organizational structures. The strategic role of human resource and

diversity professionals is to understand the workforce. According to Ely and Thomas, the

diversity perceptions are the cognitive point of reference for individuals to understand

and react to cultural differences in a group setting. This study is building on the research

of Ely and Thomas. In order to begin understanding how to manage a diverse work force

an understanding of the relationship of diversity perceptions across nonprofit and profit

organizations, gender and human resource professionals certification is necessary. The

adapted instrument used for the study was developed to measure organizational support

of diversity from nonmanagerial employees including racioethnic minorities (Kossek &

Zonia, 1993). The analysis of the data from Kossek and Zonia showed a decrease in

African American participants in comparison to European American men and women.

The participation numbers reflect 40 racioethnic minority women versus 318 European

American women and 83 racioethnic minority men versus 281 European American men

(Kossek & Zonia, 1993).


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The study is needed now based on limited research data from the perspectives of

African Americans and the data accumulated from the U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau

of Labor Statistics (2009b) that state that human resources occupations require strong

interpersonal skills and those who are college graduates and have earned certification

should have the best job and advancement opportunities and expect a faster than average

growth. The U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics (2011) stated that

during the period of 2008 through 2018, womens participation in the labor force will

increase by 9%. Also, the U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics (2010)

contended that increasing diversity in the labor force is a trend that will continue through

2018. And even though there has been an increase in the diversity of human capital there

are still many occupations underrepresented by minority groups. The study is needed now

because of the gap in knowledge from a human resource professionals perspective that

identify support of diversity by analyzing the work climate of the organization. A

diagnosis of the support for diversity was done in the research of Kossek and Zonia

(1993) but it did not involve solely human resource professionals examining the work

climate and was limited in African American participation.

Research Questions

According to Maas (1999), diversity is either categorized as an attribute or a

behavior. The behavior is attitude, perceptions, and actions (p. 97). The human

resource management dilemma is how do the perceptions of human resource

professionals influence diversity initiatives based on the diversity climate of the work

environment? The primary question of the study is:Is diversity supported when

evaluating the diversity climate based on perceptions across nonprofit and profit


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organizations, gender, and human resource professional HRCI certification?

Compliance, organizational culture, and best practices are the categories of the diversity

perceptions. Specific research questions include

1. What is the difference between African American HR professionalsperception of the work climate that are supportive of diversity and their

organizational type as measured by a diversity climate instrument?

Nonprofit or profit organization is the nominal independent variable and

perceptions of the work climate that support diversity are the dependent

variables.

2. What is the difference between African American HR professionalsperception of the work climate that are supportive of diversity and their

gender as measured by a diversity climate instrument?

Gender is the nominal independent variable and perceptions of the work

climate that support diversity are the dependent variables.

3. What is the relationship between African American HR professionalsperception of the work climate that support diversity and their HRCI

certification as measured by a diversity climate instrument?

HRCI certification is the ordinal independent variable and perceptions of the

work climate that support diversity are the dependent variables.

Hypotheses

Alternative Hypothesis 1 (H1A): There is a difference between AfricanAmerican HR professionals perception of the work climate that support

diversity and their organizational type as measured by a diversity climateinstrument.

Null Hypothesis 1 (H10): There is no difference between African AmericanHR professionals perception of the work climate that support diversity and

their organizational type as measured by a diversity climate instrument.

Nonprofit or profit organization is the nominal independent variable and

perceptions of the work climate that support diversity are the dependentvariables.


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Alternative Hypothesis 2 (H2A): There is a difference between AfricanAmerican HR professionals perception of the work climate that support

diversity and their gender as measured by a diversity climate instrument.

Null Hypothesis 2 (H20): There is no difference between African AmericanHR professionals perception of the work climate that support diversity andtheir gender as measured by a diversity climate instrument.

Gender is the nominal independent variable and perceptions of the work

climate that support diversity are the dependent variables.

Alternative Hypothesis 3 (H3A): There is a relationship between AfricanAmerican HR professionals perception of the work climate that support

diversity and their HRCI certification as measured by a diversity climate

instrument?

Null Hypothesis 3 (H30): There is no relationship between African AmericanHR professionals perception of the work climate that support diversity andtheir level HRCI certification as measured by a diversity climate instrument.

HRCI certification is the ordinal independent variable and perceptions of the

work climate that support diversity are the dependent variables.

Significance of the Study

According to Pless and Maak (2004), organizations are struggling with the

challenge to manage diversity even though leaders of the organizations recognize the

importance of having a diverse workforce. The intent is to explore diversity management

perceptions among African American human resource professionals in across nonprofit

and profit organizations in the United States. Kochan et al. (2003) stated that in order for

human resource professionals to acquire an accurate account of the consequences of a

diversity agenda they must institute an enhanced way to track and evaluate the impact of

their diversity management strategies. This study may provide a conceptual framework to

explore the diversity climate across a nonprofit or profit organization, by gender and

human resource professionals certification. The significance of the study is the


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documentation, which was analyzed from the completed diversity climate survey from a

human resource professionals point of view. The data analyzed are the perceptions of the

work climate that support diversity. Before one can say one is implementing diversity

strategies, one must continuously audit whether the organization is fulfilling its

responsibility to both their employees and constituents.

According to Jackson and Joshi (2004) and Joshi and Roh (2009), the study of

diversity requires consideration of the collective context for a complete understanding of

diversity dynamics. Richard (2000) discovered in his study that during the growth stage

of an organization, racial diversity increased productivity and the relationship intensified

as strategic growth increased. Racial diversity also had a positive outcome in business

profits in a study of value-in-diversity perceptions and concurred this happens during an

organizations growth cycle (Herring, 2009). This study will add to the body of

knowledge of contextual diversity management from a human resource professionals

perception. The assessment of the diversity climate by African American human resource

professionals is warranted because Cox, Lobel, and McLeod (1991) have already

predicted that racial diversity enhances creative problem solving and leads to positive

outcomes for workgroups. Richard, McMillan, Chadwick, and Dwyers (2003) study of

the influence of racial diversity on a firms performance states that the full potential of

racial diversity will not be realized unless it is positioned in its appropriate context.

According to Ramlall (2006), acquiring a thorough knowledge of historical data

and the current environment creates a competitive advantage for human resource

professionals. When human resource professionals possess this asset, it enables them to

plan and predict for the organization. I delved into exploring the diversity climate of


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organizations. The diversity climate survey measured human resource professionals

perceptions about value efforts to promote diversity, attitudes toward qualifications of

racioethnic minorities, attitudes toward womens qualifications, equality of department

support of racioethnic minorities, and equality of department support of women (Kossek

& Zonia, 1993). After completing the survey, the human resource professionals were then

able to construct strategies for diversity management. The study produced data for human

resource professionals to evaluate the diversity climate of their own organizations. U.S.

organizations in the 21st century are competing to attract, manage,and retain a diverse

pool of high-performing professional workers and this has become a significant staffing

issue, according to Ployhart (2006). According to McCuiston, Wooldridge, and Pierce

(2004), there are five guidelines that managers, leaders, and followers must be cognizant

of in order for diversity to be recognized as a value-added component to the work

environment. Two of the five guidelines include becoming a supporter for inclusion and

maximizing interaction with individuals in the organization who are diverse (McCuiston

et al., 2004).

Definition of Terms

Best practice.Practices that yield quantitative or qualitative results, replicable,

portable, and transferable to other organizations with modifications and are innovative

(Reichenburg, 2001).

Compliance.Employment laws used to address legal remedy in disparate

employment situations (Anand & Winters, 2008).

Diversity.The term diversityis based on the research of Dreachslin (2007) as the

racial, ethnicity, gender identities, and sexual orientation; generation; social class;


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physical ability; family; religion; and political, professional, and personal affiliations.

Additional factors include age, educational level, experiences, culture, language, lifestyle,

and income.

Diversity climate. According to Knouse (2009), diversity climatereflects the

diversity values of the organization. This includes factors of fairness, equity and

inclusion. The employees use these factors to determine if there is a fit with their own

personal values.

Diversity management.The policies and practices of recruitment, retention,

integration and career development of individuals from minority identity groups,

organizational discriminatory policies and practices, with a systematic commitment by

the organization (Barbosa & Cabral-Cardoso, 2007). Diversity management falls into the

following four categories: (a) recruitment efforts, (b) individual development efforts, (c)

organizational development efforts, and (d) external outreach efforts (Hoobler, Basadur,

& Lemmon, 2007)

Diversity perspectives.The written and unwritten policies organizations use as an

unstated assumption on how to manage subordinates or the way a group structures its

work (Ely & Thomas, 2001). Diversity perspectives are the group members normative

beliefs and expectations about cultural diversity and its role in their work group. The

characteristics of diversity perspectives include the rationale that guides peoples efforts

to create and respond to cultural diversity in a work group; normative beliefs about the

value of cultural identity at work; expectations about the kind of impact, if any, cultural

differences can and should have on the group and its work; and beliefs about what

constitutes progress toward the ideal multicultural work group" (Ely & Thomas, 2001).


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Ethnicity.According to McMillan-Capehart (2003), ethnicityis belonging to a

religious, racial, national or cultural group, a subgroup of the larger group.

Minorities.According to McMillan-Capehart (2003), minoritiesare groups of

race and ethnicity that represents a smaller percentage of the overall population.

Organizational culture.According to Chuang, Church, and Zikics (2004) and

Barbosa and Cabral-Cardosos (2007) research, organizational cultureis shared values,

beliefs, practices, norms and assumptions held by organizational members for specific

situations and the appropriate behavior. The term includes both written and unwritten

tenets organizations use to manage their employees.

Assumptions

In relation to this study, the following fundamental assumptions are made:

1. Human resource professionals are responsible for planning, predicting andforecasting policies and practices of a diverse workforce.

2. The participants in the study responded to the survey based on theirexperience in the work environment and answer demographic questions

truthfully.

3. The diversity climate survey instrument utilized for this study producedquantifiable data of the scope of the relationship between perceptions of the

work climate that support diversity and human resource professionalsorganizational type, gender, and HRCI certification.

4. Human resource professionals are knowledgeable about the organizationsemployee policies and procedures, including but not limited to employeepersonnel manuals, written, verbal, and online communications.

5. Diversity perceptions are subject to change based upon changes in theorganizational culture, best practices and compliance issues of theorganization.

6. The fundamental assumption was that diversity management in anorganization is seen through lens of the human resource professional.


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7. The theory of social identity asserts that there is a perception of oneness inbelonging to some form of human aggregate.

Limitations

In relation to this study the following fundamental limitations are made:

Limitations of the study limit the ability to draw casual inferences. A limitation

inherent to this study is in the external validity. The results collected may not be

generalized to other human resource professionals. According to Creswell (2009), when

the selection of participants is slim, the researcher cannot generalize to individuals who

do not have the same characteristics of the participants (p.165). This restricts the

researcher from making assertions about other racial groups. The study used a random

sampling method comprised primarily of African Americans; this limits representation

from other racial groups. Another limitation is internal validity due to the use of a

nonexperimental design. The nonexperimental design used a survey method to collect

data from only African American human resource professionals. A threat to internal

validity inherent to this study, according to Robson (2002), is the selection of

participants from aparticular ethnic or socioeconomic background (p. 160). Creswell

(2009) concurred that there is a threat to internal validity is when selection of participants

is based on certain characteristics. The corrective action for this internal threat was the

use of random sampling so everyone in the sampling frame had an equal opportunity to

participate. Another limitation is participants were limited to completing the survey via

the Internet. Self-reported data had to be relied on. The accuracy of the descriptive

demographic information cannot be verified. The diversity perceptions are based on the

existing research of Kossek and Zonia (1993).


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Nature of the Study

Social identity theory provides the theoretical framework for this study.

Quantitative researchers observe universal laws and look for one theory that explains

everything (Burian, Rogerson, & Maffei, 2010). According to Chuang et al. (2004),

social identity historically has provided the conceptual foundation for demographic

research. Social identity theory proposes people align themselves with others on the

premise that their attributes match each other (Krumm & Corning, 2008; Walumbwa,

Lawler, Aviolio, Wang, & Shi, 2005). Tajfel and Turners (1979) social identity theory

explains the positive partiality people express toward people they consider as members of

their in-group and negative outcome against members who are not in the in-group. Social

identity maintains that group members are a bounded unit according to their in-group

status (Ashforth & Mael, 1989; Joshi, Liao, & Jackson, 2006; Krumm & Corning, 2008;

Lembke & Wilson, 1998; Richard et al., 2003).

Ely and Thomas (2001) argued that diversity perspectives shape the identity of

members in the work environment. The social identity construct is linked to how

individuals perform in a group and how they view themselves in comparison to others. In

this study, social identity provides the theoretical framework because, according to Tajfel

and Turner (1986), an individuals identity is derived from their membership in groups

comprised from various social categories. If diversity perceptions shape the identity of

the workforce then social identity is linked to how human resource professionals manage

diversity. I seek to gain knowledge from a human resourceprofessionals perceptions of

the diversity climate in the organization. Researchers have argued that a significant

organizational element for people of color in the workforce is the diversity climate


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(Buttner et al., 2009; Pitts, 2009). The constructs of social identity theory support this

study because of the predictability of how people will exhibit a bias based on in-group

and out-group membership (Joshi et al., 2006). Social identity theory implies that people

classify themselves and others based on distinctiveness they have in common or share.

Figure 1. Conceptual framework.

The conceptual framework was developed based on the management dilemma

which states,How do the perceptions of human resource professionals influence diversity

initiatives based on the diversity climate of the work environment?According to Kuhn

(1996), what a man sees depends both upon what he looks at and also upon what his

previous visual-conceptual experience has taught him to see (p. 113). This statement is

Social Identity

Theory

Human resource

professionals who classify

themselves and others

based on distinctivenessthey have in common or

share.

Variables

Organizational

type, gender,

HRCI

Certification

Work Climate

that

supportsdiversity

16 diversitystatements


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poignant in understanding diversity management from the perspective of an African

American human resource professional. The interaction of theory, variables, and research

manifested in the analysis of data collected from the diversity climate survey (Figure 1).

The participants in the study were human resource professionals who classify themselves

and others based on distinctiveness they have in common or share. This is the application

of social theory. The independent variables are nonprofit or profit organization, gender,

and HRCI certification. The dependent variables are the 16 diversity-related statements

integrated in the diversity climate survey. The dependent variables are used to measure

efforts to promote diversity, attitudes toward qualifications of racioethnic minorities,

attitudes toward qualifications of women, equality of department support of racioethnic

minorities and equality of department support of women (Kossek & Zonia, 1993). The

three null hypotheses assert there is not a difference in diversity perceptions of human

resource professionals by organizational type, gender, and HRCI certification. Examples

would be to see if there are differences between human resource professionals across

nonprofit organizations and human resource professionals in profit organizations as it

relates to diversity statements or the differences between men in profit organizations and

women in profit organizations as it relates to diversity statements or if there is a

difference between African Americans in nonprofit organizations and African Americans

in profit organizations as it relates to diversity statements.

Organization of the Remainder of the Study

Chapter 2 contains a literature review commencing with a historical perceptions

of diversity management followed by subsections including compliance, organizational

culture and best practices, gender, affirmative action, performance outcomes, societal


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context, diversity perceptions, and social identity. The chapter concludes with an

assessment of empirical and theoretical literature and its relevance to this study on

diversity management.

Chapter 3 is an outline of the research methodology for the study. Chapter 3

discusses in sequence the research participants, data collection instrumentation and

procedures for data collection. Chapter 4 presents the data collected summarized and

outcome analysis. Chapter 5 presents conclusions and recommendations for future

research.


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CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW

I chose a different approach to assess diversity management in an organization.

Based on the literature review the discourse did not articulate observations of the work

environment or diversity climate expressed from the perceptions of a human resource

professional in either nonprofit or profit organizations. The goal is to measure human

resource professionals perceptions of the diversity climate in their organizations to

further develop diversity management research and literature. This chapter is a review of

empirical, practice, and theoretical literature and presents its relevance to the study of

perceptions of diversity management in organizations. The focal point of this research is

to assess the diversity climate of organizations based on diversity perceptions of human

resource professionals. The intent is to explore diversity management perceptions among

African American human resource professionals in across nonprofit and profit

organizations in the United States.

Additional literature applicable to the creation and implementation of diversity

management is reviewed. The chapter commences with historical perceptions of diversity

management and continues with a discourse of relevant factors identified in the diversity

management literature. These factors are assembled in the diversity climate survey in the

areas of diversity climate, diversity issues, diversity ideals, and societal issues. The

literature review continues with dialogue on social identity theory, which is the

theoretical framework for this research. Social identity theory supports the idea that


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Forward-thinking Kaleel Jamison, founder of Kaleel Jamison Consulting Group,

in the late 1970s, stated in his discourse in order to be effective, diversity management

must recognize the relevance of organizational culture in its diversity efforts (Anand &

Winters, 2008). During the 1970s, racial and gender demographics of the workforce

experienced an increase in women and minorities. The increase in women and minorities

modified the traditional organizational culture. Recognizing the new composition of the

workforce is imperative because researchers argued race and gender as the foundation in

accepting human connections (Herring, 2009).

In the early 1980s, government intervention waned and company diversity

agendas shifted away from diversity training for all employees influenced by affirmative

action and equal opportunity and shifted to only managerial positions (Anand & Winters,

2008). In the late 1980s, the Hudson Institute, which produced Workforce 2000, stated

the increase of women and minorities in the workforce would have a relatively small

impact in relationship to the overall number of people in the workforce (Anand &

Winters, 2008). However, the unintended consequence of this report is it attributed to

putting forth workforce diversity, which is currently a billion-dollar diversity industry

(Hansen, 2003).

During the 1990s and up to the present, diversity management has become an

important reality in todays work environment because of minority and women

demographics, globalization, downsizing, and economic and social conditions. The late

1980s to the late 1990s illustrated a clear paradigm shift in diversity management moving

beyond a compliance paradigm to a philosophical paradigm of sensitivity and awareness

of the difference in others (Anand & Winters, 2008). According to Anand and Winters


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(2008), it was not until 1999 that diversity education was considered an integral

component of a strategic business process that should be integrated into the core strategy

of an organization (Anand & Winters, 2008).

The rationale to initiate diversity management programs in organizations has been

coupled to an automated response of a changing diverse work environment. This

statement is supported by the limited data linking organizational performance and

diversity management programs (Pitts, Hicklin, Hawes, & Melton, 2010). The

responsibilities of human resource professionals have increased as they pursue an active

role in the implementation of diversity management programs (Orlando, 2000). The

argument organizations use to sustain diversity management programs, according to Pitts

et al. (2010), falls into one of three categories: (a) because they have to, (b) because they

can, or (c) because everyone else is. The first factor is categorized as a reaction to

environmental uncertainty, the second factor is environmental favorability and the third is

institutional isomorphism. All of the factors are grounded in theoretical context. No

matter what the motivating force is driving diversity management programs, diversity in

the work force is undeniably going to continue due to the projection that the working

population is going to become more than 50% minority in 2039 and will continue to

increase to 55% minority by 2050 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2008).

At the present time, cultural management has also been observed from a global

perspective in a study performed in Australia. According to Leveson, Joiner, and Bakalis

(2009), Australia has the distinction of being recognized as having a large amount of

cultural diversity in the workforce. Leveson et al. defended the complexity of cultural

diversity management and examined employees perceptions of managements


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commitment to diversity management. The study utilized a questionnaire survey for a

target population of a multinational financial institution which had 2,000 employees. For

purposes of the study, the questionnaire was distributed to a convenience sample of 300

employees who worked at a large Australian financial institution. The researchers noted

random sampling was prohibitive due to cost and time. The data collected by the

researchers of this study measured affective commitment with an instrument designed by

Natalie Allen and John Meyer, and perceived organizational support (POS) was measured

by an instrument developed by Robert Eisenberger. The regression results showed a

positive relation between POS and affirmative commitment (beta = 0.73,p< 0.001;

Leveson et al., 2009). The study is coherent in its articulation of the management of

cultural diversity in Australia through a policy known asproductive diversity(Leveson et

al., 2009). The researchers ascertained that cultural management is prejudiced by

government policy to promote linguistic and cultural skill sets, and to acquire familiarity

of overseas markets; and by the business acumen of individuals raised overseas. The

study supported cultural diversity management practices must be received by employees

as a genuine precursor of caring before it is accepted and employees should participate in

formulating and or executing diversity management policies.

According to Soldans (2009) Australian study of public sector employees, there

were concurring conclusions of the statistical significance between perceptions of

fairness, treatment, and inclusion and the employees perceived management receptivity

to diversity management ([perceived management receptivity to diversity management]

PMRDM) in the work environment (Soldan, 2009, p. 1). The quantitative study was

conducted in one of the largest Australian government organizations. The study explored


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the relationship between an employees gender, ethnicity, age, and organizational tenure

and their PMRDM. The study utilized a questionnaire developed by sampling items from

other instruments that were proven reliable and valid. The instruments included the

Workforce Diversity Questionnaire by Linda Larkey; the Diversity Perceptions Scale by

MichAl Mor Barak, David Cherin, and Sherry Berkman; and the scale developed by Soni

to measure PMRDM. Of particular interest were the factors of diversity management,

which explore an understanding of diversity management, employees openness to

diversity management, and PMRDM. Before the actual study took place, the instrument

was pilot tested and based on the feedback, the instrument was edited for language

adjustments and an item was deleted. The instrument was then ready to be activated as an

online survey. The survey used a 7-point Likert scale with ranges from 1,strongly

disagree, to 7,strongly agree. One thousand seven hundred and fifty employees were

invited to participate and 391 responded to the survey, which yielded a 22% response

rate. The analysis of the data was performed with comparison of means tests (ttests) and

analysis of variance (ANOVA). No statistical significant difference was found between

men and women, ethnicity, and age in regards to PMRDM. Between men and women, the

data revealed (t= .74,p= .460), minorities and majorities, (t = 1.54,p= .123) The

ANOVA tests found that there was a statistical difference which emerged among groups

with different organizational tenure and their PMRDM. The data revealed with respect to

the difference among groups with different organizational tenure and their PMRDM (F=

2.996,p< 0.05). The results of the study emphasize the importance for management to

continuously reinforce diversity management polices and procedure. Reinforcement of an

organizations diversity initiative can be accomplished in the implementation of current


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human resource policies, procedures and practices to ensure fairness and equity to all

employees; communications between employees and management that is open; and

everyone treats each other with veneration and is open-minded to the different

backgrounds, customs, traditions and cultures of others (Soldan, 2009).

Both scholarly and popular literature ponders the business case for diversity in the

work environment. The references incorporated in this section were selected from

pinnacle journals in the fields of human resource management, diversity management,

communication, organizational behavior, organization development and labor law to

defend the substance of diversity management discourse. In order to move forward

diversity management in organizations, a proactive versus a reactive position is very

critical (McMahon, 2010). There is a call to action for scholars and practitioners to

unearth evidence to support the argument for the business case defense for diversity

management. The business case arguments support how diversity increases the talent

pool, strengthens U.S. organizations, attracts and retains employees and create a

competitive advantage. Diversity in the work environment has been linked to both

positive and negative outcomes (Cox & Blake, 1991; Herring, 2009). According to

Richards (2000) examination of racial diversity, business strategy, and organizational

performance, societal conditions influence racial diversity. The impetus to promote

diversity management programs and policies based on organizational performance may

fail short in empirical data but it has created a multibillion human resource practitioners

must be able to adapt diversity goals regardless of societal conditions because they are

fluid. Assessing the relevance of societal conditions and an outcome of social identity,


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which is competition in the work teams (Korte, 2007), the human resource professional

must be proactive in keeping abreast on the organizational diversity climate.

The seminal research of Cox and Blake (1991) asserts that cultural diversity

management is good for organizations in order to create a competitive advantage. Cox

and Blake establish the foundation for the discourse of the advantages of diversity

management. According to Cox and Blake, diversity management impacts the

performance of a business. Diversity management and business performance plus cost,

attraction of human resources, marketing success, creativity, innovation, problem-solving

quality, and organizational flexibility create an origami octagon. The octagon helps

organizations conceptualize the benefits of managing cultural differences. If the factors

were placed in a pinwheel, a considerable look at each fold will allow an organization to

investigate problems singularly. This would be extremely helpful in determining the

diversity needs of an organization, availability of resources and whether or not a diversity

climate audit or survey is warranted. An organizational culture that is harmonious

encourages the implementation of diversity programs and policies (Pitts et al., 2010).

The factors supporting cultural diversity management in the research of Cox and

Blake (1991) are germane to heterogeneous organizations. According to the U.S.

Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics (2010), during 2008 through 2018,

employment growth will occur in two major occupational groups.The two foremost

industries will be professional and business services and secondly, healthcare and social

assistance. Collectively the factors sustain the argument for the business case of diversity

management in either a profit or nonprofit organization. Research findings have

confirmed diversity matters (Pitts, 2009). The synthesis of Cox and Blakes factors and


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the societal factors of the study are both quantifiable. Supportive paradigms include

organizational flexibility in assessing the diversity climate of the organization,

application of the cost factor through statistical analysis of turnover cost or absenteeism,

and marketing and the statistical analysis of the products sold as a result of hiring

employees who represent the organizations customer base. The marketing factor has a

foundation in social identity theory and expands to group identity. According to Cox and

Blake, when group diversity is designed, it leads to a variety of perceptions, and people

from different genders and races bring to the table different experiences shaped by group

identities. The human resource professional is the one responsible for managing the

various perceptions of its employees. The diversity climate of the organization dictates

the success or failure of diversity management initiatives whether the organization is for

profit or nonprofit. The constant variable is the employees whose demographic

compositions create the mosaic of the work environment. The seminal literature of Cox

(1991) suggests that diverse perceptions produce synergy and that is beneficial to any

organization. Taking into account the theoretical framework of social identity, it is known

that employees want to maximize their own self-esteem and, in doing so, judge the

compositions or categories they belong to as good (Pitts & Jarry, 2007).

The diversity management research of Pitts et al. (2010) argues that diversity

management is implemented on the basis of three categories. These categories are linked

to the categories of the study of organizational culture, compliance and best practices. If

organizations are implementing diversity management practices because they have to,

because they can or because everyone else is, then they are following what they perceive

as a best practice. All of the Pitts et al. categories are related to the environment;


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therefore, they can be placed in a societal context. . The societal context of diversity

management was put forth in the discourse of McWilliams and Patel (2009), who stated

the prudence of diversity management strategies during economic downturn. The

relevance of looking at the diversity climate of the organization is due to the restructuring

that often occurs after layoffs and downsizing. The extant literature review uncovered

categories and themes but did not provide quantitative data on the research question,Is

diversity supported when evaluating the diversity climate based on perceptions across

nonprofit and profit organizations, gender, and human resource professional Human

Resource Certification Institute (HRCI)certification? This central question uncovers a

layer in the onion-like complexity of understanding diversity management in an

organization.

Compliance

When an employer advertises support of equal opportunity and affirmative action

for underrepresented individuals, this exemplifies tolerance for legislative compliance

and different cultural backgrounds (Groschl & Doherty, 1999). One of the problems

related to the study of diversity is the lack of an organizational, clear, and consistent

definition for diversity (Anand & Winters, 2008). Some organizations define diversityas

regularly monitoring compliance as a social justice component of human resource

management responsibilities (Kreitz, 2008). The compliance perceptions is not about

engaging in strategies of diversity or inclusion because it was the right thing to do, but

doing something because it had to be done due to legislative directives. When affirmative

action programs were first introduced there was an exclusion of majority group members,

especially European American men. Diversity and inclusion programs seek to leverage


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the contributions of all individuals even though they are different (McMillian-Capehart et

al., 2009). According to Kelly and Dobbin (1998), managers are able to advance diversity

initiatives because the discourse focuses on business goals. Those goals include the

ability to obtain diverse customer-base perspectives, and that diversity might increase

productivity.

The intent of affirmative action is to make certain equal employment

opportunities are available for underutilized minorities, women, and persons with

disabilities, veterans of the Vietnam period and special disabled veterans. Information

obtained from the University of California, Berkeley, Human Resources (n.d.) states that

federal contractors are required to execute affirmative action plans to guarantee

employment opportunities for those groups. The requirement established for federal

contractors represent the federal governments commitment to address previous societal

discrimination in employment activities. Affirmative action plans and policies are also

used to attract and retain employees in the previously mentioned categories. The

distinction between affirmative action and equal opportunity employment is affirmative

action is program-oriented based on detailed results, whereas equal opportunity forbids

employment discrimination and outlines what one can and cannot do in human resources

activities.

Equal employment opportunity (EEO) and affirmative action are concepts to

address legal remedy in disparate employment situations involving disadvantaged

individuals and are legally driven (Groschl & Doherty, 1999). Originating in the United

States, the intent of EEO policies guaranteed individuals equal opportunities in the

workplace and opportunity to file discriminatory complaints (Barbosa & Cabral-Cardoso,


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2007). Employment decisions that are discriminatory based on an employees gender,

race, or ethnicity or policies and procedures that treat employees differently place them at

a disadvantage and systematic discrimination occurs (Barbosa & Cabral-Cardoso, 2007;

McMillian-Capehart et al., 2009). EEO and affirmative action are inherently political and

affect human resource management in delivering policy and procedure.

The Supreme Court delivered a poignant opinion in theRicci v. DeStefano case,

which questioned whether there was conflict in Title VIIs disparate impact standards and

equal protection (Primus, 2010). A lawsuit against New Haven, CT, was filed by 19

firefighters. Seventeen of the firefighters were European American and two were

Hispanic; they had taken tests for managerial promotions but were discarded because

none of the African American firefighters scored high enough to be considered for

managerial positions. The city stated it feared an adverse impact lawsuit by the African

American firefighters who are members of a protected class. The bearing of the case is it

unearthed the complexities of the concepts of disparate impact and equal protection.

According to Justice Scalia, The war between disparate impact and equal protection will

be waged sooner or later and it behooves us to begin thinking about howand on what

termsto make peace between them (Primus, 2010, p. 1387). The issue human resource

professionals must realize is that diversity management is complex (Jehn et al., 1999;

Kelly & Dobbin, 1998) just as the courts grasp the complexity of interpreting equal

employment laws; human resource professionals must confront the complexities of

diversity management as well.

In a societal context, the tenor set by the executive and legislative branch of the

U.S. government has the potential to create a ripple effect from Supreme Court judge


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selection to new employment laws. The discussion on equal opportunity and affirmative

action has received mixed reviews. Opponents of equal opportunity and affirmative

action argue that belonging to a social group should not outweigh qualifications.

Systematic discrimination has not been totally eradicated in the work environment and

measures to mitigate this wrong are still needed. The compliance perceptions of diversity

merely tolerate diversity (Groschl & Doherty, 1999).

Organizations that embrace an organizational culture based on inclusion and

diversity must establish a strategic framework for diversity management. Carrell and

Mann (2006) stated that companies default to compliance as a strategy for diversity.

More than half of current diversity practices are related to compliance to EEO/affirmative

action. The first conventional assessment of diversity management in organizations

looked at recruitment, outreach and affirmative action/EEO processes (Pitts, 2009).

However, effective diversity management requires more than compliance; it also requires

support from upper management and leadership to create an organizational culture

receptive to diversity initiatives (Pitts, 2009; Pollitt, 2005). The initial goal of affirmative

action programs was to increase the representation of underrepresented groups

(McMillan-Capehart et al., 2009). The end result supplements the creation of a diverse

workforce.

Organizational Culture

Chuang et al. (2004) speculated that organizational culture influences how diverse

groups function. Ely and Thomas (2001) put forward the diversity perceptions of learning

and integration based on an organizational culture supporting diversity as an opportunity

to produce positive outcomes. Jehn and Bezrukova (2004) stated that managers need to


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focus on organizational culture in order to render positive diversity results.

Understanding organizational culture is important because it can be an asset or a liability.

It is an asset when it sustains decision making and control and a liability when it obstructs

operational efficiency and strategy (Whitfield & Landeros, 2006).

Organizational culture dictates the appropriate behavior a permanent employee

will exhibit when a new minority female employee is hired in a finance department. The

discourse yielding benefits of diversity in work groups and teams has received mixed

reviews. Ely and Thomas (2001) and Cox and Blakes (1991) scholarly research argued

the business case for diversity management. These proponents suggested that a

diversified workforce can help create an organizational culture where decision making

processes are improved, increased flexibility, innovation and learning flourish and market

competiveness exists (Barbosa & Cabral-Cardoso, 2007). However, the disadvantages of

diversity in the work environment from the opposition conclude it creates employee

turnover, communication barriers and low employee morale (Barbosa & Cabral-Cardoso,

2007). Due to contrasting attitudes and views, an objective analysis of the organizational

culture is paramount in critiquing the business case for diversity. The increases in cultural

diversity within organizations necessitate managers having an understanding of how to

manage people in order to reach the common goals of the organization (Seyman, 2006).

A solution to effective diversity management is discovering commonalities employees

share, along with differences to modify the organizational culture and improve

performance results (McMahon, 2010). The organizational culture that manages diversity

values diversity.


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In Whitfield and Landeross study (2006) of supply chain management behaviors,

customer relationship behaviors were influenced by cultural context or style of the

organization. The significance of the study is it documented how organizational culture

dictated the course the company would take in regards to spending levels with diverse

suppliers. The Whitfield and Landeros study also affirmed the access and legitimacy

diversity perceptions also identified in the research of Ely and Thomas (2001). The

access and legitimacy perceptions permitted business transactions to occur when both the

supplier and the constituency recognize the importance of cultural diversity. Another

benefit of a diverse workforce in working with a diverse client base is it helps

organizations to develop skills to understand their clientsneeds and improve relations

with them (Wright & Noe, 1996).

Edmondson, Gupte, Draman, and Oliver (2009) evaluated the importance of a

communication strategy to improve an organizations diversity climate. Language is very

important when communicating to employees or constituents. This includes all formats of

communication. Organizations must be watchful of the words chosen when stating they

sustain the principles of diversity in the work environment. According to Edmondson et

al., communication should reflect with consistency the beliefs and perceptions of all the

stakeholders. The study revealed the use of the term minoritywas found to be offensive

and created sentiments of anxiety and awkwardness for employees. This eye-opener

reinforces the magnitude simple words may have on employees. Communication is both

written and verbal and the intent of the message should be clear and precise and not

offensive. Organizations are cautioned in using words which were previously acceptable

or never even considered odious.


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A comparison of the two studies of Edmondson et al. (2009) and Whitfield and

Landeros (2006) put forward the importance of organizational culture when assessing

diversity programs. The Edmondson et al. study examined a sample group of six

companies from a list of organizations included in a DiversityInclist. The demographics

of the population reflected key areas of diversity management that included recruitment;

retention; human capital; CEO commitment; corporate communications; supplier

diversity; and top companies for African Americans, Hispanic women, executive women,

Asian Americans, gay men, lesbians, and people with disabilities. This study was

descriptive and data was collected from web content analysis. The study concluded with

the elimination of the word minority, organization communications would enhance the

diversity climate and precisely reflect the organizations commitment to diversity.

The Whitfield and Landeros (2006) quantitative studys sample group was a U.S.

firm that specialized in manufacturing heavy equipment. The population was buying

units. Data was collected using an instrument known as the Organizational Culture

Diversity Inventory (OCDI) to measure 12 cultural styles of the organ

barrett_diversity management - the common thread binding compliance, organizational culture, and...

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