EDUCATION

Manzoor AhmedAdvisory Editor

Abu Hamid LatifEditor

Volume 6 Number 2 December 2007

A half-yearly journal published jointly by BAFED and BU-IED with financial assistance from UNESCO

UNESCO, DHAKABAFED

UNESCOBU-IED

BANGLADESH EDUCATION JOURNALA half-yearly journal published jointly by BAFED and BU-IED with financial

assistance from UNESCO.

Editorial Board

Advisory Editor : Manzoor Ahmed

Editor : Abu Hamid Latif

Member : Shamsul Haque

Sekander Hayat Khan

Siddiqur RahmanHarunur Rashid Khan

Ali Md. Shahiduzzaman

Cover Design

Abul Mansur

Manan Morshed

Price : in Bangladesh Tk. 100.00, Abroad US$ 5.00

Bangladesh Education Journal, Volume 6, Number 1, Published by Nazmul Haq, Executive Secretary, BAFED, on behalf of Bangladesh Forum for Educational Development (BAFED) and BRAC University Institute of Educational Development (BU-IED), 278/3 Elephant Road (3rd Floor), Kataban, Dhaka 1205. Phone: 9668593, E-mail: bafed@bangla.net, Website: www.bafed.org

Printed by Arka, 6/11 Eastern Plaza, Hatirpool, Dhaka-1205, Phone: 9661129.

Notes from the Editor

Mohammed Zakir Hossain, a specialist in the National Curriculum and Textbook Board, was involved in the development of the unified secondary education curriculum which was intended to delay the streaming of students into separate tracks to grade 11, in stead of the present arrangement of three separate tracks starting from grade 9 in general secondary schools. In the face of strong opposition from teachers, educationists and parents, the decision to introduce the reform has been put in abeyance by the government.

The author describes the process followed in the development of the new curriculum, which is of interest to all concerned with curriculum development.

Although the author did not make the point explicitly, it appears that the rounds of extensive consultation and reviews were mainly to seek legitimacy for decisions that had been already taken by the authorities and their external advisers formalized in the aide memoire with the donors rather than to explore alternatives in a reform agenda through consultation. It also appears that the focus in the reform was more on preparing the curriculum document than on assessing and creating the conditions and circumstances for implementing the reform effectively. Unless the latter is given due attention and necessary energies and resources are invested into it, reform efforts are bound to face insurmountable obstacles.

This issue (volume 6, number 2) contains three articles on three important components of the education system and a report on second primary education development programme.

The paper on Madrassa education provides an overview of the Madrassa sub-system, its significance, and the policy and operational issues it raises for educational development.

The article by Air Commodore (Retd.) Ishfaq Ilahi Chowdhury is a revised and shortened version of his M.Phil paper submitted to the National Defence College. The paper affirms that Madrassas represent various types and levels of institutions and constitute a major part of the education system in terms of numbers of institutions and students enrolled in them. However, accurate information about them is lacking and the arrangements for oversight regarding quality of education and protection of the rights and interests of children in Madrassa are seriously inadequate. If a significant proportion of young people enter adulthood without the necessary skills, knowledge and preparation for adult roles and the world of work, this itself is a major problem. The stakes are raised many times, especially in the context of “political Islam,” if the educational programme aids and abets, as the author argues, the cultivation of values and attitudes contrary to the mainstream national ethos and aspirations and promotes an obscurantist world view opposed to the progressive and scientific outlook appropriate for the 21st century.

BANGLADESH EDUCATION JOURNALA half-yearly journal published jointly by BAFED and BU-IED with financial

assistance from UNESCO.

Editorial Board

Advisory Editor : Manzoor Ahmed

Editor : Abu Hamid Latif

Member : Shamsul Haque

Sekander Hayat Khan

Siddiqur RahmanHarunur Rashid Khan

Ali Md. Shahiduzzaman

Cover Design

Abul Mansur

Manan Morshed

Price : in Bangladesh Tk. 100.00, Abroad US$ 5.00

Bangladesh Education Journal, Volume 6, Number 1, Published by Nazmul Haq, Executive Secretary, BAFED, on behalf of Bangladesh Forum for Educational Development (BAFED) and BRAC University Institute of Educational Development (BU-IED), 278/3 Elephant Road (3rd Floor), Kataban, Dhaka 1205. Phone: 9668593, E-mail: bafed@bangla.net, Website: www.bafed.org

Printed by Arka, 6/11 Eastern Plaza, Hatirpool, Dhaka-1205, Phone: 9661129.

Notes from the Editor

Mohammed Zakir Hossain, a specialist in the National Curriculum and Textbook Board, was involved in the development of the unified secondary education curriculum which was intended to delay the streaming of students into separate tracks to grade 11, in stead of the present arrangement of three separate tracks starting from grade 9 in general secondary schools. In the face of strong opposition from teachers, educationists and parents, the decision to introduce the reform has been put in abeyance by the government.

The author describes the process followed in the development of the new curriculum, which is of interest to all concerned with curriculum development.

Although the author did not make the point explicitly, it appears that the rounds of extensive consultation and reviews were mainly to seek legitimacy for decisions that had been already taken by the authorities and their external advisers formalized in the aide memoire with the donors rather than to explore alternatives in a reform agenda through consultation. It also appears that the focus in the reform was more on preparing the curriculum document than on assessing and creating the conditions and circumstances for implementing the reform effectively. Unless the latter is given due attention and necessary energies and resources are invested into it, reform efforts are bound to face insurmountable obstacles.

This issue (volume 6, number 2) contains three articles on three important components of the education system and a report on second primary education development programme.

The paper on Madrassa education provides an overview of the Madrassa sub-system, its significance, and the policy and operational issues it raises for educational development.

The article by Air Commodore (Retd.) Ishfaq Ilahi Chowdhury is a revised and shortened version of his M.Phil paper submitted to the National Defence College. The paper affirms that Madrassas represent various types and levels of institutions and constitute a major part of the education system in terms of numbers of institutions and students enrolled in them. However, accurate information about them is lacking and the arrangements for oversight regarding quality of education and protection of the rights and interests of children in Madrassa are seriously inadequate. If a significant proportion of young people enter adulthood without the necessary skills, knowledge and preparation for adult roles and the world of work, this itself is a major problem. The stakes are raised many times, especially in the context of “political Islam,” if the educational programme aids and abets, as the author argues, the cultivation of values and attitudes contrary to the mainstream national ethos and aspirations and promotes an obscurantist world view opposed to the progressive and scientific outlook appropriate for the 21st century.

Prof. Abdul Mannan provides a historical perspective of development in the university sub-system in Bangladesh. The advent of the private university on the tertiary education scene is a recent, but inevitable occurrence. From his personal involvement both in public and private universities, Prof Mannan describes the challenges in the development of the university sector and indicates priorities for action.

A “topical report” about a consultation between the authorities and the civil society representatives NGOs, academics, researchers, and citizen groups that was organized by CAMPE on the national Primary Education Development Programme (PEDP II) has been included in this issue. The consultation was in a way a response to the complaint that the donor-assisted primary education programme has failed to draw on the capacities and experiences of non-government organizations and institutions which can make a contribution to achieving the goals of PEDP II.

The book review draws attention to a recent research-based publication by Prof Abdul Bayes and Dr. Mahabub Hossain in Bangla about the rural economy in Bangladesh, which sheds light on the role of education in fighting rural poverty.

C o n t e n t s

Editor’s Note

Ishfaq Ilahi Choudhury07-22

23-37

39-54

55-64

Madrassa Education in Bangladesh:Genesis, Growth and Implications

The “Unitrack” Curriculum for Grades 9-10: Rationale and Development

Mohammed Zakir Hossain

Reforming University Education in Bangladesh: A Historical View

Abdul Mannan

The Second Primary Education Development Programme ( PEDP II)

Highlights of a Consultation with Civil Society

Education and Rural Poverty (Book Review)

65-67Manzoor Ahmed

Prof. Abdul Mannan provides a historical perspective of development in the university sub-system in Bangladesh. The advent of the private university on the tertiary education scene is a recent, but inevitable occurrence. From his personal involvement both in public and private universities, Prof Mannan describes the challenges in the development of the university sector and indicates priorities for action.

A “topical report” about a consultation between the authorities and the civil society representatives NGOs, academics, researchers, and citizen groups that was organized by CAMPE on the national Primary Education Development Programme (PEDP II) has been included in this issue. The consultation was in a way a response to the complaint that the donor-assisted primary education programme has failed to draw on the capacities and experiences of non-government organizations and institutions which can make a contribution to achieving the goals of PEDP II.

The book review draws attention to a recent research-based publication by Prof Abdul Bayes and Dr. Mahabub Hossain in Bangla about the rural economy in Bangladesh, which sheds light on the role of education in fighting rural poverty.

C o n t e n t s

Editor’s Note

Ishfaq Ilahi Choudhury07-22

23-37

39-54

55-64

Madrassa Education in Bangladesh:Genesis, Growth and Implications

The “Unitrack” Curriculum for Grades 9-10: Rationale and Development

Mohammed Zakir Hossain

Reforming University Education in Bangladesh: A Historical View

Abdul Mannan

The Second Primary Education Development Programme ( PEDP II)

Highlights of a Consultation with Civil Society

Education and Rural Poverty (Book Review)

65-67Manzoor Ahmed

I. Introduction“Madrassa,” the Arabic word for school, refers to a Muslim educational institution. Its primary purpose historically was to teach the tenets of Islam, besides teaching secular subjects like law and jurisprudence, science and medicine, literature and art. With the decline

thof the Islamic world since the 13 century, the pursuit of new knowledge and research was abandoned and the Madrassas gradually became schools of religious studies only. During the colonial rule in the sub-continent, while mainstream education became secular with English as the medium of instruction, Madrassa education concentrated on Islamic studies with Arabic, Persian and Urdu as the medium.

MADRASSA EDUCATION IN BANGLADESH:GENESIS, GROWTH AND IMPLICATIONS

*Ishfaq Ilahi Choudhury

* Registrar, Asia Pacific University, Dhaka and Air Cdre. (Retd.), Bangladesh Air Force

Abstract

Madrassas occupy an important place in the education system of Bangladesh. There are over 13,000 government-registered Madrassas at the primary, secondary and higher levels and quite a few thousands unregistered ones. As much as 20 percent of the student body of the country may be enrolled in different types of Madrassas. The rate of increase of Madrassas, their students and government expenditures for them has been higher in recent years than in the mainstream public education system.

Madrassa education emphasises a conservative Islamic education at the expense of modern subjects of humanities, commerce and science. The academic curriculum of Madrassa education is based on contents first adopted more than 200 years ago. While some changes have occurred in the curriculum of the government-registered Aliya Madrassas, the privately-run Quomi Madrassas have remained virtually untouched. The Madrassa curriculum, especially the Quomi variety, forces very young students to learn as many as four foreign languages, but they are given very limited exposure to Bangla, the national language.

It is often said that the spread of Madrassa education has fuelled conservatism and dogmatism in the country. Arguably, the rise of militant organisations like JMB and HUJI-B has links to extremist teachings in some Madrassas. Since 9/11, there has been an increase globally in incidences of violence in which young people regarded as Muslim extremists have been involved. Many of them are or were students of Madrassas. There is, therefore, a greater interest in what is taught in these institutions and the efforts to bring their curriculum closer to mainstream education. Ensuring that the Madrassa students identify with Bangladeshi nationhood, culture and traditions, and equipping them with some skills useful in the material world have assumed new urgency.

I. Introduction“Madrassa,” the Arabic word for school, refers to a Muslim educational institution. Its primary purpose historically was to teach the tenets of Islam, besides teaching secular subjects like law and jurisprudence, science and medicine, literature and art. With the decline

thof the Islamic world since the 13 century, the pursuit of new knowledge and research was abandoned and the Madrassas gradually became schools of religious studies only. During the colonial rule in the sub-continent, while mainstream education became secular with English as the medium of instruction, Madrassa education concentrated on Islamic studies with Arabic, Persian and Urdu as the medium.

MADRASSA EDUCATION IN BANGLADESH:GENESIS, GROWTH AND IMPLICATIONS

*Ishfaq Ilahi Choudhury

* Registrar, Asia Pacific University, Dhaka and Air Cdre. (Retd.), Bangladesh Air Force

Abstract

Madrassas occupy an important place in the education system of Bangladesh. There are over 13,000 government-registered Madrassas at the primary, secondary and higher levels and quite a few thousands unregistered ones. As much as 20 percent of the student body of the country may be enrolled in different types of Madrassas. The rate of increase of Madrassas, their students and government expenditures for them has been higher in recent years than in the mainstream public education system.

Madrassa education emphasises a conservative Islamic education at the expense of modern subjects of humanities, commerce and science. The academic curriculum of Madrassa education is based on contents first adopted more than 200 years ago. While some changes have occurred in the curriculum of the government-registered Aliya Madrassas, the privately-run Quomi Madrassas have remained virtually untouched. The Madrassa curriculum, especially the Quomi variety, forces very young students to learn as many as four foreign languages, but they are given very limited exposure to Bangla, the national language.

It is often said that the spread of Madrassa education has fuelled conservatism and dogmatism in the country. Arguably, the rise of militant organisations like JMB and HUJI-B has links to extremist teachings in some Madrassas. Since 9/11, there has been an increase globally in incidences of violence in which young people regarded as Muslim extremists have been involved. Many of them are or were students of Madrassas. There is, therefore, a greater interest in what is taught in these institutions and the efforts to bring their curriculum closer to mainstream education. Ensuring that the Madrassa students identify with Bangladeshi nationhood, culture and traditions, and equipping them with some skills useful in the material world have assumed new urgency.

In Bangladesh, the Madrassas remain a parallel stream to the mainstream education system. There are two types of Madrassas in Bangladesh. While the government regulated Madrassas, known as “Aliya Madrassas”, put an emphasis on religious subjects along with lessons in sciences and the humanities, the unregulated “Quomi Madrassas” concentrate on religious studies with very little emphasis on secular subjects.

When Bangladesh was born in 1971, there were about a thousand Madrassas of different types in the country. However, since the 1980s, the number of Madrassas has been increasing faster than the mainstream educational institutions. For example, while the number of secondary and higher secondary educational institutions increased by 16 percent in 1999-2005, the registered Madrassas increased by 27.9 percent during the same period (Government of Bangladesh 2005, p.282). Similarly, the increase in the number of students and teachers was also higher in the Madrassas than in mainstream schools. Government-registered Madrassa students were 10 percent of the primary level and 16 percent of the secondary level student body in 2005 (BANBEIS 2006). Along with the Quomi variety, the percentage of Madrassa students in the country may be as much as 20 percent of the student community. Madrassa education now takes up a substantial share of the education budget, and the students and teachers of the Madrassas are asserting increasing influence in the body politics of the country.

Madrassa education has come under worldwide scrutiny since the rise of the Taliban in Afghanistan in 1996. The Taliban were students of Madrassas who, after coming to power, introduced extremely harsh Islamic Sharia laws. In the post-9/11 world, there is a growing scepticism about Madrassa education. Madrassas or mosque-based religious schools are sometimes used as a platform for preaching religious extremism in many countries. The “Lal Masjid” incident in Islamabad, Pakistan in July 2007, in which students of the Madrassa based in the mosque fought violently with the government forces leading to many deaths and injuries, was an illustration of extremism and violence arising from religious schools.

Madrassa education's link to Islamic extremism was evident in Bangladesh too. Despite long official denial of the existence of religious extremism, the series of bombings across the country on August 17, 2005 and subsequent suicide bombings prompted the government to move into action. During the investigation and subsequent arrests and prosecutions, it was established that many of the activists of the now-banned Jamatul Mujahidin Bangladesh (JMB) and Harkatul Jihad Al Islami Bangladesh (HUJI-B), who carried out the bombing operations were in fact Madrassa students.

The purpose of this paper is to study the genesis and growth of the Madrassa education system in Bangladesh and to examine its influence on society and politics. The paper seeks to answer the following questions:

a. How did Madrassa education evolve in Bangladesh? How do various streams of Madrassa education compare?

b. What is the course content in different Madrassa streams? How does the curriculum contribute towards preparing a student for life?

08 Bangladesh Education Journal

c. What were the causes of the relatively rapid growth of the Madrassa system?

d. What were the recommendations of various Education Commissions regarding Madrassa reform in Bangladesh and how far were these implemented?

e. What is the trend in government spending on Madrassa education vis-à-vis mainstream public education?

f. How can Madrassa education be integrated with mainstream education?

g. How does Madrassa education influence Bangladeshi society and politics?

h. What can be said about the link between Madrassa education and trends in religious extremism in the country?

Methodology

A number of investigative approaches was used to collect and analyse the information to answer the above questions. These included:

Historical Approach. Relevant archival records, books and papers were studied to draw a historical account of the development of Madrassa education in Bangladesh.

Content Analysis. Books, articles, research papers and Education Commission Reports were studied to collect facts and statistics as well as opinions and observations of eminent educationists on the subject.

Survey of Institutions. A number of Madrassas, both Aliya and Quomi, was surveyed to gather information about the course content, quality of education, management, administration and financing of Madrassas. Interviews were taken of teachers and students to determine their views and perceptions.

Case Studies Selected Madrassas were taken as case studies. These institutions were studied in-depth and their students were interviewed to seek answers to various research questions.

II. Genesis of Madrassa Education

Early Islamic Madrassas

As the Islamic empire expanded from the Arab peninsula to other parts of Asia, Africa and Europe, it became imperative to create a class of educated Muslims to propagate Islam and administer the conquered regions. The first organised Madrassa was established in 1005 AD by the Fatimid Caliph of Egypt. This was the forerunner of the world-famous Al-Azhar University in Cairo. During the Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad, a large number of Madrassas was established throughout the Caliphate. The curriculum included Islamic studies as well as medicine, science, philosophy, mathematics, astronomy and public administration (Anzar 2003). In the 9th to 11th centuries AD, during the Muslim rule in Spain, the Madrassa in Cordova produced a galaxy of historians, scientists, astronomers, mathematicians and physicians who rekindled knowledge in the then “Dark Continent” of Europe.

The Mongol invasions of Baghdad in the 13th century brought in its wake an era of darkness

Bangladesh Education Journal 09

In Bangladesh, the Madrassas remain a parallel stream to the mainstream education system. There are two types of Madrassas in Bangladesh. While the government regulated Madrassas, known as “Aliya Madrassas”, put an emphasis on religious subjects along with lessons in sciences and the humanities, the unregulated “Quomi Madrassas” concentrate on religious studies with very little emphasis on secular subjects.

When Bangladesh was born in 1971, there were about a thousand Madrassas of different types in the country. However, since the 1980s, the number of Madrassas has been increasing faster than the mainstream educational institutions. For example, while the number of secondary and higher secondary educational institutions increased by 16 percent in 1999-2005, the registered Madrassas increased by 27.9 percent during the same period (Government of Bangladesh 2005, p.282). Similarly, the increase in the number of students and teachers was also higher in the Madrassas than in mainstream schools. Government-registered Madrassa students were 10 percent of the primary level and 16 percent of the secondary level student body in 2005 (BANBEIS 2006). Along with the Quomi variety, the percentage of Madrassa students in the country may be as much as 20 percent of the student community. Madrassa education now takes up a substantial share of the education budget, and the students and teachers of the Madrassas are asserting increasing influence in the body politics of the country.

Madrassa education has come under worldwide scrutiny since the rise of the Taliban in Afghanistan in 1996. The Taliban were students of Madrassas who, after coming to power, introduced extremely harsh Islamic Sharia laws. In the post-9/11 world, there is a growing scepticism about Madrassa education. Madrassas or mosque-based religious schools are sometimes used as a platform for preaching religious extremism in many countries. The “Lal Masjid” incident in Islamabad, Pakistan in July 2007, in which students of the Madrassa based in the mosque fought violently with the government forces leading to many deaths and injuries, was an illustration of extremism and violence arising from religious schools.

Madrassa education's link to Islamic extremism was evident in Bangladesh too. Despite long official denial of the existence of religious extremism, the series of bombings across the country on August 17, 2005 and subsequent suicide bombings prompted the government to move into action. During the investigation and subsequent arrests and prosecutions, it was established that many of the activists of the now-banned Jamatul Mujahidin Bangladesh (JMB) and Harkatul Jihad Al Islami Bangladesh (HUJI-B), who carried out the bombing operations were in fact Madrassa students.

The purpose of this paper is to study the genesis and growth of the Madrassa education system in Bangladesh and to examine its influence on society and politics. The paper seeks to answer the following questions:

a. How did Madrassa education evolve in Bangladesh? How do various streams of Madrassa education compare?

b. What is the course content in different Madrassa streams? How does the curriculum contribute towards preparing a student for life?

08 Bangladesh Education Journal

c. What were the causes of the relatively rapid growth of the Madrassa system?

d. What were the recommendations of various Education Commissions regarding Madrassa reform in Bangladesh and how far were these implemented?

e. What is the trend in government spending on Madrassa education vis-à-vis mainstream public education?

f. How can Madrassa education be integrated with mainstream education?

g. How does Madrassa education influence Bangladeshi society and politics?

h. What can be said about the link between Madrassa education and trends in religious extremism in the country?

Methodology

A number of investigative approaches was used to collect and analyse the information to answer the above questions. These included:

Historical Approach. Relevant archival records, books and papers were studied to draw a historical account of the development of Madrassa education in Bangladesh.

Content Analysis. Books, articles, research papers and Education Commission Reports were studied to collect facts and statistics as well as opinions and observations of eminent educationists on the subject.

Survey of Institutions. A number of Madrassas, both Aliya and Quomi, was surveyed to gather information about the course content, quality of education, management, administration and financing of Madrassas. Interviews were taken of teachers and students to determine their views and perceptions.

Case Studies Selected Madrassas were taken as case studies. These institutions were studied in-depth and their students were interviewed to seek answers to various research questions.

II. Genesis of Madrassa Education

Early Islamic Madrassas

As the Islamic empire expanded from the Arab peninsula to other parts of Asia, Africa and Europe, it became imperative to create a class of educated Muslims to propagate Islam and administer the conquered regions. The first organised Madrassa was established in 1005 AD by the Fatimid Caliph of Egypt. This was the forerunner of the world-famous Al-Azhar University in Cairo. During the Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad, a large number of Madrassas was established throughout the Caliphate. The curriculum included Islamic studies as well as medicine, science, philosophy, mathematics, astronomy and public administration (Anzar 2003). In the 9th to 11th centuries AD, during the Muslim rule in Spain, the Madrassa in Cordova produced a galaxy of historians, scientists, astronomers, mathematicians and physicians who rekindled knowledge in the then “Dark Continent” of Europe.

The Mongol invasions of Baghdad in the 13th century brought in its wake an era of darkness

Bangladesh Education Journal 09

from which the Islamic world never fully recovered. The only group that emerged as powerful from the ruins were the Ulemas - Muslim clerics, who proclaimed an end to Ijtihad or independent reasoning. They pronounced that going back to the basics from the 8th century AD was the only way the Muslims could restore their lost glory. Earthly knowledge was either dropped from the Madrassa syllabus or was taught in conformity with what they perceived to be in line with Qur'anic teachings. This decision had far-reaching effects on Muslim societies. As an enlightened Europe rushed towards renaissance and scientific progress, the Islamic world remained in medieval darkness (Anzar 2003).

Evolution of Madrassas in Colonial India

Realizing the need for Muslim Qadi or law officers in the court, Governor General Warren Hastings established the “Calcutta Madrassa” in 1780. The teachings were in Arabic and Persian and the curriculum concentrated on the Qur'an, Hadith and its various interpretations. There were Arabic and Persian classics, books on logic, philosophy or medicine written hundreds of years back, mostly quite outdated even at that time. Repeated attempts by the British Government to introduce English or Bangla and modern scientific knowledge were blocked by the Muslim elites (Sattar 1980).

In 1837, the British introduced English as the official language in the Indian empire, and native languages, such as Bangla, were taught in schools. The Muslim elites in Bengal not only rejected English in Madrassas, but they also opposed Bangla on the argument that it was not the language of the middle and upper class Muslims (Sattar 1980, p.135). Thus, the Muslim elites persistently resisted attempts by the British to introduce modern education amongst the Muslim community.

After the failure of the Great Mutiny in 1857, Muslims of India were divided in their opinion on how to uplift the down-trodden community. The traditional Ulemas, led by Maulana Qasim Nanutabi and Maulana Ashraf Ali Thanvi, who rejected everything western, established a Madrassa in 1863 known as “Darul Ulum Deoband” in Deoband, a small town in Uttar Pradesh in India. On the other hand, Sir Syed Ahmed, who advocated English and western education, established Muslim Anglo-Oriental College in 1875, later to become Aligarh Muslim University, in Aligarh. While Aligarh became synonymous with Islamic modernism, Deoband came to symbolize rejection of modern knowledge and progressive ideas. Deoband became the model for most non-government, privately funded Madrassas in the sub-continent. The Deobandi curriculum is based on strict and literal following of Hadith and Sunnah, and has much in common with the Islamic traditions practiced at present in Saudi Arabia. As opposed to Deobandi Madrassas, there were others based on Berlevi, Ahl-e-Hadith or Shia traditions. These Madrassas have varied ideologies and are often at loggerheads, accusing each other of deviation and false innovation or Bidaa.

Growth of Madrassa Education in Bangladesh

The number of Aliya Madrassas grew at a slow pace in Bengal throughout the British and Pakistan period. During the partition of India in 1947, the Arabic section of the Calcutta Aliya Madrassa was transferred to Dhaka; it has since then been known as the Government

10 Bangladesh Education Journal

Aliya Madrassa, Dhaka. The Government of East Pakistan formed a Madrassa Education Board in 1949 to regulate the course of studies and conduct terminal examinations (Sattar 1980, p.206). By 1957, there were 726 Aliya Madrassas in the then East Pakistan (Sattar 1980, p.208). At the time of the Liberation of Bangladesh in 1971, there were about a thousand Madrassas in the country. However, since the early 1980s, there was a sharp growth of Madrassas in Bangladesh, faster than the growth of mainstream educational institutions. By 2003, there were nearly 13,000 Madrassas of the Aliya variety in Bangladesh (Government of Bangladesh 2003, p. 271).

Unlike Aliyas, the Quomis depend on private donations for their operation. Sometimes the Madrassas are co-located with the Mazars of local saints, wherefrom some donations would be diverted to the Madrassas. Many Muslims contribute substantial amounts to the upkeep of Madrassas as a part of their religious duties. Businessmen, industrialists, and politicians often donate generously to local mosques and Madrassas to earn a name for them and influence public opinion. Most Quomi Madrassas are on 'Waqf' land (donated for religious use); but some have sprung up on fallow government land, either without the knowledge of authorities, or sometimes in collusion with officials.

Private donors and organisations in the oil-rich Gulf states, notably Saudi Arabia and Kuwait, have been financing the Quomi Madrassas in recent years. Due to poor banking supervision and lax financial regulations, the Arab agencies, NGOs and private individuals found it easy to finance Madrassas and propagate their brand of Islam in Bangladesh. There is no means to record or publish data as to the specific sources, recipients and amount of funds received to support religion-based education. The Government of Bangladesh has recently introduced tighter control on the inflow of foreign donations, banned a number of

1Middle Eastern NGOs and extradited some foreign nationals for clandestine activities.

Current State of Madrassa Education in Bangladesh

The Curriculum of Aliya Madrassas

Aliya Madrassa education is divided into 5 stages of 16 years' duration from primary to post-graduate level. The stages are: Ibtidaia (primary), Dakhil (middle & secondary), Alim (higher secondary), Fazil (graduate) and Kamil (post graduate). The stages are described below (Azhar 2001, pp.158-165):

Ibtidaia (4-5 years). Emphasis is put on correct recitation of the Holy Qur'an. Other subjects are: Basics of Islam, Arabic, Bangla, Arithmetic and an introduction to History, Geography and General Science.

Dakhil (5-6 years). In this phase too, the emphasis is on correct recitation and understanding of the Qur'an along with its commentaries. At this stage, the students are introduced to the Islamic Creed, Islamic Law and Jurisprudence, Arabic and a number of secular subjects.

Bangladesh Education Journal 11

1. A series of investigative report on Quomi Madrassas published on 3-7 April 2006 in The Prothom Alo, a Bangla daily from Dhaka, named a number of Middle East NGOs alleged to have illegally financed Madrassa activities and promoted religious extremism.

from which the Islamic world never fully recovered. The only group that emerged as powerful from the ruins were the Ulemas - Muslim clerics, who proclaimed an end to Ijtihad or independent reasoning. They pronounced that going back to the basics from the 8th century AD was the only way the Muslims could restore their lost glory. Earthly knowledge was either dropped from the Madrassa syllabus or was taught in conformity with what they perceived to be in line with Qur'anic teachings. This decision had far-reaching effects on Muslim societies. As an enlightened Europe rushed towards renaissance and scientific progress, the Islamic world remained in medieval darkness (Anzar 2003).

Evolution of Madrassas in Colonial India

Realizing the need for Muslim Qadi or law officers in the court, Governor General Warren Hastings established the “Calcutta Madrassa” in 1780. The teachings were in Arabic and Persian and the curriculum concentrated on the Qur'an, Hadith and its various interpretations. There were Arabic and Persian classics, books on logic, philosophy or medicine written hundreds of years back, mostly quite outdated even at that time. Repeated attempts by the British Government to introduce English or Bangla and modern scientific knowledge were blocked by the Muslim elites (Sattar 1980).

In 1837, the British introduced English as the official language in the Indian empire, and native languages, such as Bangla, were taught in schools. The Muslim elites in Bengal not only rejected English in Madrassas, but they also opposed Bangla on the argument that it was not the language of the middle and upper class Muslims (Sattar 1980, p.135). Thus, the Muslim elites persistently resisted attempts by the British to introduce modern education amongst the Muslim community.

After the failure of the Great Mutiny in 1857, Muslims of India were divided in their opinion on how to uplift the down-trodden community. The traditional Ulemas, led by Maulana Qasim Nanutabi and Maulana Ashraf Ali Thanvi, who rejected everything western, established a Madrassa in 1863 known as “Darul Ulum Deoband” in Deoband, a small town in Uttar Pradesh in India. On the other hand, Sir Syed Ahmed, who advocated English and western education, established Muslim Anglo-Oriental College in 1875, later to become Aligarh Muslim University, in Aligarh. While Aligarh became synonymous with Islamic modernism, Deoband came to symbolize rejection of modern knowledge and progressive ideas. Deoband became the model for most non-government, privately funded Madrassas in the sub-continent. The Deobandi curriculum is based on strict and literal following of Hadith and Sunnah, and has much in common with the Islamic traditions practiced at present in Saudi Arabia. As opposed to Deobandi Madrassas, there were others based on Berlevi, Ahl-e-Hadith or Shia traditions. These Madrassas have varied ideologies and are often at loggerheads, accusing each other of deviation and false innovation or Bidaa.

Growth of Madrassa Education in Bangladesh

The number of Aliya Madrassas grew at a slow pace in Bengal throughout the British and Pakistan period. During the partition of India in 1947, the Arabic section of the Calcutta Aliya Madrassa was transferred to Dhaka; it has since then been known as the Government

10 Bangladesh Education Journal

Aliya Madrassa, Dhaka. The Government of East Pakistan formed a Madrassa Education Board in 1949 to regulate the course of studies and conduct terminal examinations (Sattar 1980, p.206). By 1957, there were 726 Aliya Madrassas in the then East Pakistan (Sattar 1980, p.208). At the time of the Liberation of Bangladesh in 1971, there were about a thousand Madrassas in the country. However, since the early 1980s, there was a sharp growth of Madrassas in Bangladesh, faster than the growth of mainstream educational institutions. By 2003, there were nearly 13,000 Madrassas of the Aliya variety in Bangladesh (Government of Bangladesh 2003, p. 271).

Unlike Aliyas, the Quomis depend on private donations for their operation. Sometimes the Madrassas are co-located with the Mazars of local saints, wherefrom some donations would be diverted to the Madrassas. Many Muslims contribute substantial amounts to the upkeep of Madrassas as a part of their religious duties. Businessmen, industrialists, and politicians often donate generously to local mosques and Madrassas to earn a name for them and influence public opinion. Most Quomi Madrassas are on 'Waqf' land (donated for religious use); but some have sprung up on fallow government land, either without the knowledge of authorities, or sometimes in collusion with officials.

Private donors and organisations in the oil-rich Gulf states, notably Saudi Arabia and Kuwait, have been financing the Quomi Madrassas in recent years. Due to poor banking supervision and lax financial regulations, the Arab agencies, NGOs and private individuals found it easy to finance Madrassas and propagate their brand of Islam in Bangladesh. There is no means to record or publish data as to the specific sources, recipients and amount of funds received to support religion-based education. The Government of Bangladesh has recently introduced tighter control on the inflow of foreign donations, banned a number of

1Middle Eastern NGOs and extradited some foreign nationals for clandestine activities.

Current State of Madrassa Education in Bangladesh

The Curriculum of Aliya Madrassas

Aliya Madrassa education is divided into 5 stages of 16 years' duration from primary to post-graduate level. The stages are: Ibtidaia (primary), Dakhil (middle & secondary), Alim (higher secondary), Fazil (graduate) and Kamil (post graduate). The stages are described below (Azhar 2001, pp.158-165):

Ibtidaia (4-5 years). Emphasis is put on correct recitation of the Holy Qur'an. Other subjects are: Basics of Islam, Arabic, Bangla, Arithmetic and an introduction to History, Geography and General Science.

Dakhil (5-6 years). In this phase too, the emphasis is on correct recitation and understanding of the Qur'an along with its commentaries. At this stage, the students are introduced to the Islamic Creed, Islamic Law and Jurisprudence, Arabic and a number of secular subjects.

Bangladesh Education Journal 11

1. A series of investigative report on Quomi Madrassas published on 3-7 April 2006 in The Prothom Alo, a Bangla daily from Dhaka, named a number of Middle East NGOs alleged to have illegally financed Madrassa activities and promoted religious extremism.

Alim (2 years). At this stage, students are streamed into two groups - Humanities and Science. Both groups have to concentrate on the Qur'an and Hadith, Islamic Law, Law of Inheritance, Arabic and Islamic History. The Humanities group studies Arabic and Persian in-depth and the Science group studies a number of natural science subjects.

Fazil (2 years). The students are again streamed into two groups - Humanities and Science. Like Dakhil, here too both groups have, in addition to common religious subjects, a number of secular subjects.

Kamil (2 years). This is the highest stage of Aliya Madrassa education. Here the students study only religious subjects. They specialise in different branches, such as: Hadith, Tafsir (Interpretation of the Qur'an), Islamic Jurisprudence and Arabic Literature.

In Bangladesh, Dakhil and Alim degrees from the Madrassa Board are recognised as equivalent to Secondary (SSC) and Higher Secondary (HSC) qualifications. Students passing examinations at these stages can get admitted into mainstream colleges and universities. The Madrassa students and teachers have demanded for some time that the government should recognise Fazil and Kamil Degrees as equivalent to BA and MA degrees. The BNP-led Coalition Government, at the fag end of its tenure in 2006, acceded to the demand of the Madrassa lobby despite strong arguments to the contrary from academics and educationists. Like many issues in Bangladesh, this too has taken on a political hue.

At the Ibtidaia stage, there is a relatively small difference in the course curriculum between Aliya and primary education, but as a student progresses in either stream the differences grow. Even a cursory look at the Madrassa curriculum and books vis-à-vis mainstream education shows that although a Madrassa student studies secular subjects, the depth of the content, contact hours in class and the marks allotted in exams are significantly less for these subjects than in the mainstream. An examination of the Bangla, English, History, Geography, Social Studies and General Science textbooks for Dakhil classes of the Madrassa Board and those published by the National Curriculum and Textbook Board shows that the depth and scope of the content in the latter were substantially greater for each grade. The fact is that the two streams cannot be compared; each stands on its own ground in respect of their academic and broader educational purposes. Fazil and Kamil are even more religion-centred and cannot be regarded as comparable to mainstream degrees from universities.

Curriculum of the Quomi Madrassa

Accurate information on Quomi Madrassas is not available through the government. Most of the Quomi Madrassas are of Deobandi tradition. “Befaqul Madarrisil Arabia Bangladesh”, more commonly known as the “Quomi Madrassa Board”, claims to represent the Quomi Madrassas in the country. In a petition to the government in 2006, the Board claimed to represent more than 15,000 Madrassas with about 132,000 teachers and 1,850,000 students

2across the country. It is difficult to verify the claim, but evidently the Quomi Madrassas have grown in a major way in Bangladesh.

12 Bangladesh Education Journal

There are seven stages of learning in a Quomi Madrassa. The pre-primary section of a Quomi Madrassa is known as Hifzul Qu'ran, or Qur'an memorizing section. Most students would spend 3-4 years memorizing the Qur'an. The students would then move to lbtidaia or primary. By then the student could read and write Arabic, Urdu and Persian, although most of it would be rote learning. At this stage the student is also taught some basic Bangla, English, Mathematics, and Islamic History. About ten years of schooling would lead a student to Mutawasita (Secondary School Certificate) and then to Sanubia Ulya (Higher Secondary Certificate) standard. By then the student would have a good knowledge of the Qur'an and its interpretations and commentaries, memorized hundreds of Hadith and their origins, studied Islamic Law and Jurisprudence, read Islamic philosophy, Islamic History, Logic and have studied a number of old classics in Arabic, Persian and Urdu. A very small proportion of students would move to the next higher stages of Fazeelat (graduation) and Taqmeel (post graduation). These students might become Muftis and Dawara Hadith who could give

3Fatwas or make judgements on disputes involving religious interpretations.

The Quomi Madrassa curriculum appears to be outdated even by 19th century standards. Students graduating from these Madrassas learn no modern skills and cannot be usefully employed other than in a Muslim religious institution. While some textbooks on secular subjects have been published by the Befaqul Madarrisil for use in Quomi Madrassas, these are not approved by the government. The Bangla, English and History textbooks tell the stories of Jihad against Hindus and infidels - painted as the enemies of Islam. Some of the texts in history books are based on mythology or a biased interpretation of history and can poison young minds with communalism and hatred. In one such history book, Emperor Akbar is described as a heretic and allotted only a few paragraphs, while quite a few pages are devoted to Mujaddid Al-Fisani and his Jihad against Emperor Akbar. In none of the Bangla textbooks is there a single story or poem by a Hindu writer. Even Rabindranath Tagore, undisputedly the greatest of all Bengali writers and a Nobel laureate, has no place in any textbook! Young Quomi students are thus being exposed to blatant communalism. Prof. Kazi Nurul Islam, Head of Comparative Religion at Dhaka University said in an interview, “These Madrassas spread hatred. They teach that when someone from another religion dies, one should say in Arabic, 'Let this person be in hell for eternity'. Whereas our Prophet (SM) asked his companion to stand up and pay respect to a coffin of a Christian as it was being

4carried.”

Academic Environment in the Madrassas

Teaching practices in the Madrassas emphasise rote learning and conformity, and do not encourage critical thinking or analysis. Even at the highest level of Madrassa education there is no research; the door of 'Ijtihad' is shut. The depth of knowledge is judged by the number of Hadith and its sources one can memorise. Painting, sculpture, music, drama, and dance are forbidden in all Madrassas. Students in most Madrassas cannot watch TV, movies or even

Bangladesh Education Journal 13

3. Information gathered from Principal, Jamia Madania, Baridhara, a Quomi Madrassa in Dhaka.4. The Daily Prothom Alo, April 4, 2006, P-172. The Daily Prothom Alo, op cit, April 3, 2006

Alim (2 years). At this stage, students are streamed into two groups - Humanities and Science. Both groups have to concentrate on the Qur'an and Hadith, Islamic Law, Law of Inheritance, Arabic and Islamic History. The Humanities group studies Arabic and Persian in-depth and the Science group studies a number of natural science subjects.

Fazil (2 years). The students are again streamed into two groups - Humanities and Science. Like Dakhil, here too both groups have, in addition to common religious subjects, a number of secular subjects.

Kamil (2 years). This is the highest stage of Aliya Madrassa education. Here the students study only religious subjects. They specialise in different branches, such as: Hadith, Tafsir (Interpretation of the Qur'an), Islamic Jurisprudence and Arabic Literature.

In Bangladesh, Dakhil and Alim degrees from the Madrassa Board are recognised as equivalent to Secondary (SSC) and Higher Secondary (HSC) qualifications. Students passing examinations at these stages can get admitted into mainstream colleges and universities. The Madrassa students and teachers have demanded for some time that the government should recognise Fazil and Kamil Degrees as equivalent to BA and MA degrees. The BNP-led Coalition Government, at the fag end of its tenure in 2006, acceded to the demand of the Madrassa lobby despite strong arguments to the contrary from academics and educationists. Like many issues in Bangladesh, this too has taken on a political hue.

At the Ibtidaia stage, there is a relatively small difference in the course curriculum between Aliya and primary education, but as a student progresses in either stream the differences grow. Even a cursory look at the Madrassa curriculum and books vis-à-vis mainstream education shows that although a Madrassa student studies secular subjects, the depth of the content, contact hours in class and the marks allotted in exams are significantly less for these subjects than in the mainstream. An examination of the Bangla, English, History, Geography, Social Studies and General Science textbooks for Dakhil classes of the Madrassa Board and those published by the National Curriculum and Textbook Board shows that the depth and scope of the content in the latter were substantially greater for each grade. The fact is that the two streams cannot be compared; each stands on its own ground in respect of their academic and broader educational purposes. Fazil and Kamil are even more religion-centred and cannot be regarded as comparable to mainstream degrees from universities.

Curriculum of the Quomi Madrassa

Accurate information on Quomi Madrassas is not available through the government. Most of the Quomi Madrassas are of Deobandi tradition. “Befaqul Madarrisil Arabia Bangladesh”, more commonly known as the “Quomi Madrassa Board”, claims to represent the Quomi Madrassas in the country. In a petition to the government in 2006, the Board claimed to represent more than 15,000 Madrassas with about 132,000 teachers and 1,850,000 students

2across the country. It is difficult to verify the claim, but evidently the Quomi Madrassas have grown in a major way in Bangladesh.

12 Bangladesh Education Journal

There are seven stages of learning in a Quomi Madrassa. The pre-primary section of a Quomi Madrassa is known as Hifzul Qu'ran, or Qur'an memorizing section. Most students would spend 3-4 years memorizing the Qur'an. The students would then move to lbtidaia or primary. By then the student could read and write Arabic, Urdu and Persian, although most of it would be rote learning. At this stage the student is also taught some basic Bangla, English, Mathematics, and Islamic History. About ten years of schooling would lead a student to Mutawasita (Secondary School Certificate) and then to Sanubia Ulya (Higher Secondary Certificate) standard. By then the student would have a good knowledge of the Qur'an and its interpretations and commentaries, memorized hundreds of Hadith and their origins, studied Islamic Law and Jurisprudence, read Islamic philosophy, Islamic History, Logic and have studied a number of old classics in Arabic, Persian and Urdu. A very small proportion of students would move to the next higher stages of Fazeelat (graduation) and Taqmeel (post graduation). These students might become Muftis and Dawara Hadith who could give

3Fatwas or make judgements on disputes involving religious interpretations.

The Quomi Madrassa curriculum appears to be outdated even by 19th century standards. Students graduating from these Madrassas learn no modern skills and cannot be usefully employed other than in a Muslim religious institution. While some textbooks on secular subjects have been published by the Befaqul Madarrisil for use in Quomi Madrassas, these are not approved by the government. The Bangla, English and History textbooks tell the stories of Jihad against Hindus and infidels - painted as the enemies of Islam. Some of the texts in history books are based on mythology or a biased interpretation of history and can poison young minds with communalism and hatred. In one such history book, Emperor Akbar is described as a heretic and allotted only a few paragraphs, while quite a few pages are devoted to Mujaddid Al-Fisani and his Jihad against Emperor Akbar. In none of the Bangla textbooks is there a single story or poem by a Hindu writer. Even Rabindranath Tagore, undisputedly the greatest of all Bengali writers and a Nobel laureate, has no place in any textbook! Young Quomi students are thus being exposed to blatant communalism. Prof. Kazi Nurul Islam, Head of Comparative Religion at Dhaka University said in an interview, “These Madrassas spread hatred. They teach that when someone from another religion dies, one should say in Arabic, 'Let this person be in hell for eternity'. Whereas our Prophet (SM) asked his companion to stand up and pay respect to a coffin of a Christian as it was being

4carried.”

Academic Environment in the Madrassas

Teaching practices in the Madrassas emphasise rote learning and conformity, and do not encourage critical thinking or analysis. Even at the highest level of Madrassa education there is no research; the door of 'Ijtihad' is shut. The depth of knowledge is judged by the number of Hadith and its sources one can memorise. Painting, sculpture, music, drama, and dance are forbidden in all Madrassas. Students in most Madrassas cannot watch TV, movies or even

Bangladesh Education Journal 13

3. Information gathered from Principal, Jamia Madania, Baridhara, a Quomi Madrassa in Dhaka.4. The Daily Prothom Alo, April 4, 2006, P-172. The Daily Prothom Alo, op cit, April 3, 2006

listen to songs on the radio all being considered un-Islamic. The students can only sing Hamd (song praising Allah) and Naat (song praising the Prophet (SM)), and these without any musical accompaniment. Creative talents of the students are thus nipped in the bud. Life in a Quomi Madrassa is one endless cycle of chanting the scriptures, doing the daily chores, saying prayers, more chanting and so on. Sport activities are quite restricted because the students cannot wear pants or shorts and also most Madrassas cannot afford much sports facilities. Girls are barred from any sporting activities whatsoever. Students in Quomi Madrassas are not allowed to sit on chairs, wear western-style shirts and trousers or use cutlery.

The living areas and classrooms in most Madrassas are cramped and unhygienic. The teachers use coercive methods including corporal punishment to discipline the students. Cases of child abuse by the resident superintendent and others in the administration are often reported in the press. Many cases of child abuse or sexual harassment might go unreported because of the fear of reprisal from the authorities. The learning environment is so unfriendly, the teaching methodology so archaic, the books so dull, the print quality so poor, that there is little incentive for a child to be attracted to learning. It can, therefore, be concluded that neither the course content nor the academic environment in the Madrassa system is conducive for education.

Social Impact

Madrassa education has impacted Bangladesh society in many ways. The Calcutta Aliya Madrassa was instrumental in producing a good number of educated Muslim men who made contributions to various professional fields. Aliya students like Justice Syed Amir Ali helped raise Muslim consciousness in the sub-continent. “The Spirit of Islam”, his timeless classic, promoted greater understanding of Islam in the West. With a British Principal at its head and staunch support from the administration, the inroad to modern education could not be stopped. However, till the middle of the 20th century, the door for the Calcutta Aliya Madrassa was open to the children of the elites only; poor peasantry had no entry there.

Due to their inclination to reject everything 'western', the Quomi Madrassas in Bengal continued to represent a fossilised version of Islam that lacked vigour and strength. Yet these Madrassas brought some light of education to the poor rural children. Haji Muhammad Shariat Ullah, a Madrassa teacher, not only campaigned to rid Islam of un-Islamic practices and traditions, but he raised his voice against the oppressive measures of mostly Hindu Zamindars of Bengal whose tenants were mostly Muslim peasants. Madrassa education helped preserve and consolidate some of the Islamic traditions in Bengal which were on the verge of being lost due to colonial neglect and the Hindu majority's overwhelming social and economic influence. It can, therefore, be said that the Madrassas have provided an important service to the society in the past.

However, as society moved on, the Madrassas were unable to keep pace with the changing

III. Impact of Madrassa Education on Society and Politics

14 Bangladesh Education Journal

times. Madrassa educated youths became increasingly irrelevant in a technology-driven, fast-changing modern society. While the Aliya graduates saw some openings in the job market, those coming out of the Quomis had no other options but to be an Imam, a Muezzin or a teacher in a Madrassa. As a result, a very large number of mosques and Madrassas came into being in Bengal, quite unlike any other Muslim country.

Typical Bangladeshi village life was one of a mixture and synthesis of the Hindu and Muslim religion. The Muslim Sufi and the Hindu Baishnab traditions had much in common in their outlook on the world and the hereafter. The Madrassa educated Ulemas, especially the Deobandi and Ahle-e-Hadith variety, appeared to have been able to sow cleavages in the Bengali society. Their continuous attack on the Sufi traditions and other religious beliefs not only created a rift in the minds of the two largest communities of Bengal - Hindus and Muslims but it also created division and tension within the Muslim community. A recent movement by a group of Ulemas to declare the Ahmadiyas as non-Muslims is one such example. These Ulemas are dragging down the image of the country and the religion they represent on issues that are far removed from an ordinary citizen's concern.

The Ulemas have been especially hard on the women and the poor. Their view had always been that a woman's workplace is to be inside the home looking after her husband and children. Females are to be covered from head to toe and always to be in the custody of a male guardian. Madrassa education promotes the idea that women are inferior in intellect and are responsible for many of the ills that have befallen humankind. In recent past, Fatwas issued by Ulemas became quite common and the victims were always the poor village women. In a

5judgement on 31 December, 2002, the High Court of Bangladesh declared the issuing of Fatwas illegal and punishable under law. The Pro-Fatwa group moved to the Supreme Court and got a stay order on the verdict. As a result, Fatwa against females and the poor goes on unabated. On 25 March 2006, in a huge gathering of Quomi Madrassa students in Dhaka, one of the Islamic Party Chiefs, who was also in the Government Alliance, openly challenged the High Court verdict and declared that it was their right to issue Fatwa and that they would continue to do so. Declaring one a 'Murtaad' or heretic has been used as a ploy to throttle unorthodox or free thinking in Bangladesh. It was unknown in the past, but now poets, writers, philosophers and lawyers - whosoever challenges the religious establishment - might be declared a Murtaad, and the Ulemas would demand his or her death as punishment for apostasy.

The Madrassa lobby has been propagating against the NGOs, portraying them as agents of Christian Missionaries, out to destroy Islam by taking the females outside the perimeter of the home. Women have become the victims of tremendous religious pressure. They are under pressure to use the veil or face open censure and threats. The fact that many are succumbing to pressure is evident on the street where increasingly more women are in burqas or hijab. Bengali culture and heritage is also under increasing pressure. Observance of Bangla New Year, paying homage in the Shaheed Minar (memorial site for the martyrs of the Bengali Language Movement), singing and merrymaking during marriage or other social occasions,

Bangladesh Education Journal 15

5. http://www.banglarights.net/HTML/significantcases.htm retrieved on 12 April 2007

listen to songs on the radio all being considered un-Islamic. The students can only sing Hamd (song praising Allah) and Naat (song praising the Prophet (SM)), and these without any musical accompaniment. Creative talents of the students are thus nipped in the bud. Life in a Quomi Madrassa is one endless cycle of chanting the scriptures, doing the daily chores, saying prayers, more chanting and so on. Sport activities are quite restricted because the students cannot wear pants or shorts and also most Madrassas cannot afford much sports facilities. Girls are barred from any sporting activities whatsoever. Students in Quomi Madrassas are not allowed to sit on chairs, wear western-style shirts and trousers or use cutlery.

The living areas and classrooms in most Madrassas are cramped and unhygienic. The teachers use coercive methods including corporal punishment to discipline the students. Cases of child abuse by the resident superintendent and others in the administration are often reported in the press. Many cases of child abuse or sexual harassment might go unreported because of the fear of reprisal from the authorities. The learning environment is so unfriendly, the teaching methodology so archaic, the books so dull, the print quality so poor, that there is little incentive for a child to be attracted to learning. It can, therefore, be concluded that neither the course content nor the academic environment in the Madrassa system is conducive for education.

Social Impact

Madrassa education has impacted Bangladesh society in many ways. The Calcutta Aliya Madrassa was instrumental in producing a good number of educated Muslim men who made contributions to various professional fields. Aliya students like Justice Syed Amir Ali helped raise Muslim consciousness in the sub-continent. “The Spirit of Islam”, his timeless classic, promoted greater understanding of Islam in the West. With a British Principal at its head and staunch support from the administration, the inroad to modern education could not be stopped. However, till the middle of the 20th century, the door for the Calcutta Aliya Madrassa was open to the children of the elites only; poor peasantry had no entry there.

Due to their inclination to reject everything 'western', the Quomi Madrassas in Bengal continued to represent a fossilised version of Islam that lacked vigour and strength. Yet these Madrassas brought some light of education to the poor rural children. Haji Muhammad Shariat Ullah, a Madrassa teacher, not only campaigned to rid Islam of un-Islamic practices and traditions, but he raised his voice against the oppressive measures of mostly Hindu Zamindars of Bengal whose tenants were mostly Muslim peasants. Madrassa education helped preserve and consolidate some of the Islamic traditions in Bengal which were on the verge of being lost due to colonial neglect and the Hindu majority's overwhelming social and economic influence. It can, therefore, be said that the Madrassas have provided an important service to the society in the past.

However, as society moved on, the Madrassas were unable to keep pace with the changing

III. Impact of Madrassa Education on Society and Politics

14 Bangladesh Education Journal

times. Madrassa educated youths became increasingly irrelevant in a technology-driven, fast-changing modern society. While the Aliya graduates saw some openings in the job market, those coming out of the Quomis had no other options but to be an Imam, a Muezzin or a teacher in a Madrassa. As a result, a very large number of mosques and Madrassas came into being in Bengal, quite unlike any other Muslim country.

Typical Bangladeshi village life was one of a mixture and synthesis of the Hindu and Muslim religion. The Muslim Sufi and the Hindu Baishnab traditions had much in common in their outlook on the world and the hereafter. The Madrassa educated Ulemas, especially the Deobandi and Ahle-e-Hadith variety, appeared to have been able to sow cleavages in the Bengali society. Their continuous attack on the Sufi traditions and other religious beliefs not only created a rift in the minds of the two largest communities of Bengal - Hindus and Muslims but it also created division and tension within the Muslim community. A recent movement by a group of Ulemas to declare the Ahmadiyas as non-Muslims is one such example. These Ulemas are dragging down the image of the country and the religion they represent on issues that are far removed from an ordinary citizen's concern.

The Ulemas have been especially hard on the women and the poor. Their view had always been that a woman's workplace is to be inside the home looking after her husband and children. Females are to be covered from head to toe and always to be in the custody of a male guardian. Madrassa education promotes the idea that women are inferior in intellect and are responsible for many of the ills that have befallen humankind. In recent past, Fatwas issued by Ulemas became quite common and the victims were always the poor village women. In a

5judgement on 31 December, 2002, the High Court of Bangladesh declared the issuing of Fatwas illegal and punishable under law. The Pro-Fatwa group moved to the Supreme Court and got a stay order on the verdict. As a result, Fatwa against females and the poor goes on unabated. On 25 March 2006, in a huge gathering of Quomi Madrassa students in Dhaka, one of the Islamic Party Chiefs, who was also in the Government Alliance, openly challenged the High Court verdict and declared that it was their right to issue Fatwa and that they would continue to do so. Declaring one a 'Murtaad' or heretic has been used as a ploy to throttle unorthodox or free thinking in Bangladesh. It was unknown in the past, but now poets, writers, philosophers and lawyers - whosoever challenges the religious establishment - might be declared a Murtaad, and the Ulemas would demand his or her death as punishment for apostasy.

The Madrassa lobby has been propagating against the NGOs, portraying them as agents of Christian Missionaries, out to destroy Islam by taking the females outside the perimeter of the home. Women have become the victims of tremendous religious pressure. They are under pressure to use the veil or face open censure and threats. The fact that many are succumbing to pressure is evident on the street where increasingly more women are in burqas or hijab. Bengali culture and heritage is also under increasing pressure. Observance of Bangla New Year, paying homage in the Shaheed Minar (memorial site for the martyrs of the Bengali Language Movement), singing and merrymaking during marriage or other social occasions,

Bangladesh Education Journal 15

5. http://www.banglarights.net/HTML/significantcases.htm retrieved on 12 April 2007

drawing of Alpana (traditional decorative drawing on floor or walls of a house ) all these attract flak from the Ulemas.

Political Impact

As the number of Madrassas kept rising, so did their influence. A big boost came at the time of the government under President Ershad (1981-90). Lacking a popular base, he used Islam as a political tool. The Head of the Madrassa Teachers' Association, a person with a murky past, was inducted as the Religious Affairs Minister. The Dakhil and Alim courses were pronounced as equivalent of the SSC and HSC credentials mainly to please the Madrassa lobby. There was a large increase in the number of Madrassas and public budgetary allocations for them. Subsequent governments found it expedient to continue with the trend. The chart below shows that the government continues to spend as a political expediency more per capita on the Madrassa student than on the equivalent mainstream student.

16 Bangladesh Education Journal

Source: BANBEIS (www.banbeis.gov.bd)

It should be noted that there are only three government madrassas in the country, which benefited the most from government budget allocation, compared to several hundred government school and colleges. On the whole, it is evident that per student public expenditure in madrassas was higher than in comparable secular institutions.

There has been a kind of invidious discrimination between mainstream and Madrassa students in conducting SSC and HSC vis-à-vis Dakhil and Alim examinations. The chart below shows how wide the difference has been in the pass rates. One Madrassa Examination Board in the country conducts the terminal Dakhil and Alim (equivalent to SSC and HSC in the mainstream) examinations. On the other hand, six boards, one in each division, conduct SSC and HSC examinations. The pass rates for the Madrassa Board have been consistently and substantially higher than in the other boards. The better results of Madrassa students cannot reasonably be attributed to better standards of education in Madrassas or stronger intellectual capabilities of Madrassa students.

Bangladesh Education Journal 17

Expenditure Per Student Per Year

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

1990-91 1994-95 1999-2000 2000-01

Ta

ka

Govt. SecondarySchool

Non-Govt. College

Govt College

Govt. Madrassa

Non-Govt Madrassa

Non-Govt.Secondary School

Rate of Passing in Public Examinations

0

102030405060708090

100

Per

cen

tag

e

1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

SSC Dakhil HSC Alim

Source: Bangladesh Year Book 2005, Bureau of Statistic, p.357

Madrassa students, same as the students of secular institutions, have been subject to the influence of the student fronts of national political parties. While the Aliya Madrassas have been generally under the control of Islami Chhatra Shibir (ICS), or the Islamic Student Camp, the student wing of the Jamat-e-Islami, the Quomi ones were tied with various smaller Islamic parties such as Islamic Oikyo Jote (Islamic Unity Front) or Islamic Shashontantra Andolon (Islamic Constitution Movement). ICS is the most well-organised and disciplined student party in Bangladesh today. They now control a number of major public universities, besides many colleges and almost all the Aliya Madrassas. From a humble beginning in 1975, the Islamic student organisations have gained great strength in recent decades. The Islamic parties also have become stronger, and for the first time in the history of Bangladesh, the Islamic Parties joined in a coalition to form the government after the general election in 2001.

Madrassa Education and the Rise of Religious Extremism

The rise of religious extremism has paralleled the growth of Madrassa education in the country. Some of the extremist trends have already been noted above. When the Taliban came to power in Afghanistan in 1996, they were heroes to the Madrassa students in Bangladesh. The favoured slogan among them was: “We all want to be Taliban, Bangla will be Afghan.” After 9/11, there were large demonstrations showing support for the carnage, mostly by Madrassa students, with toy machine guns and picture of Osama bin Laden. Meanwhile, violent attacks on institutions or individuals who differed from the Islamist viewpoint had already started. First was the bombing of a musical programme by Udichi (a cultural organization devoted to promoting the Bengali cultural tradition) in Jessore on March 6, 1999. Since then, there have been a series of bomb attacks on Mazars (tombs of

drawing of Alpana (traditional decorative drawing on floor or walls of a house ) all these attract flak from the Ulemas.

Political Impact

As the number of Madrassas kept rising, so did their influence. A big boost came at the time of the government under President Ershad (1981-90). Lacking a popular base, he used Islam as a political tool. The Head of the Madrassa Teachers' Association, a person with a murky past, was inducted as the Religious Affairs Minister. The Dakhil and Alim courses were pronounced as equivalent of the SSC and HSC credentials mainly to please the Madrassa lobby. There was a large increase in the number of Madrassas and public budgetary allocations for them. Subsequent governments found it expedient to continue with the trend. The chart below shows that the government continues to spend as a political expediency more per capita on the Madrassa student than on the equivalent mainstream student.

16 Bangladesh Education Journal

Source: BANBEIS (www.banbeis.gov.bd)

It should be noted that there are only three government madrassas in the country, which benefited the most from government budget allocation, compared to several hundred government school and colleges. On the whole, it is evident that per student public expenditure in madrassas was higher than in comparable secular institutions.

There has been a kind of invidious discrimination between mainstream and Madrassa students in conducting SSC and HSC vis-à-vis Dakhil and Alim examinations. The chart below shows how wide the difference has been in the pass rates. One Madrassa Examination Board in the country conducts the terminal Dakhil and Alim (equivalent to SSC and HSC in the mainstream) examinations. On the other hand, six boards, one in each division, conduct SSC and HSC examinations. The pass rates for the Madrassa Board have been consistently and substantially higher than in the other boards. The better results of Madrassa students cannot reasonably be attributed to better standards of education in Madrassas or stronger intellectual capabilities of Madrassa students.

Bangladesh Education Journal 17

Expenditure Per Student Per Year

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

1990-91 1994-95 1999-2000 2000-01

Ta

ka

Govt. SecondarySchool

Non-Govt. College

Govt College

Govt. Madrassa

Non-Govt Madrassa

Non-Govt.Secondary School

Rate of Passing in Public Examinations

0

102030405060708090

100

Per

cen

tag

e

1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

SSC Dakhil HSC Alim

Source: Bangladesh Year Book 2005, Bureau of Statistic, p.357

Madrassa students, same as the students of secular institutions, have been subject to the influence of the student fronts of national political parties. While the Aliya Madrassas have been generally under the control of Islami Chhatra Shibir (ICS), or the Islamic Student Camp, the student wing of the Jamat-e-Islami, the Quomi ones were tied with various smaller Islamic parties such as Islamic Oikyo Jote (Islamic Unity Front) or Islamic Shashontantra Andolon (Islamic Constitution Movement). ICS is the most well-organised and disciplined student party in Bangladesh today. They now control a number of major public universities, besides many colleges and almost all the Aliya Madrassas. From a humble beginning in 1975, the Islamic student organisations have gained great strength in recent decades. The Islamic parties also have become stronger, and for the first time in the history of Bangladesh, the Islamic Parties joined in a coalition to form the government after the general election in 2001.

Madrassa Education and the Rise of Religious Extremism

The rise of religious extremism has paralleled the growth of Madrassa education in the country. Some of the extremist trends have already been noted above. When the Taliban came to power in Afghanistan in 1996, they were heroes to the Madrassa students in Bangladesh. The favoured slogan among them was: “We all want to be Taliban, Bangla will be Afghan.” After 9/11, there were large demonstrations showing support for the carnage, mostly by Madrassa students, with toy machine guns and picture of Osama bin Laden. Meanwhile, violent attacks on institutions or individuals who differed from the Islamist viewpoint had already started. First was the bombing of a musical programme by Udichi (a cultural organization devoted to promoting the Bengali cultural tradition) in Jessore on March 6, 1999. Since then, there have been a series of bomb attacks on Mazars (tombs of

18 Bangladesh Education Journal

saints), cinema halls, circus shows, Bangla New Year celebrations and opposition political rallies that killed hundreds and injured many more. Fingers were pointed towards the religious extremists, but the government of the day blamed it on the opposition or foreign agents working in the country.

However, the spate of bombings on 17 August 2005, when improvised explosive devices burst in 63 locations in the country almost simultaneously, and a suicide bombing in a courthouse a few days later, made it difficult to ignore the pattern of extremism. It became clear that JMB had recruited as suicide bombers mostly poor Madrassa students, incited a state of religious frenzy among them, and convinced them that to kill themselves and other fellow humans was a divine duty.

The massive police action that followed the simultaneous bomb blasts netted many terrorists, yet there remained many unanswered questions as to how the group could organize and plan such coordinated attacks with impunity. Could there be other players beyond the reach of the law-enforcement agencies? As reported in the press, many of the JMB activists and leaders were at one time or another involved in mainstream Islamic

6political parties and then formed splinter groups. While the rank and file of the JMB was composed of students of various Quomi Madrassas, the leadership and ideological inspiration came from the Islamic political parties.

Reform of Madrassa Education

The history of Madrassa education is replete with attempts to bring about reform in its curriculum since the British period. A major reform was initiated in 1851 by dividing the Academic section of the Calcutta Aliya Madrassa into Arabic Section and Anglo-Persian Section (Sattar 2004,138). The next major reform was initiated in 1882 under the chairmanship of W.W. Hunter, a noted educationist and writer (Sattar 2004, p.153). The Commission, which had as its Muslim members, Justice Amir Ali and Nawab Abdul Latif, recommended compulsory teaching of English language in all Madrassas. There were three other major efforts in 1908, 1921 and 1946. There was a gradual modernisation of the Aliya system of education in Bengal and it was reflected in a larger number of Aliya educated Muslim youth joining the mainstream education system. However, throughout the whole period, the Quomi system remained untouched. In 1959, the government of Pakistan formed a National Education Commission generally known as the “Sharif Commission” (Sattar 2004, p.239). The Commission strongly criticised the existing religious education system in the country as outdated and out-of-step with changing times. It proposed a series of measures to modernise Madrassa education and bring it closer to the mainstream education system. It proposed that the Islamic Studies Department in the Universities produce scholars to do research and develop Islamic knowledge.

The first National Education Commission in Bangladesh, headed by Dr. Qudrat-i-Khuda, was formed in July 1972 (Sattar 2004, p.259). In 1974, the Commission recommended

Bangladesh Education Journal 19

6. The Daily Prothom Alo, April 7, 2006, op cit, p-2

uniform, free and compulsory primary education of 8-years' duration. It recommended Bangla to be the medium of instruction at all levels of education. Anyone wishing to pursue Madrassa education could do so after the 8th grade, according to the Commission. The implementation of this report would have brought about a major qualitative shift in Madrassa education, but the report was largely shelved after the assassination of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, founder of Bangladesh, in August 1975 and the military coup d'etat.

In 1978, the Dakhil (9th-10th) and Alim (11th12th) classes were divided into two streams, namely, Humanities and Science. As mentioned earlier, the courses were declared equal to SSC and HSC, and the students could shift to the mainstream education after these public examinations. It became a routine in Bangladesh to set up an Education Commission by a new regime soon after assuming power, but the Commission reports were never fully acted upon. The last commission to make recommendations on Madrassa education was the Maniruzaaman Commission in 2003. The recommendations reflected the increasing influence of the Madrassa Lobby. This Commission was silent on Quomi Madrassas. Some of its key recommendations were (Government of Bangladesh 2003, p.279):

a. Nationalisation of Ibtidaia Madrassas in the same proportion as the primary schools.

b. Introduction of the same textbooks in Bangla, English and Mathematics in Ibtidaia Madrassas as in primary schools.

c. Provision of the same facilities to the teachers and students in the Ibtidaia Madrassas as in the primary schools.

d. Fazil and Kamil stages to be declared equivalent to the mainstream BA and MA respectively.

e. Establishment of a separate affiliating university to handle the Madrassas.

f. Establishment of a Madrassa Teachers Training College.

g. Setting up of a separate Madrassa Textbook Board.

h. Setting up of a Bangladesh Civil Service (Madrassa) cadre (similar to Bangladesh Civil Service education cadre for employment in government education institutions in the mainstream).

i. Setting up of a government Madrassa in each of 64 districts (compared to currently existing three government Madrassas).

j. Stopping co-education in all Madrassas after 6th grade and setting up of separate girls' Madrassas.

If one views these recommendations in the light of the Qudrat-i-Khuda Commission Report, one can discern the direction Bangladesh seems to be taking. Instead of a unified primary education system as recommended in 1974, multiple systems of primary and secondary education have become institutionalized. The recommendation for common textbooks for the primary and the Ibtidaia stage appears to be contradicted by the recommendation for a

18 Bangladesh Education Journal

saints), cinema halls, circus shows, Bangla New Year celebrations and opposition political rallies that killed hundreds and injured many more. Fingers were pointed towards the religious extremists, but the government of the day blamed it on the opposition or foreign agents working in the country.

However, the spate of bombings on 17 August 2005, when improvised explosive devices burst in 63 locations in the country almost simultaneously, and a suicide bombing in a courthouse a few days later, made it difficult to ignore the pattern of extremism. It became clear that JMB had recruited as suicide bombers mostly poor Madrassa students, incited a state of religious frenzy among them, and convinced them that to kill themselves and other fellow humans was a divine duty.

The massive police action that followed the simultaneous bomb blasts netted many terrorists, yet there remained many unanswered questions as to how the group could organize and plan such coordinated attacks with impunity. Could there be other players beyond the reach of the law-enforcement agencies? As reported in the press, many of the JMB activists and leaders were at one time or another involved in mainstream Islamic

6political parties and then formed splinter groups. While the rank and file of the JMB was composed of students of various Quomi Madrassas, the leadership and ideological inspiration came from the Islamic political parties.

Reform of Madrassa Education

The history of Madrassa education is replete with attempts to bring about reform in its curriculum since the British period. A major reform was initiated in 1851 by dividing the Academic section of the Calcutta Aliya Madrassa into Arabic Section and Anglo-Persian Section (Sattar 2004,138). The next major reform was initiated in 1882 under the chairmanship of W.W. Hunter, a noted educationist and writer (Sattar 2004, p.153). The Commission, which had as its Muslim members, Justice Amir Ali and Nawab Abdul Latif, recommended compulsory teaching of English language in all Madrassas. There were three other major efforts in 1908, 1921 and 1946. There was a gradual modernisation of the Aliya system of education in Bengal and it was reflected in a larger number of Aliya educated Muslim youth joining the mainstream education system. However, throughout the whole period, the Quomi system remained untouched. In 1959, the government of Pakistan formed a National Education Commission generally known as the “Sharif Commission” (Sattar 2004, p.239). The Commission strongly criticised the existing religious education system in the country as outdated and out-of-step with changing times. It proposed a series of measures to modernise Madrassa education and bring it closer to the mainstream education system. It proposed that the Islamic Studies Department in the Universities produce scholars to do research and develop Islamic knowledge.

The first National Education Commission in Bangladesh, headed by Dr. Qudrat-i-Khuda, was formed in July 1972 (Sattar 2004, p.259). In 1974, the Commission recommended

Bangladesh Education Journal 19

6. The Daily Prothom Alo, April 7, 2006, op cit, p-2

uniform, free and compulsory primary education of 8-years' duration. It recommended Bangla to be the medium of instruction at all levels of education. Anyone wishing to pursue Madrassa education could do so after the 8th grade, according to the Commission. The implementation of this report would have brought about a major qualitative shift in Madrassa education, but the report was largely shelved after the assassination of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, founder of Bangladesh, in August 1975 and the military coup d'etat.

In 1978, the Dakhil (9th-10th) and Alim (11th12th) classes were divided into two streams, namely, Humanities and Science. As mentioned earlier, the courses were declared equal to SSC and HSC, and the students could shift to the mainstream education after these public examinations. It became a routine in Bangladesh to set up an Education Commission by a new regime soon after assuming power, but the Commission reports were never fully acted upon. The last commission to make recommendations on Madrassa education was the Maniruzaaman Commission in 2003. The recommendations reflected the increasing influence of the Madrassa Lobby. This Commission was silent on Quomi Madrassas. Some of its key recommendations were (Government of Bangladesh 2003, p.279):

a. Nationalisation of Ibtidaia Madrassas in the same proportion as the primary schools.

b. Introduction of the same textbooks in Bangla, English and Mathematics in Ibtidaia Madrassas as in primary schools.

c. Provision of the same facilities to the teachers and students in the Ibtidaia Madrassas as in the primary schools.

d. Fazil and Kamil stages to be declared equivalent to the mainstream BA and MA respectively.

e. Establishment of a separate affiliating university to handle the Madrassas.

f. Establishment of a Madrassa Teachers Training College.

g. Setting up of a separate Madrassa Textbook Board.

h. Setting up of a Bangladesh Civil Service (Madrassa) cadre (similar to Bangladesh Civil Service education cadre for employment in government education institutions in the mainstream).

i. Setting up of a government Madrassa in each of 64 districts (compared to currently existing three government Madrassas).

j. Stopping co-education in all Madrassas after 6th grade and setting up of separate girls' Madrassas.

If one views these recommendations in the light of the Qudrat-i-Khuda Commission Report, one can discern the direction Bangladesh seems to be taking. Instead of a unified primary education system as recommended in 1974, multiple systems of primary and secondary education have become institutionalized. The recommendation for common textbooks for the primary and the Ibtidaia stage appears to be contradicted by the recommendation for a

20 Bangladesh Education Journal

separate Madrassa Textbook Board. Separate Teachers' Training Colleges for Madrassas and the proposal to create a BCS (Madrassa) Cadre or to open government Madrassas in each district can be seen as an attempt to promote the prominence and distinctiveness of this system. It might be again noted that public expenses per student in a government Madrassa were already higher than at the government colleges or schools.

IV. Conclusion and Recommendations

Although Madrassas were meant to produce educated Muslim youth to provide leadership to the community, it could not do so because of the antiquated academic curriculum and educational practices. Educationists have often argued that Madrassa education needs to be modernised so that it can keep pace with the fast-changing world. Within the Madrassa system, the Aliya Madrassas changed somewhat with time because of government supervision and control, but thousands of Quomi Madrassas remained rooted to a syllabus that is totally outdated.

The Madrassa culture appears to have become a force for retarding social progress in Bangladesh, especially on issues such as female education, their participation in the workforce, and the free movement of women. The Madrassa Lobby has taken a negative stand on these and other similar issues regarding the position of women in society. Similarly, the Madrassa community (students, teachers and their protagonists) has often taken a negative position on the cultivation and promotion of Bengali culture and traditions, which are viewed as anti-Islamic by the orthodox Islamic leaders.

The rise of religious extremism, including violence in the name of religion, has made it an imperative to take a closer look at what is being taught in the Madrassas, how they are managed and who their products are. The recommendations made in the past regarding modernisation of the Madrassa curriculum and improvement of pedagogical practices have been mostly rhetorical. It appears that the political forces in the country have found it expedient not to take serious steps to reform the Madrassas, and have continued to ignore the growth of the Quomi Madrassas. They have generally appeased the Madrassa Lobby by yielding to its political demands.

As indicated earlier, various ideas have been put forward to modernise, improve and adapt Madrassa education to the needs of a modern society. These included:

a. Common curriculum and textbooks for core content areas; more modern content such as science, math, Bangla and English; discarding content spreading religious chauvinism, intolerance and obscurantism.

b. Quality control and quality improvement in Madrassas through registration of all institutions, and enforcement of standards and criteria for educational service provisions in the country.

c. Giving students genuine options by improving access to quality primary and secondary education; combining vocational training with Madrassa education and expanding

Bangladesh Education Journal 21

vocational and technical education opportunities for young people completing secondary level education, both from the Madrassas and secular schools.

d. Improving public examinations in the education system as a whole to establish their reliability and validity; establishing comparability of standards in methods of assessment when equivalence between Madrassa and secular education is demanded.

These reforms and development in Madrassa education can be accomplished only by creating public opinion favourable to reform and generating political will for this purpose. The Madrassa community itself needs to accept that such change is in its larger interest. Public debate and nationwide dialogue need to be encouraged about how best to integrate the Madrassas, including the Quomi Madrassas, into the national education system.

References

1. Anzar, U. (2003). “Islamic Education: A Brief History of Madrassas with Comments on Curricula and Current Pedagogical Practices.” Doctoral thesis, http://www.uvm.edu/ %7Eenvprog/madrassah/madrassah-history.pdf. Retrieved on 15 January 2007.

2. Azher, S. (2001). An Islamic Philosophy of Education and its Role in Bangladesh Education. Dhaka: Hakkani Publishers.

3. BANBEIS (Various Years). Education Database. www.banbeis.gov.bd.

4. Government of Bangladesh (2003). National Education Commission Report 2003. Dhaka: Ministry of Education.

5. Government of Bangladesh (2005). Bangladesh Yearbook 2005. Dhaka: Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics.

6. Government of Bangladesh Ministry of Finance (2005). Bangladesh Economic Review 2005, published by Economic Advisor's Wing, Finance Division, Ministry of Finance, June 2005. Dhaka: Ministry of Finance.

7. Prothom Alo (2006). Investigative Report Series on the Quomi Madrssa in Prothom Alo, Bangla daily, April 3-7, 2006, Dhaka.

8. Sattar, A. (1980). Aliya Madrashar Itihas. ( History of Alia Madrassas, in Bangla, trans. M. Haroon). Dhaka: Islamic Foundation Bangladesh.

9. Sattar, M.A. (2004) Bangladeshe Madrassa Shiksha o Shamaj Jibone Taar Probhab, (Madrassa Education and Its Influence on Society in Bangladesh, in Bangla). Dhaka: Islamic Foundation Bangladesh.

References used for background research

1. Ahmad, M. (2002). “Madrassa Education in Pakistan and Bangladesh,” a paper presented in a conference at the Asia-Pacific Centre for Security Studies, Honolulu, August 19-22, 2002. www. apcss.org/ retrieved on 5 January 2007.

20 Bangladesh Education Journal

separate Madrassa Textbook Board. Separate Teachers' Training Colleges for Madrassas and the proposal to create a BCS (Madrassa) Cadre or to open government Madrassas in each district can be seen as an attempt to promote the prominence and distinctiveness of this system. It might be again noted that public expenses per student in a government Madrassa were already higher than at the government colleges or schools.

IV. Conclusion and Recommendations

Although Madrassas were meant to produce educated Muslim youth to provide leadership to the community, it could not do so because of the antiquated academic curriculum and educational practices. Educationists have often argued that Madrassa education needs to be modernised so that it can keep pace with the fast-changing world. Within the Madrassa system, the Aliya Madrassas changed somewhat with time because of government supervision and control, but thousands of Quomi Madrassas remained rooted to a syllabus that is totally outdated.

The Madrassa culture appears to have become a force for retarding social progress in Bangladesh, especially on issues such as female education, their participation in the workforce, and the free movement of women. The Madrassa Lobby has taken a negative stand on these and other similar issues regarding the position of women in society. Similarly, the Madrassa community (students, teachers and their protagonists) has often taken a negative position on the cultivation and promotion of Bengali culture and traditions, which are viewed as anti-Islamic by the orthodox Islamic leaders.

The rise of religious extremism, including violence in the name of religion, has made it an imperative to take a closer look at what is being taught in the Madrassas, how they are managed and who their products are. The recommendations made in the past regarding modernisation of the Madrassa curriculum and improvement of pedagogical practices have been mostly rhetorical. It appears that the political forces in the country have found it expedient not to take serious steps to reform the Madrassas, and have continued to ignore the growth of the Quomi Madrassas. They have generally appeased the Madrassa Lobby by yielding to its political demands.

As indicated earlier, various ideas have been put forward to modernise, improve and adapt Madrassa education to the needs of a modern society. These included:

a. Common curriculum and textbooks for core content areas; more modern content such as science, math, Bangla and English; discarding content spreading religious chauvinism, intolerance and obscurantism.

b. Quality control and quality improvement in Madrassas through registration of all institutions, and enforcement of standards and criteria for educational service provisions in the country.

c. Giving students genuine options by improving access to quality primary and secondary education; combining vocational training with Madrassa education and expanding

Bangladesh Education Journal 21

vocational and technical education opportunities for young people completing secondary level education, both from the Madrassas and secular schools.

d. Improving public examinations in the education system as a whole to establish their reliability and validity; establishing comparability of standards in methods of assessment when equivalence between Madrassa and secular education is demanded.

These reforms and development in Madrassa education can be accomplished only by creating public opinion favourable to reform and generating political will for this purpose. The Madrassa community itself needs to accept that such change is in its larger interest. Public debate and nationwide dialogue need to be encouraged about how best to integrate the Madrassas, including the Quomi Madrassas, into the national education system.

References

1. Anzar, U. (2003). “Islamic Education: A Brief History of Madrassas with Comments on Curricula and Current Pedagogical Practices.” Doctoral thesis, http://www.uvm.edu/ %7Eenvprog/madrassah/madrassah-history.pdf. Retrieved on 15 January 2007.

2. Azher, S. (2001). An Islamic Philosophy of Education and its Role in Bangladesh Education. Dhaka: Hakkani Publishers.

3. BANBEIS (Various Years). Education Database. www.banbeis.gov.bd.

4. Government of Bangladesh (2003). National Education Commission Report 2003. Dhaka: Ministry of Education.

5. Government of Bangladesh (2005). Bangladesh Yearbook 2005. Dhaka: Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics.

6. Government of Bangladesh Ministry of Finance (2005). Bangladesh Economic Review 2005, published by Economic Advisor's Wing, Finance Division, Ministry of Finance, June 2005. Dhaka: Ministry of Finance.

7. Prothom Alo (2006). Investigative Report Series on the Quomi Madrssa in Prothom Alo, Bangla daily, April 3-7, 2006, Dhaka.

8. Sattar, A. (1980). Aliya Madrashar Itihas. ( History of Alia Madrassas, in Bangla, trans. M. Haroon). Dhaka: Islamic Foundation Bangladesh.

9. Sattar, M.A. (2004) Bangladeshe Madrassa Shiksha o Shamaj Jibone Taar Probhab, (Madrassa Education and Its Influence on Society in Bangladesh, in Bangla). Dhaka: Islamic Foundation Bangladesh.

References used for background research

1. Ahmad, M. (2002). “Madrassa Education in Pakistan and Bangladesh,” a paper presented in a conference at the Asia-Pacific Centre for Security Studies, Honolulu, August 19-22, 2002. www. apcss.org/ retrieved on 5 January 2007.

22 Bangladesh Education Journal

2. Bangladesh Nari Progoti Sangstha (1997). Madrassa Education in Bangladesh: Background, Present Scenario and the Position of Women. Dhaka.

3. Haqqani, H. ( 2002). “Islam's Medieval Outposts,” Foreign Policy Magazine. http://www.husainhaqqani.com/reforming/journal%20articles/1/1.htm. Retrieved 14 February 2007.

4. Haqqani, H. (2004a). “Madrassas: Knowledge or the 'shade of swords'”. Foreign Policy Magazine, http://www.husainhaqqani.com/reforming/journal%20articles/1/1.htm. Retrieved on 10 February 2007.

5. Haqqani, H. (2004b) “Islam in South Asia: Implications for U.S. Policy”. http://carnegieendowment.org/publications/index. Retrieved on 2 February 2007.

6. Iqbal, N. (2002) “Medievalism and Pakistan's Madrassas.” www.atimes.com/atimes/ South_Asia/DH29Df05.html retrieved on 12 March 2007.

7. Khan, S. (2003). “Bangladesh Launches Refresher Course for Islamic Schools.” http://southasia.oneworld.net/article/view/66855/1/. Retrieved on 12 July 2007.

8. Mir, A. (2005). “Schooling for Terror.” South Asia Terrorism Portal, March 16, 2005. http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/sair/Archives/3_35.htm, retrieved on 01 May 2007.

9. People's Democracy [Weekly Organ of the Communist Party of India] (2002). “Madrassa Education: Present Scenario and Muslim Community,” March 10, 2002. http://pd.cpim.org/2002/march10/03102002_madrasas.htm. Retrieved on 1 March 2007.

10. Sultana, A. (2003). “Madrassas in India,” IPCS, Issue Brief, November 2003. ipcs.org/newIpcsPublications.jsp. Retrieved on 7 March 2007.

The “Unitrack” Curriculum for Grades 9-10: Rationale and Development

*Mohammed Zakir Hossain

* Curriculum Specialist, National Curriculum and Textbook Board (NCTB), Dhaka

[Editor's Note: This paper describes the process followed in reforming the secondary school curriculum for grades 9 and 10 in Bangladesh. The reform aimed to replace the three streams of science, humanities and business with one unified common programme of studies known as the “unitrack” curriculum. The change was planned to be effective from 2005, but vigorous objections were raised by teachers, parents and educationists about the proposed change. The objections related to various issues regarding the new curriculum itself and its proper implementation, namely, a) inadequate preparation at the school and the system level for the change, b) apprehension about how the reform would affect students and their later academic prospects, c) adopting what was seen by many as only a half-way measure towards a unified program, leaving out various types of secondary institutions such as the Madrassas, d) introducing change in the middle without adequately considering articulation of the content with the previous (grades 6-8) and later (grades 11-12) stages, and e) the structure of the new curriculum, such as giving the same weight to mathematics as to religious studies or not making information technology required for all. The government postponed the introduction of the unitrack curriculum and at the end of 2007 the proposed reform remains in abeyance until at least 2009.

This paper explains the steps followed to formulate the rationale, objectives and content of the unitrack curriculum. The first step was to review the prevailing curriculum prepared in 1995. The review and the subsequent activities were guided by a model of curriculum development that comprised five steps: (1) Need assessment and situation analysis (2) Design and development (3) Dissemination (4) Implementation and (5) Evaluation. The focus of the reform was on the introduction of a broad-based education for all students to prepare them better for future skill development and employment in a competitive global market. This was to be achieved by unifying three existing streams of general secondary education (the Multitrack Curriculum) into one stream of general education (the Unitrack Curriculum) up to grade 10. Attention was also to be given to reform in assessment of learning by introducing School Based Assessment (SBA) and improving the reliability and validity of the Secondary School Certificate (SSC) examination at the end of grade 10.

Although the introduction of the proposed reform was postponed, the process followed to formulate the curriculum reform and the questions about a relevant curriculum at the secondary level remain of interest. ]

22 Bangladesh Education Journal

2. Bangladesh Nari Progoti Sangstha (1997). Madrassa Education in Bangladesh: Background, Present Scenario and the Position of Women. Dhaka.

3. Haqqani, H. ( 2002). “Islam's Medieval Outposts,” Foreign Policy Magazine. http://www.husainhaqqani.com/reforming/journal%20articles/1/1.htm. Retrieved 14 February 2007.

4. Haqqani, H. (2004a). “Madrassas: Knowledge or the 'shade of swords'”. Foreign Policy Magazine, http://www.husainhaqqani.com/reforming/journal%20articles/1/1.htm. Retrieved on 10 February 2007.

5. Haqqani, H. (2004b) “Islam in South Asia: Implications for U.S. Policy”. http://carnegieendowment.org/publications/index. Retrieved on 2 February 2007.

6. Iqbal, N. (2002) “Medievalism and Pakistan's Madrassas.” www.atimes.com/atimes/ South_Asia/DH29Df05.html retrieved on 12 March 2007.

7. Khan, S. (2003). “Bangladesh Launches Refresher Course for Islamic Schools.” http://southasia.oneworld.net/article/view/66855/1/. Retrieved on 12 July 2007.

8. Mir, A. (2005). “Schooling for Terror.” South Asia Terrorism Portal, March 16, 2005. http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/sair/Archives/3_35.htm, retrieved on 01 May 2007.

9. People's Democracy [Weekly Organ of the Communist Party of India] (2002). “Madrassa Education: Present Scenario and Muslim Community,” March 10, 2002. http://pd.cpim.org/2002/march10/03102002_madrasas.htm. Retrieved on 1 March 2007.

10. Sultana, A. (2003). “Madrassas in India,” IPCS, Issue Brief, November 2003. ipcs.org/newIpcsPublications.jsp. Retrieved on 7 March 2007.

The “Unitrack” Curriculum for Grades 9-10: Rationale and Development

*Mohammed Zakir Hossain

* Curriculum Specialist, National Curriculum and Textbook Board (NCTB), Dhaka

[Editor's Note: This paper describes the process followed in reforming the secondary school curriculum for grades 9 and 10 in Bangladesh. The reform aimed to replace the three streams of science, humanities and business with one unified common programme of studies known as the “unitrack” curriculum. The change was planned to be effective from 2005, but vigorous objections were raised by teachers, parents and educationists about the proposed change. The objections related to various issues regarding the new curriculum itself and its proper implementation, namely, a) inadequate preparation at the school and the system level for the change, b) apprehension about how the reform would affect students and their later academic prospects, c) adopting what was seen by many as only a half-way measure towards a unified program, leaving out various types of secondary institutions such as the Madrassas, d) introducing change in the middle without adequately considering articulation of the content with the previous (grades 6-8) and later (grades 11-12) stages, and e) the structure of the new curriculum, such as giving the same weight to mathematics as to religious studies or not making information technology required for all. The government postponed the introduction of the unitrack curriculum and at the end of 2007 the proposed reform remains in abeyance until at least 2009.

This paper explains the steps followed to formulate the rationale, objectives and content of the unitrack curriculum. The first step was to review the prevailing curriculum prepared in 1995. The review and the subsequent activities were guided by a model of curriculum development that comprised five steps: (1) Need assessment and situation analysis (2) Design and development (3) Dissemination (4) Implementation and (5) Evaluation. The focus of the reform was on the introduction of a broad-based education for all students to prepare them better for future skill development and employment in a competitive global market. This was to be achieved by unifying three existing streams of general secondary education (the Multitrack Curriculum) into one stream of general education (the Unitrack Curriculum) up to grade 10. Attention was also to be given to reform in assessment of learning by introducing School Based Assessment (SBA) and improving the reliability and validity of the Secondary School Certificate (SSC) examination at the end of grade 10.

Although the introduction of the proposed reform was postponed, the process followed to formulate the curriculum reform and the questions about a relevant curriculum at the secondary level remain of interest. ]

I. Introduction

Bangladesh, a developing South Asian nation, is burdened by a large population with a high level of poverty. The state has to take major responsibility for the general education of the population. The secondary education system encompasses three broad categories: general education, Islamic education (popularly known as Madrassa education) and vocational and technical education. Most secondary schools in Bangladesh (about 98%) are government-aided, and managed under rules prescribed by the government and administered by a local managing committee. A small number of secondary schools (about 300 out of some 25,000, including the Madrassas) are wholly funded and managed by the government.

Secondary general education in Bangladesh has three stages. The junior secondary stage of three years consists of grades 6 to 8. It follows five years of primary education (grades 1 to 5 for the age group 6 to 11 years). Next comes two years of secondary education (grades 9-10), which is then followed by two years of higher secondary education (grades 11 and 12). The higher secondary stage is also called the pre-university level of education. From primary to junior secondary education, all students study the same core subjects. After completing junior secondary education, students can choose one of three specialization streams, namely, Humanities, Science and Business. This multitrack curriculum, as it is commonly known, was introduced in 1963 so that a student could start to specialize at an early age.

The school year starts in January and ends in December. Students sit for public examinations at the end of their secondary education and again at the end of their higher secondary education.

Background of the Study

The concept of curriculum is best understood by referring to its Latin root "currere" or "to run" as in to run a race course. To use an analogy, the curriculum is the course or the path that students have to run to finish the "race".

A dynamic curriculum is one that is reviewed regularly in keeping with the changes in society and the future needs of students. The last revision of the secondary curriculum occurred in 1995. Since then, many changes have taken place in people's lives and livelihoods both in Bangladesh and abroad. The secondary curriculum, therefore, needs to be revised and reformed to keep pace with the current and future needs of students.

For many students secondary education represents the final stage of education. These two years are very critical for many young people as they prepare to leave school and step into adult life. For a smaller but still significant number of students, however, secondary education is also a preparatory stage for higher secondary studies and for higher education. It is in this context that the Ministry of Education (MOE) issued a directive to the concerned departments to revise the 1995 secondary school curriculum for grades 9 and 10 (Ministry of Education 2003).

24 Bangladesh Education Journal

Purpose and Significance of the Study

The general objectives of this study are to explore the process followed in curriculum reform at the secondary level of general education for grades 9 and 10 in Bangladesh with the aim of shifting from a “multi-track” curriculum to a unified curriculum for these grades. The specific questions posed were:

1. What steps were followed in the curriculum reform process for grades 9 and 10?

2. What were the major issues intended to be addressed by the unitrack curriculum?

The findings of this study, it is expected, will inform education policy makers, curriculum developers, educationists, education researchers and teachers about:

l the steps and working procedures followed in the curriculum reform process

l the characteristics of the 1995 curriculum

l the rationale for introducing unified general education in grades 9 and 10

l key content areas of the core subjects in the unified curriculum

l presentation of the curriculum in a matrix format

l introduction of School Based Assessment (SBA) and the proposed changes in the SSC examination.

This is an empirical and analytical study. It draws on extensive analysis of documents, research reports, government directives, and papers presented in seminars and workshops. These documents include the 1995 junior secondary and secondary curriculum documents, curriculum evaluation and needs assessment studies, reports of stakeholders' workshops, government orders and directives issued by MOE, drafts of unitrack curriculum documents, and SESIP (Secondary Education Sector Improvement Project) documents and newsletters.

II. Curriculum-related Institutions and Processes

Main Organizations for Curriculum Development

In Bangladesh, the national curriculum from primary to higher secondary levels (grades 1 to 12) is developed centrally. In the curriculum reform work in 2002-2004 to formulate the grades 9-10 curriculum, the following organizations were involved.

i. The National Curriculum Coordination Committee (NCCC)

NCCC, the apex body for curricula attached to MOE, was given the mandate to oversee, develop guidelines and monitor the curriculum development process. NCCC has the authority to approve national curriculum from primary to higher secondary levels. The guidance provided by NCCC is followed by the National Curriculum and Textbook Board in its work.

Bangladesh Education Journal 25

I. Introduction

Bangladesh, a developing South Asian nation, is burdened by a large population with a high level of poverty. The state has to take major responsibility for the general education of the population. The secondary education system encompasses three broad categories: general education, Islamic education (popularly known as Madrassa education) and vocational and technical education. Most secondary schools in Bangladesh (about 98%) are government-aided, and managed under rules prescribed by the government and administered by a local managing committee. A small number of secondary schools (about 300 out of some 25,000, including the Madrassas) are wholly funded and managed by the government.

Secondary general education in Bangladesh has three stages. The junior secondary stage of three years consists of grades 6 to 8. It follows five years of primary education (grades 1 to 5 for the age group 6 to 11 years). Next comes two years of secondary education (grades 9-10), which is then followed by two years of higher secondary education (grades 11 and 12). The higher secondary stage is also called the pre-university level of education. From primary to junior secondary education, all students study the same core subjects. After completing junior secondary education, students can choose one of three specialization streams, namely, Humanities, Science and Business. This multitrack curriculum, as it is commonly known, was introduced in 1963 so that a student could start to specialize at an early age.

The school year starts in January and ends in December. Students sit for public examinations at the end of their secondary education and again at the end of their higher secondary education.

Background of the Study

The concept of curriculum is best understood by referring to its Latin root "currere" or "to run" as in to run a race course. To use an analogy, the curriculum is the course or the path that students have to run to finish the "race".

A dynamic curriculum is one that is reviewed regularly in keeping with the changes in society and the future needs of students. The last revision of the secondary curriculum occurred in 1995. Since then, many changes have taken place in people's lives and livelihoods both in Bangladesh and abroad. The secondary curriculum, therefore, needs to be revised and reformed to keep pace with the current and future needs of students.

For many students secondary education represents the final stage of education. These two years are very critical for many young people as they prepare to leave school and step into adult life. For a smaller but still significant number of students, however, secondary education is also a preparatory stage for higher secondary studies and for higher education. It is in this context that the Ministry of Education (MOE) issued a directive to the concerned departments to revise the 1995 secondary school curriculum for grades 9 and 10 (Ministry of Education 2003).

24 Bangladesh Education Journal

Purpose and Significance of the Study

The general objectives of this study are to explore the process followed in curriculum reform at the secondary level of general education for grades 9 and 10 in Bangladesh with the aim of shifting from a “multi-track” curriculum to a unified curriculum for these grades. The specific questions posed were:

1. What steps were followed in the curriculum reform process for grades 9 and 10?

2. What were the major issues intended to be addressed by the unitrack curriculum?

The findings of this study, it is expected, will inform education policy makers, curriculum developers, educationists, education researchers and teachers about:

l the steps and working procedures followed in the curriculum reform process

l the characteristics of the 1995 curriculum

l the rationale for introducing unified general education in grades 9 and 10

l key content areas of the core subjects in the unified curriculum

l presentation of the curriculum in a matrix format

l introduction of School Based Assessment (SBA) and the proposed changes in the SSC examination.

This is an empirical and analytical study. It draws on extensive analysis of documents, research reports, government directives, and papers presented in seminars and workshops. These documents include the 1995 junior secondary and secondary curriculum documents, curriculum evaluation and needs assessment studies, reports of stakeholders' workshops, government orders and directives issued by MOE, drafts of unitrack curriculum documents, and SESIP (Secondary Education Sector Improvement Project) documents and newsletters.

II. Curriculum-related Institutions and Processes

Main Organizations for Curriculum Development

In Bangladesh, the national curriculum from primary to higher secondary levels (grades 1 to 12) is developed centrally. In the curriculum reform work in 2002-2004 to formulate the grades 9-10 curriculum, the following organizations were involved.

i. The National Curriculum Coordination Committee (NCCC)

NCCC, the apex body for curricula attached to MOE, was given the mandate to oversee, develop guidelines and monitor the curriculum development process. NCCC has the authority to approve national curriculum from primary to higher secondary levels. The guidance provided by NCCC is followed by the National Curriculum and Textbook Board in its work.

Bangladesh Education Journal 25

ii. The National Curriculum and Textbook Board (NCTB)

Attached to the Ministry of Education, the National Curriculum and Textbook Board (NCTB) is responsible for the design and development of curriculum from grades 1 to 12 with guidance and policy directions received from NCCC.

iii. Secondary Education Sector Improvement Project (SESIP)

To help NCTB in curriculum development, the MOE, in association with the Asian Development Bank, initiated the Secondary Education Sector Improvement Project (SESIP). The project provided technical and financial support to NCTB in the reform process with the goal of “increasing the relevance of secondary education to the workforce” (Wahab 2003a, p.2).

Steps Followed in the Curriculum Reform Process

The following steps were followed in the curriculum reform process.

i. Curriculum evaluation, situational analysis and needs assessment

According to the directives of the MOE to reform the grades 9 and 10 curriculum, as a first step towards curriculum reform, SESIP, in collaboration with NCTB, conducted a curriculum evaluation, situational analysis and needs assessment study for the eight major subjects [Bangla, Economics, General Science, Social Science, Geography, Mathematics, Introduction to Business Studies, Geography] in the existing secondary education curriculum prepared in 1995.

The purpose of this study was to examine the characteristics of the current curriculum and ascertain the expectations and needs of the stakeholders as an essential preparatory work for curriculum reform (SESIP 2003a).

ii. Review of selected overseas curricula

An expert committee that included NCTB specialists and SESIP national and international consultants, extensively searched the Internet in order to review the curricula of some Asian countries (India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia and Japan), some European countries (France, Germany, the United Kingdom and the Netherlands), New Zealand and some states of Australia and the USA.

The purpose of this exercise was to identify the aims, objectives and the structure and organization of the secondary education curricula of the selected countries. This information was considered necessary to formulate the criteria and identify the key elements for revising and updating the aims, objectives and structure of the secondary education curriculum in Bangladesh (NCTB 2004a).

iii. Deciding on the unitrack curriculum

As agreed between the Ministry of Education (MOE) and the Asian Development Bank

26 Bangladesh Education Journal

(ADB) and recorded in the Aide Memoire at the end of the Mid Term Review of Secondary Education Sector Improvement Project in 2002, MOE issued an order for the unitrack curriculum to be introduced in grades 9 and 10 from 2005. The Education Secretary directed that a series of workshops be organized to orient key stakeholders (Ministry of Education 2003).

iv. Development of the curriculum structure

In line with the decision of the MOE on curriculum reform, NCCC formed an 8-member specialist technical sub-committee to develop the curriculum structure for the new 2004 Unitrack Curriculum. The Committee extensively reviewed the findings of the evaluation study of the 1995 curriculum, the desires and expectations of the stakeholders, the documentary analysis of the 1995 curriculum and the overseas curricula, and the National Education Policy 2000. The Committee also considered the employment market demands and the global environment. The Committee developed a structure for unified general education (2004 Unitrack Curriculum) to replace the three existing streams of general education (1995 Multitrack Curriculum). NCCC gave its approval to the Unitrack Curriculum structure recommended by the Committee.

v. Orientation workshops on the unitrack curriculum structure

SESIP, in collaboration with NCTB, organized five national orientation workshops on unitrack curriculum in Barisal, Chittagong, Jessore, Rajshahi, and Syllet from October to December, 2003. Participants included principals, assistant principals and assistant teachers of government and non-government schools, deputy directors of each zone under DSHE, (Directorate of Secondary and Higher Education), district education officers, members of school management committees, some selected parents, staff of Teachers' Training Colleges (TTC) and Higher Secondary Teacher Training Institutes (HSTTI), university teachers and journalists.

Opinions were collected on a range of issues including the rationale for unitrack curriculum, the advantages and disadvantages of unitrack curriculum, features of the proposed curriculum and its anticipated impact (SESIP 2004a).

vi. Formulating curriculum aims and objectives

A specialist committee formed by NCCC chalked out the general aims and objectives for the unitrack curriculum. The committee comprised curriculum specialists from SESIP and NCTB, national and international curriculum consultants from SESIP, faculty members from the Institute of Education and Research (IER) and prominent educationists. The committee was guided by the evaluation study of the 1995 curriculum, findings of the documents review of the 1995 curriculum and overseas curricula, the national philosophy of education stated in the national constitution, National Education Policy 2000, market demands and global issues. The aims and objectives drafted by the specialist committee were reviewed and refined through a workshop.

Bangladesh Education Journal 27

ii. The National Curriculum and Textbook Board (NCTB)

Attached to the Ministry of Education, the National Curriculum and Textbook Board (NCTB) is responsible for the design and development of curriculum from grades 1 to 12 with guidance and policy directions received from NCCC.

iii. Secondary Education Sector Improvement Project (SESIP)

To help NCTB in curriculum development, the MOE, in association with the Asian Development Bank, initiated the Secondary Education Sector Improvement Project (SESIP). The project provided technical and financial support to NCTB in the reform process with the goal of “increasing the relevance of secondary education to the workforce” (Wahab 2003a, p.2).

Steps Followed in the Curriculum Reform Process

The following steps were followed in the curriculum reform process.

i. Curriculum evaluation, situational analysis and needs assessment

According to the directives of the MOE to reform the grades 9 and 10 curriculum, as a first step towards curriculum reform, SESIP, in collaboration with NCTB, conducted a curriculum evaluation, situational analysis and needs assessment study for the eight major subjects [Bangla, Economics, General Science, Social Science, Geography, Mathematics, Introduction to Business Studies, Geography] in the existing secondary education curriculum prepared in 1995.

The purpose of this study was to examine the characteristics of the current curriculum and ascertain the expectations and needs of the stakeholders as an essential preparatory work for curriculum reform (SESIP 2003a).

ii. Review of selected overseas curricula

An expert committee that included NCTB specialists and SESIP national and international consultants, extensively searched the Internet in order to review the curricula of some Asian countries (India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia and Japan), some European countries (France, Germany, the United Kingdom and the Netherlands), New Zealand and some states of Australia and the USA.

The purpose of this exercise was to identify the aims, objectives and the structure and organization of the secondary education curricula of the selected countries. This information was considered necessary to formulate the criteria and identify the key elements for revising and updating the aims, objectives and structure of the secondary education curriculum in Bangladesh (NCTB 2004a).

iii. Deciding on the unitrack curriculum

As agreed between the Ministry of Education (MOE) and the Asian Development Bank

26 Bangladesh Education Journal

(ADB) and recorded in the Aide Memoire at the end of the Mid Term Review of Secondary Education Sector Improvement Project in 2002, MOE issued an order for the unitrack curriculum to be introduced in grades 9 and 10 from 2005. The Education Secretary directed that a series of workshops be organized to orient key stakeholders (Ministry of Education 2003).

iv. Development of the curriculum structure

In line with the decision of the MOE on curriculum reform, NCCC formed an 8-member specialist technical sub-committee to develop the curriculum structure for the new 2004 Unitrack Curriculum. The Committee extensively reviewed the findings of the evaluation study of the 1995 curriculum, the desires and expectations of the stakeholders, the documentary analysis of the 1995 curriculum and the overseas curricula, and the National Education Policy 2000. The Committee also considered the employment market demands and the global environment. The Committee developed a structure for unified general education (2004 Unitrack Curriculum) to replace the three existing streams of general education (1995 Multitrack Curriculum). NCCC gave its approval to the Unitrack Curriculum structure recommended by the Committee.

v. Orientation workshops on the unitrack curriculum structure

SESIP, in collaboration with NCTB, organized five national orientation workshops on unitrack curriculum in Barisal, Chittagong, Jessore, Rajshahi, and Syllet from October to December, 2003. Participants included principals, assistant principals and assistant teachers of government and non-government schools, deputy directors of each zone under DSHE, (Directorate of Secondary and Higher Education), district education officers, members of school management committees, some selected parents, staff of Teachers' Training Colleges (TTC) and Higher Secondary Teacher Training Institutes (HSTTI), university teachers and journalists.

Opinions were collected on a range of issues including the rationale for unitrack curriculum, the advantages and disadvantages of unitrack curriculum, features of the proposed curriculum and its anticipated impact (SESIP 2004a).

vi. Formulating curriculum aims and objectives

A specialist committee formed by NCCC chalked out the general aims and objectives for the unitrack curriculum. The committee comprised curriculum specialists from SESIP and NCTB, national and international curriculum consultants from SESIP, faculty members from the Institute of Education and Research (IER) and prominent educationists. The committee was guided by the evaluation study of the 1995 curriculum, findings of the documents review of the 1995 curriculum and overseas curricula, the national philosophy of education stated in the national constitution, National Education Policy 2000, market demands and global issues. The aims and objectives drafted by the specialist committee were reviewed and refined through a workshop.

Bangladesh Education Journal 27

vii. Determining subject contents

NCTB, on approval of MOE, formed thirteen subject content committees to develop the content and syllabus in each of the subjects. Each committee consisted of five to eight members and included curriculum specialists (one to five) from SESIP and NCTB, classroom teachers from schools (two members), subject specialists (one or two) from university and SESIP national and international curriculum consultants.

The thirteen subjects which were to be revised were Bangla, Mathematics, General Science, Social Science, Business Studies, Home Economics, Agricultural Education, Information and Communication Technology, Islamic Studies, Hinduism Studies, Buddhist Studies, Christian Studies and Higher Mathematics.

The prime responsibilities of the subject committees were to determine respective subject aims and objectives, to write learning outcomes for the subject, to determine the content, and to recommend teaching-learning strategies including recommended time allocation and teaching resources.

Two-day workshops were arranged for the subject committees to familiarize the members with the curriculum reform guidelines. The subject committee members commenced work in the second week of February 2004 and finished at the end of November 2004.

An expert committee reviewed all thirteen draft subject contents and currricula before placing them in stakeholders' workshops. The expert committee, headed by the team leader of SESIP technical assistance, included national and international curriculum consultants, subject coordinators and the deputy director of SESIP's project implementation unit.

viii. Stakeholders' and national workshops

The draft subject contents and curricula were reviewed by the stakeholders at six divisional workshops. The stakeholders' opinions were collected for further refinement of the draft curricula. The stakeholders were head teachers, assistant head teachers, subject teachers, zonal deputy directors, district education officers, and teachers from Teachers' Training Colleges and Higher Secondary Teachers Training Institutes.

The draft curriculum documents were further reviewed in a national workshop. The Education Minister, the Education Secretary, Director General of Secondary and Higher Education, Director General of National Academy for Education Management, Chairman of NCTB, Chairman of Dhaka Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education, the Member (curriculum) of NCTB, educationists, and principals were present in the workshop.

xi. NCCC approval of the curriculum

Final drafts of individual subject curricula were prepared after incorporating the recommendations of workshops. On March 6, 2005, NCCC, the highest approval body for national curricula, reviewed and approved the recommended subject contents and curriculum for the unified secondary education programme. NCCC recommended

28 Bangladesh Education Journal

comprehensive dissemination of the curriculum through training for grades 9-10 teachers before its implementation in schools.

III. Issues Addressed by the New Curriculum

i. Limitations of the 1995 curriculum

Analyzing the evaluation study report of the 1995 curriculum, it is clear that the curriculum was overloaded with factual learning. It was completely teacher-centered, examination-driven, and it encouraged rote learning. The evaluation study established that the curriculum:

l did not adequately prepare students for the world of work and did not develop necessary life oriented skills.

l left many students without sufficient numeracy and literacy skills at the end of their schooling.

l had most learning outcomes related to the lower order cognitive abilities and encouraged rote learning, meaning students had poorly developed higher order cognitive and thinking skills, such as the ability to analyze, synthesize and evaluate information.

l placed very little emphasis in the individual subject curricula on developing appropriate attitudes and values, although they were included in the aims and objectives of the curriculum.

l did not provide opportunities for “learning by doing” on the part of students.

It was evident that in order to encourage independent thinking and application of knowledge in life, the curriculum needed to be more learner-centered with opportunities for students to become actively engaged in learning.

ii. Unification of the three streams into a broad-based general education programme for all students up to grade 10

As noted above, the specialist technical sub-committee of NCCC for developing the curriculum structure was in favour of introducing a unitrack curriculum. The rationale offered by the technical sub committee in favor of the 2004 unitrack curriculum were:

l With the unitrack curriculum structure students would acquire a good foundation of learning before they have to make a choice about specializing in a subject. Students need a certain amount of time before they are mature enough to decide on a particular area of concentration that will help them pursue the career they will eventually choose.

l All students must be acquainted with the basics in key subjects and thus participate in a broad-based common general education.

l The unitrack curriculum would help learners develop common attitudes and a well-rounded personality.

Bangladesh Education Journal 29

vii. Determining subject contents

NCTB, on approval of MOE, formed thirteen subject content committees to develop the content and syllabus in each of the subjects. Each committee consisted of five to eight members and included curriculum specialists (one to five) from SESIP and NCTB, classroom teachers from schools (two members), subject specialists (one or two) from university and SESIP national and international curriculum consultants.

The thirteen subjects which were to be revised were Bangla, Mathematics, General Science, Social Science, Business Studies, Home Economics, Agricultural Education, Information and Communication Technology, Islamic Studies, Hinduism Studies, Buddhist Studies, Christian Studies and Higher Mathematics.

The prime responsibilities of the subject committees were to determine respective subject aims and objectives, to write learning outcomes for the subject, to determine the content, and to recommend teaching-learning strategies including recommended time allocation and teaching resources.

Two-day workshops were arranged for the subject committees to familiarize the members with the curriculum reform guidelines. The subject committee members commenced work in the second week of February 2004 and finished at the end of November 2004.

An expert committee reviewed all thirteen draft subject contents and currricula before placing them in stakeholders' workshops. The expert committee, headed by the team leader of SESIP technical assistance, included national and international curriculum consultants, subject coordinators and the deputy director of SESIP's project implementation unit.

viii. Stakeholders' and national workshops

The draft subject contents and curricula were reviewed by the stakeholders at six divisional workshops. The stakeholders' opinions were collected for further refinement of the draft curricula. The stakeholders were head teachers, assistant head teachers, subject teachers, zonal deputy directors, district education officers, and teachers from Teachers' Training Colleges and Higher Secondary Teachers Training Institutes.

The draft curriculum documents were further reviewed in a national workshop. The Education Minister, the Education Secretary, Director General of Secondary and Higher Education, Director General of National Academy for Education Management, Chairman of NCTB, Chairman of Dhaka Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education, the Member (curriculum) of NCTB, educationists, and principals were present in the workshop.

xi. NCCC approval of the curriculum

Final drafts of individual subject curricula were prepared after incorporating the recommendations of workshops. On March 6, 2005, NCCC, the highest approval body for national curricula, reviewed and approved the recommended subject contents and curriculum for the unified secondary education programme. NCCC recommended

28 Bangladesh Education Journal

comprehensive dissemination of the curriculum through training for grades 9-10 teachers before its implementation in schools.

III. Issues Addressed by the New Curriculum

i. Limitations of the 1995 curriculum

Analyzing the evaluation study report of the 1995 curriculum, it is clear that the curriculum was overloaded with factual learning. It was completely teacher-centered, examination-driven, and it encouraged rote learning. The evaluation study established that the curriculum:

l did not adequately prepare students for the world of work and did not develop necessary life oriented skills.

l left many students without sufficient numeracy and literacy skills at the end of their schooling.

l had most learning outcomes related to the lower order cognitive abilities and encouraged rote learning, meaning students had poorly developed higher order cognitive and thinking skills, such as the ability to analyze, synthesize and evaluate information.

l placed very little emphasis in the individual subject curricula on developing appropriate attitudes and values, although they were included in the aims and objectives of the curriculum.

l did not provide opportunities for “learning by doing” on the part of students.

It was evident that in order to encourage independent thinking and application of knowledge in life, the curriculum needed to be more learner-centered with opportunities for students to become actively engaged in learning.

ii. Unification of the three streams into a broad-based general education programme for all students up to grade 10

As noted above, the specialist technical sub-committee of NCCC for developing the curriculum structure was in favour of introducing a unitrack curriculum. The rationale offered by the technical sub committee in favor of the 2004 unitrack curriculum were:

l With the unitrack curriculum structure students would acquire a good foundation of learning before they have to make a choice about specializing in a subject. Students need a certain amount of time before they are mature enough to decide on a particular area of concentration that will help them pursue the career they will eventually choose.

l All students must be acquainted with the basics in key subjects and thus participate in a broad-based common general education.

l The unitrack curriculum would help learners develop common attitudes and a well-rounded personality.

Bangladesh Education Journal 29

30 Bangladesh Education Journal

l Academic assessment would be more uniform in a unitrack curriculum, since all students would study the same core subjects.

l School authorities and teachers in many parts of the country would face fewer problems due to uneven distribution of students in different streams.

The smaller number of subjects (18) included in a unitrack curriculum compared to a multitrack curriculum (34) would mean more efficient use of resources, such as optimal use of time, textbook production, setting and marking of public examinations and the pre-service and in-service training of teachers (Wahab 2003b).

iii. New curriculum structure

The revised curriculum, it was expected, would promote integration of learning through the use of a single medium of instruction (the national language Bangla) and the provision of the same core subjects for all students in all schools within the national education system. The revised curriculum structure would be better articulated with the current grades 6 to 8 curriculum structure.

The unitrack curriculum structure includes seven core subjects (Bangla, English, Mathematics, General Science, Social Science, Business Studies) and one religious study (to be chosen from Islamic Studies, Hinduism, Buddhism and Christianity). One of three subjects is included as a required elective (out of Home Economics, Agriculture Education, Information and Communication Technology). Six subjects are listed as optional subjects [Higher Mathematics, Information and Communication Technology, Basic Trades, Music, Art and Craft, Health, Sports and Physical Education]; students would have the option of selecting one of these as an additional subject.

It is proposed that all schools would offer each of the seven core subjects. Depending on the needs of the students and the size and the capacity of the school, each school would offer one or more of the three additional electives which students would be required to take, if offered in the school, and some schools would also offer optional studies. Those who would take information and communication technology as a required elective would not take it as an optional subject. Table 1 shows a comparison among the curriculum for grades 6-8 and the three streams for grades 9-10 in the 1995 curricular structure and the proposed unitrack curriculum for grades 9-10.

Tab

le 1

. Com

par

ison

of

th

e C

urr

ent

Cu

rric

ulu

m S

tru

ctu

res

for

Gra

des

6-8

an

d 9

-10

and

th

e U

nit

rack

Cu

rric

ulu

m f

or G

rad

es 9

-10

Cor

eB

angl

aE

ngli

shM

athe

mat

ics

Rel

igio

us s

tudi

es:

Isla

mic

Stu

dies

/ H

indu

Stu

dies

/ B

uddh

ism

/ C

hris

tian

S

tudi

es (

sele

ct o

ne)

Gra

des

6-8

M

ult

itra

ck G

rad

es 9

-10

U

nit

rack

Gra

des

9-1

0

Su

bje

cts

Mar

ks

Cla

sses

/W

eek

S

ub

ject

s M

ark

s C

lass

es/W

eek

S

ub

ject

s M

ark

s C

lass

es/

Wee

k

Cor

e B

angl

aE

ngli

shM

athe

mat

ics

Rel

igio

us s

tudi

es:

Isla

mic

Stu

dies

/ H

indu

Stu

dies

/ B

uddh

ism

/Chr

isti

anS

tudi

es (

sele

ct o

ne)

Soc

ial

Sci

ence

Gen

eral

Sci

ence

Art

s an

d C

raft

sH

ealt

h an

d P

hysi

cal

Edu

cati

on

Req

uir

ed E

lect

ives

Agr

icul

ture

E

duca

tion

/ H

ome

Eco

nom

ics(

Sel

ect

On

e)

Ad

dit

ion

al S

ub

ject

s(S

elec

t on

e or

non

e)A

rabi

c/S

ansk

rit/

Pal

i

200

200

100

100

60

0

100

100

50 50 100

Tot

al10

00

100

1100

6

6

6

4

4 4 2 2 38 2 40

S

ocia

l S

cien

ce(s

cien

ce s

tud

ents

on

ly)

Gen

eral

Sci

ence

(Non

-sci

ence

stu

den

tson

ly)

Com

pu

lsor

y E

lect

ive(

Sel

ect

one)

Com

pute

r st

udie

s/ A

gric

ultu

re

stud

ies/

Hom

e E

cono

mic

s

E

lect

ives

S

cien

ce G

rou

p

Phy

sics

C

hem

istr

y

Bio

logy

/ H

ighe

r M

athe

mat

ics

Hu

man

itie

s G

rou

p

His

tory

G

eogr

aphy

E

cono

mic

s /C

ivic

s B

usi

nes

s G

rou

p

Intr

oduc

tion

of

Bus

ines

s A

ccou

ntan

cy

Bus

ines

s E

ntre

pren

eurs

hip

or G

eogr

aphy

Ad

dit

ion

al[s

elec

t on

e or

non

e]

Hig

her

mat

hem

atic

s/A

gric

ult

ure

st

ud

ies/

Eco

nom

ics

/Civ

ics/

Bus

ines

s E

ntre

pren

eurs

hip

/Geo

grap

hy/

Acc

ount

ancy

/Bas

ics

trad

e/ A

rts

and

Cra

fts/

Hea

lth

and

Phy

sica

l E

duca

tion

/Ara

bic/

San

skri

t/P

ali/

Com

pute

r st

udie

s/H

ighe

r B

angl

a/ H

ighe

r E

ngli

sh/M

usic

200

20

0

100

10

0

600

100

100

700

100

800

100

100

100

100

100

100

1100

100

1200

7

7

4

3

3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

100

100

100

3 3 3 36 3 39

Cor

eB

angl

aE

ngli

shM

athe

mat

ics

Rel

igio

us s

tudi

es:

Isla

mic

Stu

dies

/Hin

du

Stu

dies

/Bud

dhis

m/

Chr

isti

an S

tudi

es(s

elec

t on

e)

S

ocia

l S

cien

ceG

ener

al S

cien

ceB

usin

ess

Stu

dies

Com

pu

lsor

y el

ecti

ves

(Sel

ect

On

e)A

gric

ultu

re E

duca

tion

/H

ome

Eco

nom

ics/

Info

rmat

ion

&C

omm

unic

atio

nT

echn

olog

y

Ad

dit

ion

al

Su

bje

cts(

Sel

ect

On

e or

non

e)H

ighe

r M

athe

mat

ics

Info

rmat

ion

&C

omm

unic

atio

n T

echn

olog

y/

Co

mm

erci

al

Geo

grap

hy/B

asic

T

rade

/ Art

s an

d C

raft

s/H

ealt

h, S

port

s an

dP

hysi

cal

Edu

cati

on

200

200

100

100

600

150

150

100

1000

100

Tot

al 1

100

100

1200

7 7 4 3 5 5 3 3 37 2 39

4

30 Bangladesh Education Journal

l Academic assessment would be more uniform in a unitrack curriculum, since all students would study the same core subjects.

l School authorities and teachers in many parts of the country would face fewer problems due to uneven distribution of students in different streams.

The smaller number of subjects (18) included in a unitrack curriculum compared to a multitrack curriculum (34) would mean more efficient use of resources, such as optimal use of time, textbook production, setting and marking of public examinations and the pre-service and in-service training of teachers (Wahab 2003b).

iii. New curriculum structure

The revised curriculum, it was expected, would promote integration of learning through the use of a single medium of instruction (the national language Bangla) and the provision of the same core subjects for all students in all schools within the national education system. The revised curriculum structure would be better articulated with the current grades 6 to 8 curriculum structure.

The unitrack curriculum structure includes seven core subjects (Bangla, English, Mathematics, General Science, Social Science, Business Studies) and one religious study (to be chosen from Islamic Studies, Hinduism, Buddhism and Christianity). One of three subjects is included as a required elective (out of Home Economics, Agriculture Education, Information and Communication Technology). Six subjects are listed as optional subjects [Higher Mathematics, Information and Communication Technology, Basic Trades, Music, Art and Craft, Health, Sports and Physical Education]; students would have the option of selecting one of these as an additional subject.

It is proposed that all schools would offer each of the seven core subjects. Depending on the needs of the students and the size and the capacity of the school, each school would offer one or more of the three additional electives which students would be required to take, if offered in the school, and some schools would also offer optional studies. Those who would take information and communication technology as a required elective would not take it as an optional subject. Table 1 shows a comparison among the curriculum for grades 6-8 and the three streams for grades 9-10 in the 1995 curricular structure and the proposed unitrack curriculum for grades 9-10.

Tab

le 1

. Com

par

ison

of

th

e C

urr

ent

Cu

rric

ulu

m S

tru

ctu

res

for

Gra

des

6-8

an

d 9

-10

and

th

e U

nit

rack

Cu

rric

ulu

m f

or G

rad

es 9

-10

Cor

eB

angl

aE

ngli

shM

athe

mat

ics

Rel

igio

us s

tudi

es:

Isla

mic

Stu

dies

/ H

indu

Stu

dies

/ B

uddh

ism

/ C

hris

tian

S

tudi

es (

sele

ct o

ne)

Gra

des

6-8

M

ult

itra

ck G

rad

es 9

-10

U

nit

rack

Gra

des

9-1

0

Su

bje

cts

Mar

ks

Cla

sses

/W

eek

S

ub

ject

s M

ark

s C

lass

es/W

eek

S

ub

ject

s M

ark

s C

lass

es/

Wee

k

Cor

e B

angl

aE

ngli

shM

athe

mat

ics

Rel

igio

us s

tudi

es:

Isla

mic

Stu

dies

/ H

indu

Stu

dies

/ B

uddh

ism

/Chr

isti

anS

tudi

es (

sele

ct o

ne)

Soc

ial

Sci

ence

Gen

eral

Sci

ence

Art

s an

d C

raft

sH

ealt

h an

d P

hysi

cal

Edu

cati

on

Req

uir

ed E

lect

ives

Agr

icul

ture

E

duca

tion

/ H

ome

Eco

nom

ics(

Sel

ect

On

e)

Ad

dit

ion

al S

ub

ject

s(S

elec

t on

e or

non

e)A

rabi

c/S

ansk

rit/

Pal

i

200

200

100

100

60

0

100

100

50 50 100

Tot

al10

00

100

1100

6

6

6

4

4 4 2 2 38 2 40

S

ocia

l S

cien

ce(s

cien

ce s

tud

ents

on

ly)

Gen

eral

Sci

ence

(Non

-sci

ence

stu

den

tson

ly)

Com

pu

lsor

y E

lect

ive(

Sel

ect

one)

Com

pute

r st

udie

s/ A

gric

ultu

re

stud

ies/

Hom

e E

cono

mic

s

E

lect

ives

S

cien

ce G

rou

p

Phy

sics

C

hem

istr

y

Bio

logy

/ H

ighe

r M

athe

mat

ics

Hu

man

itie

s G

rou

p

His

tory

G

eogr

aphy

E

cono

mic

s /C

ivic

s B

usi

nes

s G

rou

p

Intr

oduc

tion

of

Bus

ines

s A

ccou

ntan

cy

Bus

ines

s E

ntre

pren

eurs

hip

or G

eogr

aphy

Ad

dit

ion

al[s

elec

t on

e or

non

e]

Hig

her

mat

hem

atic

s/A

gric

ult

ure

st

ud

ies/

Eco

nom

ics

/Civ

ics/

Bus

ines

s E

ntre

pren

eurs

hip

/Geo

grap

hy/

Acc

ount

ancy

/Bas

ics

trad

e/ A

rts

and

Cra

fts/

Hea

lth

and

Phy

sica

l E

duca

tion

/Ara

bic/

San

skri

t/P

ali/

Com

pute

r st

udie

s/H

ighe

r B

angl

a/ H

ighe

r E

ngli

sh/M

usic

200

20

0

100

10

0

600

100

100

700

100

800

100

100

100

100

100

100

1100

100

1200

7

7

4

3

3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

100

100

100

3 3 3 36 3 39

Cor

eB

angl

aE

ngli

shM

athe

mat

ics

Rel

igio

us s

tudi

es:

Isla

mic

Stu

dies

/Hin

du

Stu

dies

/Bud

dhis

m/

Chr

isti

an S

tudi

es(s

elec

t on

e)

S

ocia

l S

cien

ceG

ener

al S

cien

ceB

usin

ess

Stu

dies

Com

pu

lsor

y el

ecti

ves

(Sel

ect

On

e)A

gric

ultu

re E

duca

tion

/H

ome

Eco

nom

ics/

Info

rmat

ion

&C

omm

unic

atio

nT

echn

olog

y

Ad

dit

ion

al

Su

bje

cts(

Sel

ect

On

e or

non

e)H

ighe

r M

athe

mat

ics

Info

rmat

ion

&C

omm

unic

atio

n T

echn

olog

y/

Co

mm

erci

al

Geo

grap

hy/B

asic

T

rade

/ Art

s an

d C

raft

s/H

ealt

h, S

port

s an

dP

hysi

cal

Edu

cati

on

200

200

100

100

600

150

150

100

1000

100

Tot

al 1

100

100

1200

7 7 4 3 5 5 3 3 37 2 39

4

v. Key learning areas and competencies/skills

A review of the thirteen unitrack subject curriculum documents shows that an integrated approach was adopted to incorporate knowledge, skills and attitudes that transcended individual learning areas in the subject curricula.

The key learning areas identified in the unitrack curriculum were: development of learners in intellectual, moral/spiritual, aesthetic, communicative, social, cooperative, personal and physical domains. The revised curriculum refers to six specific skill areas: intellectual, problem-solving, personal, communicative, social and cooperative. The integration of learning outcomes with the contents of every subject was so designed that all the six skill domains were addressed in the learning outcomes.

The content outlines of the core subjects illustrated the approach of integrated development of skills and competencies in the six domains through all the core subjects.

Bangla: The learning outcomes of the Bangla curriculum are expressed in terms of skills to be acquired. They put a special emphasis on developing communication skills in respect of reading, writing, speaking and listening. The content also included issues of socio-cultural importance such as the significance of the International Mother Language Day as a part of understanding the concept of language and national identity.

Understanding and awareness about issues people's well-being and social responsibility, protection of the environment, features of urban and rural life, and the diversity of people and nature in Bangladesh were integrated into the content.

Mathematics: The learning outcomes were written with the focus on the six skill domains. The identified intellectual skills emphasize the importance of students being able to explain and use important mathematical concepts and not just recall information. The mathematics curriculum includes essential mathematical skills, algebra, geometry and trigonometry and problem-solving through which students would apply mathematical concepts and ideas to a new situation. A range of personal skills such as a positive attitude to the study of mathematics, enthusiasm, diligence and attentiveness in mathematics classes are emphasized. The revised curriculum focuses on how well students cooperate with others and work as a team in solving mathematical problems and performing set activities.

General Science: The revised General Science is an interdisciplinary subject with two examination papers: Physics and Chemistry known as Physical Sciences; and Biology, Environmental Science and Population Education known as Biological Sciences. The general science curriculum includes eleven units, six for physical sciences and five for biological sciences.

The intention of a revised general science curriculum is to develop students' knowledge, skills and a coherent understanding of different areas of science and technology. These skills and knowledge would contribute to the development of a dynamic, progressive and environment-friendly society based on scientific attitudes and humane values.

32 Bangladesh Education Journal

The general science curriculum places a strong emphasis on the development of essential scientific skills and scientific reasoning, such as the interpretation of scientific facts, concepts, principles and laws; use of graphs, symbols and diagrams to represent concepts; analysis of and manipulation of physical quantities and their units; and mathematical problem solving abilities in a scientific context.

In the 1995 curriculum, there was no provision for practical work other than for students in the science stream. The revised curriculum emphasizes problem-solving through investigation in which students test a hypothesis to discover a specific scientific concept relevant to the course work. It includes in each unit of the subject the development of specific personal, social and cooperative skills. The revised general science curriculum gives students the opportunity to explore social issues and examine real life situations from a scientific point of view, such as road accidents and safety measures, conservation of energy, system loss and load shedding of electricity and its effect on society, the preservation and conservation of the natural environment, health hazards created by electronics and ICT related devices, etc.

Social Sciences: Social Sciences include History, Geography, Civics, Sociology and Economics. The social science curriculum has twelve units, six from History and Geography (paper 1) and six from Civics, Sociology and Economics (paper 2).

The revised social science curriculum places emphasis on the development of essential social science skills, such as drawing and reading maps, preparation and interpretation of graphs, charts and tables; undertaking investigations and the collection, sorting, and analyzing of data; preparation of reports and presentations; and the discussion of issues with social implications. Each unit of the social science subject includes the development of specific personal, social and cooperative skills. Important topics included in the social sciences are violence against women, drugs addiction and HIV/AIDS, child abuse, road accidents and safety measures, representation of women in parliament, functions and responsibilities of the Caretaker Government in Bangladesh, main areas of economic activities, nature and trends in the economy of Bangladesh, external trade and globalization, poverty and over-population, unemployment, inflation, and income disparities.

Business Studies: Business Studies have been included as a compulsory subject in the revised curriculum structure to prepare students to contribute to the economic development of the nation. Business Studies would develop essential knowledge, practical skills and positive attitudes in the young generation. The course has six units: Introduction to Business; Planning and Communication for Small Business; Accounting cash and credit recording for small business; Accounting reporting for small business; Business Sectors in Bangladesh; Entrepreneurship and Self-employment.

The Business Studies curriculum also included in each unit the development of specific personal, social and cooperative skills. Three periods were allocated per week for Business Studies.

Bangladesh Education Journal 33

v. Key learning areas and competencies/skills

A review of the thirteen unitrack subject curriculum documents shows that an integrated approach was adopted to incorporate knowledge, skills and attitudes that transcended individual learning areas in the subject curricula.

The key learning areas identified in the unitrack curriculum were: development of learners in intellectual, moral/spiritual, aesthetic, communicative, social, cooperative, personal and physical domains. The revised curriculum refers to six specific skill areas: intellectual, problem-solving, personal, communicative, social and cooperative. The integration of learning outcomes with the contents of every subject was so designed that all the six skill domains were addressed in the learning outcomes.

The content outlines of the core subjects illustrated the approach of integrated development of skills and competencies in the six domains through all the core subjects.

Bangla: The learning outcomes of the Bangla curriculum are expressed in terms of skills to be acquired. They put a special emphasis on developing communication skills in respect of reading, writing, speaking and listening. The content also included issues of socio-cultural importance such as the significance of the International Mother Language Day as a part of understanding the concept of language and national identity.

Understanding and awareness about issues people's well-being and social responsibility, protection of the environment, features of urban and rural life, and the diversity of people and nature in Bangladesh were integrated into the content.

Mathematics: The learning outcomes were written with the focus on the six skill domains. The identified intellectual skills emphasize the importance of students being able to explain and use important mathematical concepts and not just recall information. The mathematics curriculum includes essential mathematical skills, algebra, geometry and trigonometry and problem-solving through which students would apply mathematical concepts and ideas to a new situation. A range of personal skills such as a positive attitude to the study of mathematics, enthusiasm, diligence and attentiveness in mathematics classes are emphasized. The revised curriculum focuses on how well students cooperate with others and work as a team in solving mathematical problems and performing set activities.

General Science: The revised General Science is an interdisciplinary subject with two examination papers: Physics and Chemistry known as Physical Sciences; and Biology, Environmental Science and Population Education known as Biological Sciences. The general science curriculum includes eleven units, six for physical sciences and five for biological sciences.

The intention of a revised general science curriculum is to develop students' knowledge, skills and a coherent understanding of different areas of science and technology. These skills and knowledge would contribute to the development of a dynamic, progressive and environment-friendly society based on scientific attitudes and humane values.

32 Bangladesh Education Journal

The general science curriculum places a strong emphasis on the development of essential scientific skills and scientific reasoning, such as the interpretation of scientific facts, concepts, principles and laws; use of graphs, symbols and diagrams to represent concepts; analysis of and manipulation of physical quantities and their units; and mathematical problem solving abilities in a scientific context.

In the 1995 curriculum, there was no provision for practical work other than for students in the science stream. The revised curriculum emphasizes problem-solving through investigation in which students test a hypothesis to discover a specific scientific concept relevant to the course work. It includes in each unit of the subject the development of specific personal, social and cooperative skills. The revised general science curriculum gives students the opportunity to explore social issues and examine real life situations from a scientific point of view, such as road accidents and safety measures, conservation of energy, system loss and load shedding of electricity and its effect on society, the preservation and conservation of the natural environment, health hazards created by electronics and ICT related devices, etc.

Social Sciences: Social Sciences include History, Geography, Civics, Sociology and Economics. The social science curriculum has twelve units, six from History and Geography (paper 1) and six from Civics, Sociology and Economics (paper 2).

The revised social science curriculum places emphasis on the development of essential social science skills, such as drawing and reading maps, preparation and interpretation of graphs, charts and tables; undertaking investigations and the collection, sorting, and analyzing of data; preparation of reports and presentations; and the discussion of issues with social implications. Each unit of the social science subject includes the development of specific personal, social and cooperative skills. Important topics included in the social sciences are violence against women, drugs addiction and HIV/AIDS, child abuse, road accidents and safety measures, representation of women in parliament, functions and responsibilities of the Caretaker Government in Bangladesh, main areas of economic activities, nature and trends in the economy of Bangladesh, external trade and globalization, poverty and over-population, unemployment, inflation, and income disparities.

Business Studies: Business Studies have been included as a compulsory subject in the revised curriculum structure to prepare students to contribute to the economic development of the nation. Business Studies would develop essential knowledge, practical skills and positive attitudes in the young generation. The course has six units: Introduction to Business; Planning and Communication for Small Business; Accounting cash and credit recording for small business; Accounting reporting for small business; Business Sectors in Bangladesh; Entrepreneurship and Self-employment.

The Business Studies curriculum also included in each unit the development of specific personal, social and cooperative skills. Three periods were allocated per week for Business Studies.

Bangladesh Education Journal 33

v. The teaching-learning approach and resources

The revised curriculum recommends student-centered teaching so that students would be actively involved in their own learning, instead of being passive recipients of knowledge and facts. The revised curriculum emphasizes the importance of students learning “how to learn”' rather than simply learning specific content without reflection. To make learning more interesting, meaningful, stimulating and motivating for the students, learner-centered classroom practices are recommended to be adopted as much as possible. The recommended teaching-learning approaches include inquiry-discovery learning, experiential learning, cooperative learning, group discussion, role-playing and “four-corner debate” (NCTB 2004b).

The revised curriculum recommends that teachers make a conscious effort to provide a variety of these resources to stimulate learning, as only listening to a teacher is not a very effective way to learn. Although textbooks will play a prime role in classroom teaching, it is recommended that locally available materials should be used to make learning more interesting and effective.

vi. Assessment

One of the most important issues addressed in the unitrack curriculum is the modification of the existing internal and external assessment system. The revised curriculum proposes the adoption of a new format for both internal and external assessment by introducing School Based Assessment (SBA) and reforming the existing SSC examination.

SBA: The unitrack curriculum documents make the case for the introduction of a School Based Assessment (SBA) that would allow teachers to assess their students' development on a wide range of learning outcomes including intellectual and problem-solving skills, personal and communicative skills, and social and cooperative skills. The learning outcomes related to personal and social as well as problem-solving skills would be assessed through SBA. SBA is incorporated in the revised curriculum as an integral part of the teaching-learning process, to be ongoing throughout the year and aimed to monitor students' progress. In the 1995 curriculum there was no specific and clear direction or guideline for conducting SBA as an approach to formative assessment. The schools generally depended exclusively on a summative assessment approach. In the revised curriculum, 30% of marks are allocated for formative assessment and 70% of marks for summative assessment.

SESIP conducted a pilot study in grades 9 and 10 in 49 leading secondary schools to find out the feasibility of introducing SBA as a component of the SSC examination. The monitoring of the pilot studies showed that SBA was feasible at that time (SESIPTA 2004b).

External Examination: It was argued in the SESIP proposal for the reform of the secondary school certificate examination that the current SSC examination encourages rote learning and does not properly reflect the objectives of the curriculum. A high rate of dropout and low pass rate indicate the weakness of the current examination system. Besides, SSC

34 Bangladesh Education Journal

examination results show considerable variations between the Boards and between years. There are also variations between subjects and examination papers. These variations raise questions about the reliability and consistency of the examinations.

The unitrack curriculum proposals make recommendations regarding improvement of the validity and reliability of the SSC examination. These included the following:

l NCTB syllabus and mark distribution for subjects would indicate a grid of the stipulated curriculum objectives for each subject as a basis for the preparation of all question papers under all boards.

l Structured questions would be introduced in order to facilitate accurate testing of all curriculum objectives.

l All Boards of Intermediate and Secondary Education (BISEs) would ensure that question-setters provide full and written marking schemes and model answers for each question as a guide for marking examinee responses.

l All BISEs would introduce sample markings and ensure that each marker marks answer scripts from at least six different examination centers.

l All BISEs would produce yearly examination reports detailing examinee responses to individual questions as well as responses to subject papers as a whole and BISEs would use only standardized examinee scores for computing grades and grade point average (SESIPTA 2004c).

vii. Curriculum format

The curriculum format of the revised curriculum is presented by using a six column matrix to highlight the links between the specific learning outcomes, the content, teaching learning strategies, teaching-learning resources and time allocations. As an example, the matrix for one of the sections of general science unit 3 is shown in table 2 (NCTB 2004a).

Bangladesh Education Journal 35

v. The teaching-learning approach and resources

The revised curriculum recommends student-centered teaching so that students would be actively involved in their own learning, instead of being passive recipients of knowledge and facts. The revised curriculum emphasizes the importance of students learning “how to learn”' rather than simply learning specific content without reflection. To make learning more interesting, meaningful, stimulating and motivating for the students, learner-centered classroom practices are recommended to be adopted as much as possible. The recommended teaching-learning approaches include inquiry-discovery learning, experiential learning, cooperative learning, group discussion, role-playing and “four-corner debate” (NCTB 2004b).

The revised curriculum recommends that teachers make a conscious effort to provide a variety of these resources to stimulate learning, as only listening to a teacher is not a very effective way to learn. Although textbooks will play a prime role in classroom teaching, it is recommended that locally available materials should be used to make learning more interesting and effective.

vi. Assessment

One of the most important issues addressed in the unitrack curriculum is the modification of the existing internal and external assessment system. The revised curriculum proposes the adoption of a new format for both internal and external assessment by introducing School Based Assessment (SBA) and reforming the existing SSC examination.

SBA: The unitrack curriculum documents make the case for the introduction of a School Based Assessment (SBA) that would allow teachers to assess their students' development on a wide range of learning outcomes including intellectual and problem-solving skills, personal and communicative skills, and social and cooperative skills. The learning outcomes related to personal and social as well as problem-solving skills would be assessed through SBA. SBA is incorporated in the revised curriculum as an integral part of the teaching-learning process, to be ongoing throughout the year and aimed to monitor students' progress. In the 1995 curriculum there was no specific and clear direction or guideline for conducting SBA as an approach to formative assessment. The schools generally depended exclusively on a summative assessment approach. In the revised curriculum, 30% of marks are allocated for formative assessment and 70% of marks for summative assessment.

SESIP conducted a pilot study in grades 9 and 10 in 49 leading secondary schools to find out the feasibility of introducing SBA as a component of the SSC examination. The monitoring of the pilot studies showed that SBA was feasible at that time (SESIPTA 2004b).

External Examination: It was argued in the SESIP proposal for the reform of the secondary school certificate examination that the current SSC examination encourages rote learning and does not properly reflect the objectives of the curriculum. A high rate of dropout and low pass rate indicate the weakness of the current examination system. Besides, SSC

34 Bangladesh Education Journal

examination results show considerable variations between the Boards and between years. There are also variations between subjects and examination papers. These variations raise questions about the reliability and consistency of the examinations.

The unitrack curriculum proposals make recommendations regarding improvement of the validity and reliability of the SSC examination. These included the following:

l NCTB syllabus and mark distribution for subjects would indicate a grid of the stipulated curriculum objectives for each subject as a basis for the preparation of all question papers under all boards.

l Structured questions would be introduced in order to facilitate accurate testing of all curriculum objectives.

l All Boards of Intermediate and Secondary Education (BISEs) would ensure that question-setters provide full and written marking schemes and model answers for each question as a guide for marking examinee responses.

l All BISEs would introduce sample markings and ensure that each marker marks answer scripts from at least six different examination centers.

l All BISEs would produce yearly examination reports detailing examinee responses to individual questions as well as responses to subject papers as a whole and BISEs would use only standardized examinee scores for computing grades and grade point average (SESIPTA 2004c).

vii. Curriculum format

The curriculum format of the revised curriculum is presented by using a six column matrix to highlight the links between the specific learning outcomes, the content, teaching learning strategies, teaching-learning resources and time allocations. As an example, the matrix for one of the sections of general science unit 3 is shown in table 2 (NCTB 2004a).

Bangladesh Education Journal 35

Tab

le 2

. U

nit

3:

Let

's G

et M

ovin

g [2

6 C

lass

Hou

rs]

Sp

ecif

ic l

earn

ing

outc

omes

C

olum

n 1A

C

ogn

itiv

e C

olum

n 1

B

Per

son

al

Col

umn

1C

S

ocia

l

Co

lum

n 2

Con

ten

t

Col

umn

3

Rec

omm

end

ed t

each

ing

an

d l

earn

ing

acti

viti

es a

nd

res

ourc

es

Inte

llec

tual

an

d pr

oble

m

solv

ing

skil

ls

At

the

com

plet

ion

of t

his

U

nit,

a s

tude

nt s

hou

ld b

e ab

le t

o:

ÿ· Des

crib

e th

e re

lati

onsh

ips

betw

een

disp

lace

men

t, v

eloc

ity

and

acc

eler

atio

n an

d w

ith

tim

e

Cal

cula

te s

peed

, av

erag

e sp

eed,

ac

cele

rati

on a

nd

dece

lera

tion

(bo

th

theo

reti

call

y a

nd

prac

tica

lly)

Per

son

al s

kill

s D

urin

g th

is U

nit

a st

uden

t sh

ould

co

nsi

sten

tly:

ÿ· S

how

hon

esty

an

d di

scip

line

, pa

tien

ce a

nd

fair

ness

wit

h ot

hers

in

cond

ucti

ng

grou

p di

scus

sio

ns a

nd

expe

rim

ents

C

omm

un

icat

ion

sk

ills

A

t th

e co

mp

leti

on o

f th

is U

nit,

a s

tude

nt

shou

ld b

e ab

le t

o:

ÿ· Wri

te a

bri

ef

repo

rt o

n ho

w

forc

e an

d m

otio

n in

flue

nce

our

dail

y li

ves

ÿ· Exp

lain

ora

lly

how

for

ce a

nd

mot

ion

infl

uenc

e ou

r d

aily

liv

es

Soc

ial

skil

ls

Dur

ing

this

Uni

t a

stud

ent

shou

ld:

ÿ· Dev

elop

aw

aren

ess

abou

t th

e da

nger

s of

sp

eed

and

impo

rtan

ce o

f sa

fe t

rave

l C

o-o

pera

tive

ski

lls

Dur

ing

this

Uni

t, a

st

uden

t sh

ould

: ÿ·

Act

ivel

y pa

rtic

ipat

e w

ith

othe

r st

uden

ts

in c

ondu

ctin

g di

scus

sion

s an

d in

vest

igat

ions

1

Mot

ion

an

d m

otio

n-r

elat

ed q

uan

titi

es (

3 p

erio

ds)

E

xam

ples

of

mot

ion

from

dif

fere

nt p

oint

s of

vie

w w

ith

diag

ram

s D

isti

ncti

on b

etw

een

dist

ance

an

d di

spla

cem

ent

Mea

ning

of

spee

d

Con

nect

ion

betw

een

spe

ed a

nd v

eloc

ity

H

ow t

o m

easu

re s

pee

d [s

peed

omet

er, r

adar

, las

er g

un]

Cal

cula

ting

spe

ed a

t di

ffer

ent

tim

es a

nd d

raw

ing

a gr

aph

of t

he r

elat

ions

hip

Mea

ning

of

acce

lera

tion

and

dec

eler

atio

n

Cal

cula

tion

of

acce

lera

tion

and

dec

eler

atio

n.

==

==

==

==

==

==

==

==

==

==

==

==

==

==

==

==

==

==

==

==

==

In

ves

tiga

tion

(1

per

iod

)

Inve

stig

atio

n to

be

cond

uct

ed o

utsi

de t

he c

lass

room

M

easu

rem

ent

of d

ista

nce,

spe

ed a

nd a

ccel

erat

ion

for

a tr

ip

==

==

==

==

==

==

==

==

==

==

==

==

==

==

==

==

==

==

==

==

==

=

Use

pra

ctic

al e

xper

ienc

es s

uch

as t

he

mot

ion

of a

ric

ksh

aw, c

ar a

nd w

alki

ng t

o de

mon

stra

te

mo

tio

n fr

om d

iffe

rent

poi

nts

of v

iew

A

sk s

tude

nts

thei

r un

ders

tan

ding

ab

out

dist

ance

and

dis

plac

emen

t an

d th

eir

mea

sure

men

t A

sk s

tude

nts

if t

hey

kno

w t

he m

eani

ng o

f sp

eed

D

escr

ibe

how

dis

tanc

e is

rel

ated

wit

h sp

eed

and

dis

plac

emen

t w

ith

velo

city

D

iscu

ssio

n of

ho

w t

o m

easu

re s

peed

usi

ng t

he

mac

hin

es (

men

tion

ed i

n th

e co

nten

t)

Cal

cula

tion

of

spee

d an

d a

vera

ge s

peed

and

gi

ve

stu

dent

s so

me

calc

ulat

ions

to

atte

mpt

..

Ex

plai

n ho

w t

o d

raw

gra

phs

; st

uden

ts t

o dr

aw

spee

d-t

ime

grap

hs

Dis

cuss

acc

eler

atio

n an

d de

cele

rati

on a

nd

thei

r re

lati

onsh

ips

wit

h ve

loci

ty a

nd t

ime

and

thei

r ca

lcul

atio

ns.

Res

ourc

es:

rou

nd s

hape

d sm

all

obj

ect,

pla

ne,

in

clin

ed p

lane

, une

ven

plan

e, b

icyc

le (

mod

el),

ri

cksh

aw (

mod

el),

gra

ph p

aper

Gro

up

wor

k to

be

done

ou

tsid

e th

e cl

assr

oom

. S

tude

nts

can

ride

a b

icyc

le o

r ca

n u

se

rick

shaw

or

they

can

run

in

the

pla

ygro

und

to

mea

sure

dis

tanc

e, s

peed

an

d ac

cele

rati

on.

Tea

cher

wil

l se

lect

the

tri

p an

d p

rovi

de g

uid

e.R

esou

rces

: St

op

wat

ch/c

lock

, mea

sure

men

t ta

pe

(met

er g

aug

e) a

nd o

ther

mat

eria

l(s)

if

nece

ssar

y, t

each

er/s

tude

nts

wil

l se

lect

IV. Conclusion

The unitrack curriculum is designed to establish a broad-based general education for grades 9 and 10. Curriculum contents are selected to prepare students better for the rapidly changing scenario of the employment market and the need for young people to be adaptable to this dynamic situation. The presumption is that an integrated approach to designing and implementing the curriculum enhances and maximizes learning both within and across the key learning areas of the revised curriculum. It would enable students to acquire essential skills in all the key domains critical for their preparation for life and further learning. It would help teachers to plan for the development of key skills and an understanding that transcends specific contents of the syllabus in a subject.

Designing a new curriculum is only the first step in reform. Implementation of the unitrack curriculum has faced obstacles and remains in abeyance. Attention has to be given to overcoming the obstacles and the ground has to be prepared for effective implementation of reforms.

References

1. Ministry of Education (2003). Notification No. si ma/sha:10/5(NCTB) 6/99 (aungsha) 684, date 9.14.2003. Dhaka.

2. NCTB(2004a), “Revised Unitrack General Science Curriculum document”. Dhaka: National Curriculum and Textbook Board.

3. NCTB (2004b), “Unitrack Bangla, General Science, and Social Science documents: Teaching-learning approach.” Dhaka: National Curriculum and Textbook Board.

4. NCTB (2004c).“Unitrack General Science curriculum document.” Dhaka: National Curriculum and Textbook Board.

5. SESIP (2003). “An Evaluation of the curriculum including syllabuses, textbooks and assessment, grades 9-10,” Assessment Research Study, January 2003. Dhaka: Ministry of Education.

6. SESIPTA (2004a), “Orientation workshops on the introduction of a Unitrack Curriculum in grades 9-10”, January 2004, Dhaka: Ministry of Education.

7. SESIPTA(2004b). “Report on a feasibility study on introducing SBA in grades 9-10 as a component of the SSC examination”, February 2004. Dhaka: Ministry of Education.

8. SESIPTA (2004c). “Proposal for reform of the Secondary School Certificate Examination.” Dhaka: Ministry of Education..

9. Wahabb, M. (2003a).“First steps in the review of the curriculum for grades 9 and 10.” Dhaka: Ministry of Education

10. Wahab M.A.(2003b). “Background, rationale and measures for introduction of Unitrack Curriculum at grades 9-10,” Paper presented at Stakeholders Workshops (Oct-Dec, 2003). Dhaka: Ministry of Education.

36 Bangladesh Education Journal Bangladesh Education Journal 37

Tab

le 2

. U

nit

3:

Let

's G

et M

ovin

g [2

6 C

lass

Hou

rs]

Sp

ecif

ic l

earn

ing

outc

omes

C

olum

n 1A

C

ogn

itiv

e C

olum

n 1

B

Per

son

al

Col

umn

1C

S

ocia

l

Co

lum

n 2

Con

ten

t

Col

umn

3

Rec

omm

end

ed t

each

ing

an

d l

earn

ing

acti

viti

es a

nd

res

ourc

es

Inte

llec

tual

an

d pr

oble

m

solv

ing

skil

ls

At

the

com

plet

ion

of t

his

U

nit,

a s

tude

nt s

hou

ld b

e ab

le t

o:

ÿ· Des

crib

e th

e re

lati

onsh

ips

betw

een

disp

lace

men

t, v

eloc

ity

and

acc

eler

atio

n an

d w

ith

tim

e

Cal

cula

te s

peed

, av

erag

e sp

eed,

ac

cele

rati

on a

nd

dece

lera

tion

(bo

th

theo

reti

call

y a

nd

prac

tica

lly)

Per

son

al s

kill

s D

urin

g th

is U

nit

a st

uden

t sh

ould

co

nsi

sten

tly:

ÿ· S

how

hon

esty

an

d di

scip

line

, pa

tien

ce a

nd

fair

ness

wit

h ot

hers

in

cond

ucti

ng

grou

p di

scus

sio

ns a

nd

expe

rim

ents

C

omm

un

icat

ion

sk

ills

A

t th

e co

mp

leti

on o

f th

is U

nit,

a s

tude

nt

shou

ld b

e ab

le t

o:

ÿ· Wri

te a

bri

ef

repo

rt o

n ho

w

forc

e an

d m

otio

n in

flue

nce

our

dail

y li

ves

ÿ· Exp

lain

ora

lly

how

for

ce a

nd

mot

ion

infl

uenc

e ou

r d

aily

liv

es

Soc

ial

skil

ls

Dur

ing

this

Uni

t a

stud

ent

shou

ld:

ÿ· Dev

elop

aw

aren

ess

abou

t th

e da

nger

s of

sp

eed

and

impo

rtan

ce o

f sa

fe t

rave

l C

o-o

pera

tive

ski

lls

Dur

ing

this

Uni

t, a

st

uden

t sh

ould

: ÿ·

Act

ivel

y pa

rtic

ipat

e w

ith

othe

r st

uden

ts

in c

ondu

ctin

g di

scus

sion

s an

d in

vest

igat

ions

1

Mot

ion

an

d m

otio

n-r

elat

ed q

uan

titi

es (

3 p

erio

ds)

E

xam

ples

of

mot

ion

from

dif

fere

nt p

oint

s of

vie

w w

ith

diag

ram

s D

isti

ncti

on b

etw

een

dist

ance

an

d di

spla

cem

ent

Mea

ning

of

spee

d

Con

nect

ion

betw

een

spe

ed a

nd v

eloc

ity

H

ow t

o m

easu

re s

pee

d [s

peed

omet

er, r

adar

, las

er g

un]

Cal

cula

ting

spe

ed a

t di

ffer

ent

tim

es a

nd d

raw

ing

a gr

aph

of t

he r

elat

ions

hip

Mea

ning

of

acce

lera

tion

and

dec

eler

atio

n

Cal

cula

tion

of

acce

lera

tion

and

dec

eler

atio

n.

==

==

==

==

==

==

==

==

==

==

==

==

==

==

==

==

==

==

==

==

==

In

ves

tiga

tion

(1

per

iod

)

Inve

stig

atio

n to

be

cond

uct

ed o

utsi

de t

he c

lass

room

M

easu

rem

ent

of d

ista

nce,

spe

ed a

nd a

ccel

erat

ion

for

a tr

ip

==

==

==

==

==

==

==

==

==

==

==

==

==

==

==

==

==

==

==

==

==

=

Use

pra

ctic

al e

xper

ienc

es s

uch

as t

he

mot

ion

of a

ric

ksh

aw, c

ar a

nd w

alki

ng t

o de

mon

stra

te

mo

tio

n fr

om d

iffe

rent

poi

nts

of v

iew

A

sk s

tude

nts

thei

r un

ders

tan

ding

ab

out

dist

ance

and

dis

plac

emen

t an

d th

eir

mea

sure

men

t A

sk s

tude

nts

if t

hey

kno

w t

he m

eani

ng o

f sp

eed

D

escr

ibe

how

dis

tanc

e is

rel

ated

wit

h sp

eed

and

dis

plac

emen

t w

ith

velo

city

D

iscu

ssio

n of

ho

w t

o m

easu

re s

peed

usi

ng t

he

mac

hin

es (

men

tion

ed i

n th

e co

nten

t)

Cal

cula

tion

of

spee

d an

d a

vera

ge s

peed

and

gi

ve

stu

dent

s so

me

calc

ulat

ions

to

atte

mpt

..

Ex

plai

n ho

w t

o d

raw

gra

phs

; st

uden

ts t

o dr

aw

spee

d-t

ime

grap

hs

Dis

cuss

acc

eler

atio

n an

d de

cele

rati

on a

nd

thei

r re

lati

onsh

ips

wit

h ve

loci

ty a

nd t

ime

and

thei

r ca

lcul

atio

ns.

Res

ourc

es:

rou

nd s

hape

d sm

all

obj

ect,

pla

ne,

in

clin

ed p

lane

, une

ven

plan

e, b

icyc

le (

mod

el),

ri

cksh

aw (

mod

el),

gra

ph p

aper

Gro

up

wor

k to

be

done

ou

tsid

e th

e cl

assr

oom

. S

tude

nts

can

ride

a b

icyc

le o

r ca

n u

se

rick

shaw

or

they

can

run

in

the

pla

ygro

und

to

mea

sure

dis

tanc

e, s

peed

an

d ac

cele

rati

on.

Tea

cher

wil

l se

lect

the

tri

p an

d p

rovi

de g

uid

e.R

esou

rces

: St

op

wat

ch/c

lock

, mea

sure

men

t ta

pe

(met

er g

aug

e) a

nd o

ther

mat

eria

l(s)

if

nece

ssar

y, t

each

er/s

tude

nts

wil

l se

lect

IV. Conclusion

The unitrack curriculum is designed to establish a broad-based general education for grades 9 and 10. Curriculum contents are selected to prepare students better for the rapidly changing scenario of the employment market and the need for young people to be adaptable to this dynamic situation. The presumption is that an integrated approach to designing and implementing the curriculum enhances and maximizes learning both within and across the key learning areas of the revised curriculum. It would enable students to acquire essential skills in all the key domains critical for their preparation for life and further learning. It would help teachers to plan for the development of key skills and an understanding that transcends specific contents of the syllabus in a subject.

Designing a new curriculum is only the first step in reform. Implementation of the unitrack curriculum has faced obstacles and remains in abeyance. Attention has to be given to overcoming the obstacles and the ground has to be prepared for effective implementation of reforms.

References

1. Ministry of Education (2003). Notification No. si ma/sha:10/5(NCTB) 6/99 (aungsha) 684, date 9.14.2003. Dhaka.

2. NCTB(2004a), “Revised Unitrack General Science Curriculum document”. Dhaka: National Curriculum and Textbook Board.

3. NCTB (2004b), “Unitrack Bangla, General Science, and Social Science documents: Teaching-learning approach.” Dhaka: National Curriculum and Textbook Board.

4. NCTB (2004c).“Unitrack General Science curriculum document.” Dhaka: National Curriculum and Textbook Board.

5. SESIP (2003). “An Evaluation of the curriculum including syllabuses, textbooks and assessment, grades 9-10,” Assessment Research Study, January 2003. Dhaka: Ministry of Education.

6. SESIPTA (2004a), “Orientation workshops on the introduction of a Unitrack Curriculum in grades 9-10”, January 2004, Dhaka: Ministry of Education.

7. SESIPTA(2004b). “Report on a feasibility study on introducing SBA in grades 9-10 as a component of the SSC examination”, February 2004. Dhaka: Ministry of Education.

8. SESIPTA (2004c). “Proposal for reform of the Secondary School Certificate Examination.” Dhaka: Ministry of Education..

9. Wahabb, M. (2003a).“First steps in the review of the curriculum for grades 9 and 10.” Dhaka: Ministry of Education

10. Wahab M.A.(2003b). “Background, rationale and measures for introduction of Unitrack Curriculum at grades 9-10,” Paper presented at Stakeholders Workshops (Oct-Dec, 2003). Dhaka: Ministry of Education.

36 Bangladesh Education Journal Bangladesh Education Journal 37

I. The Evolution of University Governance

The Colonial Period

The first university of East Bengal (later East Pakistan, now Bangladesh), Dhaka University, was established in 1921. Its establishment was considered an imperial concession made to appease the hard feelings of the Muslim middle class of East Bengal following the annulment of the partition of Bengal in 1911, which resulted from the protest movement led by the more privileged Hindu community.

stDhaka University opened its doors to students on 1 July 1921with three faculties, 12 departments, 60 teachers (recruited from colleges and Calcutta University) and 877 students. Today, in 2007, Bangladesh has 29 public universities and 56 private universities with 206,000 students and 10,250 teachers.

The Governor of Bengal was designated as the Chancellor of Dhaka University. He was the Head and Chief Officer of the University and President of its Court and would be responsible for the appointment of the first vice-chancellor. This was done under the Dacca University Act of 1920. The first appointed vice-chancellor, P. J. Hartog, CIE, had been the Academic

Reforming University Education in Bangladesh: A Historical View

*Abdul Mannan

* Professor , Department of Business Administration, East West University, Dhaka

Abstract

University education in Bangladesh is at a crossroads. Educationists, donor agencies, researchers, politicians, civil society representatives, parents, and students have expressed their concern about the state of university education. One common worry is that, in the context of globalization, our graduates are becoming less competitive than their peers in the region. Ad hoc solutions are not seen as the remedy for the deep-rooted problems.

The author argues that articulation of policy as well as the governance, management and administrative problems of universities need to be given serious attention. Drawing on his direct and close personal involvement as an academic and senior administrator, both in the public and the private university system, the author provides a historical perspective and suggests areas of action that need attention.

Note: An earlier version of the paper was presented at the Annual General Meeting of Bangladesh Forum for Educational Development on 11 May, 2007. - Editor

I. The Evolution of University Governance

The Colonial Period

The first university of East Bengal (later East Pakistan, now Bangladesh), Dhaka University, was established in 1921. Its establishment was considered an imperial concession made to appease the hard feelings of the Muslim middle class of East Bengal following the annulment of the partition of Bengal in 1911, which resulted from the protest movement led by the more privileged Hindu community.

stDhaka University opened its doors to students on 1 July 1921with three faculties, 12 departments, 60 teachers (recruited from colleges and Calcutta University) and 877 students. Today, in 2007, Bangladesh has 29 public universities and 56 private universities with 206,000 students and 10,250 teachers.

The Governor of Bengal was designated as the Chancellor of Dhaka University. He was the Head and Chief Officer of the University and President of its Court and would be responsible for the appointment of the first vice-chancellor. This was done under the Dacca University Act of 1920. The first appointed vice-chancellor, P. J. Hartog, CIE, had been the Academic

Reforming University Education in Bangladesh: A Historical View

*Abdul Mannan

* Professor , Department of Business Administration, East West University, Dhaka

Abstract

University education in Bangladesh is at a crossroads. Educationists, donor agencies, researchers, politicians, civil society representatives, parents, and students have expressed their concern about the state of university education. One common worry is that, in the context of globalization, our graduates are becoming less competitive than their peers in the region. Ad hoc solutions are not seen as the remedy for the deep-rooted problems.

The author argues that articulation of policy as well as the governance, management and administrative problems of universities need to be given serious attention. Drawing on his direct and close personal involvement as an academic and senior administrator, both in the public and the private university system, the author provides a historical perspective and suggests areas of action that need attention.

Note: An earlier version of the paper was presented at the Annual General Meeting of Bangladesh Forum for Educational Development on 11 May, 2007. - Editor

Registrar of the University of London. He served the University of Dhaka from December 1, 1920 to December 31, 1925.

The appointment of vice-chancellors in the different universities of East Pakistan by the government continued till the independence of Bangladesh. The vice-chancellors, thus appointed, would owe their allegiance to the government and follow government directives. A potential for conflict and tension arose, since the Indian sub-continent at that time was undergoing a historical transformation. Political movements for the independence of India were gaining momentum. The student community in Dhaka University could not remain aloof from the changing course of history. The university authorities had to maintain a balance between student activism and protecting the university's academic atmosphere.

Since Independence

When Bangladesh emerged as an independent nation in 1971, the country had four general universities (Dhaka, Rajshahi, Jahangirnagar, and Chittagong), and two specialized universities (Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology - BUET, and Bangladesh Agricultural University - BAU). To provide for the academic and administrative freedom and autonomy of the universities, the first post-independence government of Bangladesh enacted four separate laws for the four general universities in 1973. In the drafting committee of the Acts, eminent scholars, legal experts, and leading citizens were included, such as Professor Abdur Razzak, Barrister Syed Ishtiaque Ahmed, Professor Khan Sarwar Morshed, Dr. Kamal Hossain, Professor Muniruzzaman Mia, Professor Serajul Islam Choudhury, and Professor Ajoy Roy.

The spirit of the Acts reflects the intention to protect the autonomy of the country's highest seats of learning. Through the formation of a democratically elected university senate, syndicate and other statutory bodies, the university administration was expected to be made accountable to the university community itself, rather than subservient to the government or the party in power. The University Grants Commission (UGC) was also created in 1973 as a buffer between the government and the universities.

The 1973 University Acts replaced the old University Acts which were seen as giving the university administration unbridled powers to repress academic freedom. For example, under the old Acts, the Heads of the Departments and the Deans of Faculties were appointed by the vice-chancellor for an indefinite term. The heads of departments wielded a great deal of authority. Appointments, promotions and nominations for scholarships were controlled by them, and they were accountable to practically no one for their decisions, except perhaps the Vice-Chancellor.

Changes were also made by the new Bangladesh government to the Acts of the specialized universities (BUET, BAU). However, implementation of the University Acts of 1973 was stalled after the political change that followed the assassination of the President of the country and its founder Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman in 1975. The successive military and quasi-military governments were uncomfortable with the autonomy and

40 Bangladesh Education Journal

academic freedom of the universities granted by the new Acts. The introduction of the new Acts was not completed until the early 1990s.

The functioning of the universities after the introduction of the 1973 laws initially went smoothly, but this did not last long. The post-1975 military government wanted to control the affairs of the universities because universities were seen as a source of resentment against the military rule. The first anti-martial law procession was organized by the Chittagong University Teacher's Association within six months of General Ershad's take-over of state power in 1983. A large number of teachers and students participated in the protest rally. Today, a finger is frequently pointed at the 1973 University Acts as the cause of the sorry state of public university governance in Bangladesh. But it is unfair to place all the blame on the Acts, as the acts apply to only four of the 29 public universities; the other universities are governed by separate Acts/Orders.

The problems in the universities became acute once the government attempted to control and influence university management to suit their political needs to a degree not seen earlier. One consequence was that the government became indifferent to the misdeeds of the university administration, because most of the perpetrators were close accomplices of the party in power. Government hand-picked the vice-chancellors in the four largest public universities, bypassing the provision of the University Act of 1973, which had provided for appointment to these posts by a three-person panel elected by the university senate.

The senate comprised 101 senators out of which 33 were teacher representatives and 25 registered graduates. The students had five representatives; the government directly or indirectly nominated the rest. The government got directly and notoriously involved in pulling strings in the formation of the senate. In some universities, the election of the registered graduate representatives took the form of trade body elections, with promises of favours exchanged to influence election outcomes. In one of the senate elections under the post-1991 political government, a candidate was seen using a helicopter during his campaign.

Common sense dictates that once a person is appointed as vice-chancellor from a panel of three, the panel's purpose has been served. However, when one vice-chancellor's post fell vacant due to his resignation from one university, the post was filled by a person from the old panel. His appointment letter read, “appointed Vice-chancellor till a new panel is formed by the senate”, but a new panel was never formed. There have been instances of the misuse of the legal system by filing a writ petition to halt the formation of a new selection panel so that the incumbent could continue indefinitely.

Erosion of Standards and Norms

The erosion of ethical standards and norms in university governance and management that began in the 1970s became more widespread and institutionalized in later years. As soon as a new government assumed power, it became common practice in the public universities to replace the duly elected and appointed vice-chancellors with persons regarded as loyal to the

Bangladesh Education Journal 41

Registrar of the University of London. He served the University of Dhaka from December 1, 1920 to December 31, 1925.

The appointment of vice-chancellors in the different universities of East Pakistan by the government continued till the independence of Bangladesh. The vice-chancellors, thus appointed, would owe their allegiance to the government and follow government directives. A potential for conflict and tension arose, since the Indian sub-continent at that time was undergoing a historical transformation. Political movements for the independence of India were gaining momentum. The student community in Dhaka University could not remain aloof from the changing course of history. The university authorities had to maintain a balance between student activism and protecting the university's academic atmosphere.

Since Independence

When Bangladesh emerged as an independent nation in 1971, the country had four general universities (Dhaka, Rajshahi, Jahangirnagar, and Chittagong), and two specialized universities (Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology - BUET, and Bangladesh Agricultural University - BAU). To provide for the academic and administrative freedom and autonomy of the universities, the first post-independence government of Bangladesh enacted four separate laws for the four general universities in 1973. In the drafting committee of the Acts, eminent scholars, legal experts, and leading citizens were included, such as Professor Abdur Razzak, Barrister Syed Ishtiaque Ahmed, Professor Khan Sarwar Morshed, Dr. Kamal Hossain, Professor Muniruzzaman Mia, Professor Serajul Islam Choudhury, and Professor Ajoy Roy.

The spirit of the Acts reflects the intention to protect the autonomy of the country's highest seats of learning. Through the formation of a democratically elected university senate, syndicate and other statutory bodies, the university administration was expected to be made accountable to the university community itself, rather than subservient to the government or the party in power. The University Grants Commission (UGC) was also created in 1973 as a buffer between the government and the universities.

The 1973 University Acts replaced the old University Acts which were seen as giving the university administration unbridled powers to repress academic freedom. For example, under the old Acts, the Heads of the Departments and the Deans of Faculties were appointed by the vice-chancellor for an indefinite term. The heads of departments wielded a great deal of authority. Appointments, promotions and nominations for scholarships were controlled by them, and they were accountable to practically no one for their decisions, except perhaps the Vice-Chancellor.

Changes were also made by the new Bangladesh government to the Acts of the specialized universities (BUET, BAU). However, implementation of the University Acts of 1973 was stalled after the political change that followed the assassination of the President of the country and its founder Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman in 1975. The successive military and quasi-military governments were uncomfortable with the autonomy and

40 Bangladesh Education Journal

academic freedom of the universities granted by the new Acts. The introduction of the new Acts was not completed until the early 1990s.

The functioning of the universities after the introduction of the 1973 laws initially went smoothly, but this did not last long. The post-1975 military government wanted to control the affairs of the universities because universities were seen as a source of resentment against the military rule. The first anti-martial law procession was organized by the Chittagong University Teacher's Association within six months of General Ershad's take-over of state power in 1983. A large number of teachers and students participated in the protest rally. Today, a finger is frequently pointed at the 1973 University Acts as the cause of the sorry state of public university governance in Bangladesh. But it is unfair to place all the blame on the Acts, as the acts apply to only four of the 29 public universities; the other universities are governed by separate Acts/Orders.

The problems in the universities became acute once the government attempted to control and influence university management to suit their political needs to a degree not seen earlier. One consequence was that the government became indifferent to the misdeeds of the university administration, because most of the perpetrators were close accomplices of the party in power. Government hand-picked the vice-chancellors in the four largest public universities, bypassing the provision of the University Act of 1973, which had provided for appointment to these posts by a three-person panel elected by the university senate.

The senate comprised 101 senators out of which 33 were teacher representatives and 25 registered graduates. The students had five representatives; the government directly or indirectly nominated the rest. The government got directly and notoriously involved in pulling strings in the formation of the senate. In some universities, the election of the registered graduate representatives took the form of trade body elections, with promises of favours exchanged to influence election outcomes. In one of the senate elections under the post-1991 political government, a candidate was seen using a helicopter during his campaign.

Common sense dictates that once a person is appointed as vice-chancellor from a panel of three, the panel's purpose has been served. However, when one vice-chancellor's post fell vacant due to his resignation from one university, the post was filled by a person from the old panel. His appointment letter read, “appointed Vice-chancellor till a new panel is formed by the senate”, but a new panel was never formed. There have been instances of the misuse of the legal system by filing a writ petition to halt the formation of a new selection panel so that the incumbent could continue indefinitely.

Erosion of Standards and Norms

The erosion of ethical standards and norms in university governance and management that began in the 1970s became more widespread and institutionalized in later years. As soon as a new government assumed power, it became common practice in the public universities to replace the duly elected and appointed vice-chancellors with persons regarded as loyal to the

Bangladesh Education Journal 41

party in power. In 2001, eleven vice-chancellors, pro-vice chancellors, and treasurers were replaced as soon as the new government took oath of office. Some of them were elected by the senate, while others were appointed for a fixed term. This was a flagrant politicization of the management of the public universities.

Because of the political patronization culture, some of the vice-chancellors failed to follow the letter and the spirit of the University Acts, orders and statutes, thus contributing directly to the collapse of ethics and norms of university governance. When public protest against the misdeeds of some of the vice-chancellors increased, the government removed them from their offices, but gave them prize postings in either the University Grants Commission (UGC) or the Public Service Commission (PSC). These two vital institutions became a dumping ground for those who were inept and corrupt and yet regarded as loyal to the regime. The credibility and effectiveness of these important institutions were thus eroded.

The pro-vice chancellor's posts were originally created by the University Acts of 1973. Subsequently, a few other universities also included the pro-vice chancellor option in their Acts/Orders. The number of pro-vice chancellor posts in a university was not specified. The Awami League government of 1996-2001 decided that there could be more than one pro-vice chancellor. The number of members of the UGC and PSC was also kept unspecified, though during its tenure the government in office did not make additional appointments in the public universities, UGC or PSC.

Of the public universities, Dhaka, Chittagong, Jahangirnagar, Rajshahi, National University and Bangladesh Open University have pro-vice chancellors. The pro-vice chancellor is not meant to be a deputy to the vice-chancellor; the expectation is that the two work as a team in steering the affairs of the universities. In practice, many of the appointed pro-vice chancellors formed their own cliques, vying for the vice-chancellor's post at the earliest opportunity.

II. Academic Personnel: Key to Quality

Academic Recruitment

A university's image is greatly dependent upon the number of good scholars it can attract and retain. Some universities are known for their learned faculty members, and faculty members identify themselves with the university they belong to. When the newly established Dhaka University wanted Dr. J. C. Ghosh to join its chemistry department, he asked the University for a substantial amount to pay off his debt to Calcutta University. The executive council (present day syndicate) of Dhaka University granted the money and resolved: “That Rs 10,700/- be paid to Dr. J. C. Ghosh to pay off his debt to the Calcutta University and that this sum be debited to the annual capital expenditure of the University provided that Dr. Ghosh gives an undertaking that he remain in service of the university for a period of five years, and his scale of salary remain unaffected” ( Rahim, p.51). Today, faculty recruitment in most of the public universities is marked by mediocrity.

42 Bangladesh Education Journal Bangladesh Education Journal 43

Faculty members are recruited by two recruitment or selection committees in the public universities (in some universities there is only one such committee). Until the beginning of the 1990s, these committees did a fairly good job. In recent years, political alignment or belief rather than scholarship have become the determinant of faculty recruitment. The practice spiralled out of control from 2001 to 2006, when some of the appointees not only had dubious credentials for scholarship, but also had criminal records. Recently, an academic staff member in a leading university publicly confessed that he had secured his appointment by signing a written undertaking that, should he be appointed, he would support a particular political party. Most of these appointments were made at the entry level and so these recruits would be the architects of the academic destiny of the public universities for a long time to come.

Staff Recruitment

The recruitment of non-academic officers and other employees has also been problematic. Public universities in Bangladesh have a non-academic staff-student ratio of 1:60, one of the highest anywhere. In addition, all public universities recruit an army of class four employees (lower level support staff) who are not included in the calculation of this ratio. A common practice in many universities is the recruitment of class three or four employees from among the house help of influential senior university personnel.

Under existing personnel rules for public universities, nonacademic staff are required to be recruited through vertical promotion. Lateral entry into senior administrative positions is almost impossible under the present rules. Thus it is not unusual to find senior officers who started their careers as errand runners. This practice can have disastrous effects. In one public university, the posts of Registrar, Librarian, Controller of Examination, and Director of Accounts have remained vacant for more than a decade; it has been found impossible to fill the vacancies with qualified people because of the promotion rules. In India, public universities often appoint senior officers on deputation from the government bureaucracy. This practice has not been tried in Bangladesh public universities.

III. Financing of Universities

Public University Financing

Education in the public universities of Bangladesh is heavily subsidized. The entire development budget and approximately 90 percent of the recurring budget of public universities come from the public exchequer. On average, recurring expenses in public universities are Taka 37,000 per student per year, whereas in private universities it is Taka 85,000. Total collection from fees and charges per student per year is less than Taka 1,000 in public universities (UGC 2005, p.115).

The comparison of per student expense figures in public and private universities can be misleading. The private universities operate from rental premises, all utility costs are paid in

party in power. In 2001, eleven vice-chancellors, pro-vice chancellors, and treasurers were replaced as soon as the new government took oath of office. Some of them were elected by the senate, while others were appointed for a fixed term. This was a flagrant politicization of the management of the public universities.

Because of the political patronization culture, some of the vice-chancellors failed to follow the letter and the spirit of the University Acts, orders and statutes, thus contributing directly to the collapse of ethics and norms of university governance. When public protest against the misdeeds of some of the vice-chancellors increased, the government removed them from their offices, but gave them prize postings in either the University Grants Commission (UGC) or the Public Service Commission (PSC). These two vital institutions became a dumping ground for those who were inept and corrupt and yet regarded as loyal to the regime. The credibility and effectiveness of these important institutions were thus eroded.

The pro-vice chancellor's posts were originally created by the University Acts of 1973. Subsequently, a few other universities also included the pro-vice chancellor option in their Acts/Orders. The number of pro-vice chancellor posts in a university was not specified. The Awami League government of 1996-2001 decided that there could be more than one pro-vice chancellor. The number of members of the UGC and PSC was also kept unspecified, though during its tenure the government in office did not make additional appointments in the public universities, UGC or PSC.

Of the public universities, Dhaka, Chittagong, Jahangirnagar, Rajshahi, National University and Bangladesh Open University have pro-vice chancellors. The pro-vice chancellor is not meant to be a deputy to the vice-chancellor; the expectation is that the two work as a team in steering the affairs of the universities. In practice, many of the appointed pro-vice chancellors formed their own cliques, vying for the vice-chancellor's post at the earliest opportunity.

II. Academic Personnel: Key to Quality

Academic Recruitment

A university's image is greatly dependent upon the number of good scholars it can attract and retain. Some universities are known for their learned faculty members, and faculty members identify themselves with the university they belong to. When the newly established Dhaka University wanted Dr. J. C. Ghosh to join its chemistry department, he asked the University for a substantial amount to pay off his debt to Calcutta University. The executive council (present day syndicate) of Dhaka University granted the money and resolved: “That Rs 10,700/- be paid to Dr. J. C. Ghosh to pay off his debt to the Calcutta University and that this sum be debited to the annual capital expenditure of the University provided that Dr. Ghosh gives an undertaking that he remain in service of the university for a period of five years, and his scale of salary remain unaffected” ( Rahim, p.51). Today, faculty recruitment in most of the public universities is marked by mediocrity.

42 Bangladesh Education Journal Bangladesh Education Journal 43

Faculty members are recruited by two recruitment or selection committees in the public universities (in some universities there is only one such committee). Until the beginning of the 1990s, these committees did a fairly good job. In recent years, political alignment or belief rather than scholarship have become the determinant of faculty recruitment. The practice spiralled out of control from 2001 to 2006, when some of the appointees not only had dubious credentials for scholarship, but also had criminal records. Recently, an academic staff member in a leading university publicly confessed that he had secured his appointment by signing a written undertaking that, should he be appointed, he would support a particular political party. Most of these appointments were made at the entry level and so these recruits would be the architects of the academic destiny of the public universities for a long time to come.

Staff Recruitment

The recruitment of non-academic officers and other employees has also been problematic. Public universities in Bangladesh have a non-academic staff-student ratio of 1:60, one of the highest anywhere. In addition, all public universities recruit an army of class four employees (lower level support staff) who are not included in the calculation of this ratio. A common practice in many universities is the recruitment of class three or four employees from among the house help of influential senior university personnel.

Under existing personnel rules for public universities, nonacademic staff are required to be recruited through vertical promotion. Lateral entry into senior administrative positions is almost impossible under the present rules. Thus it is not unusual to find senior officers who started their careers as errand runners. This practice can have disastrous effects. In one public university, the posts of Registrar, Librarian, Controller of Examination, and Director of Accounts have remained vacant for more than a decade; it has been found impossible to fill the vacancies with qualified people because of the promotion rules. In India, public universities often appoint senior officers on deputation from the government bureaucracy. This practice has not been tried in Bangladesh public universities.

III. Financing of Universities

Public University Financing

Education in the public universities of Bangladesh is heavily subsidized. The entire development budget and approximately 90 percent of the recurring budget of public universities come from the public exchequer. On average, recurring expenses in public universities are Taka 37,000 per student per year, whereas in private universities it is Taka 85,000. Total collection from fees and charges per student per year is less than Taka 1,000 in public universities (UGC 2005, p.115).

The comparison of per student expense figures in public and private universities can be misleading. The private universities operate from rental premises, all utility costs are paid in

44 Bangladesh Education Journal

full at commercial rate, and their salary level for faculty members is much higher than in the public universities. Thus the per student expenditure figure for private universities reflects actual costs. On the other hand, public universities operate from their own campuses, utilities are highly subsidized, and salaries are relatively low.

Of the total recurring budget in the public universities, 86 percent is spent on salary, pensions, utilities and transport, and only 14 percent goes to the improvement of teaching and research. The total budget allocation in the education sector by the government is about eight percent of the total national revenue budget. Of this, the share of the public universities has always been less than one percent - the highest in recent years being 0.86 percent in 2004-2005, and the lowest 0.75 percent in 2001-2002 (UGC 2005, p.32).

The public universities always operate on a deficit budget that leads to the juggling of budget lines and involvement in financial irregularities to make ends meet. The University Grants Commission and the government have often proposed that the universities should increase their own earnings to pay for a higher share of the budget. This is easier said than done. Everywhere public education is subsidized heavily.

One commonly suggested source of increased revenue for universities is tuition fees. Compared to other countries in the region, the fees are low, but given the earning capacity of a middle class family in Bangladesh, from where the bulk of the students at public universities come, the present fee structure may not be unreasonable.

The tuition fee, of course, is only a small part of the cost to the family. There is also the cost of accommodation. Even in the older and well-established public universities, only 38 percent of the students can avail themselves of the residential facilities. The majority of students have to make their own arrangements. The problem is compounded by the fact that the academic sessions neither start nor finish on time. In some universities these extended sessions (commonly known as “session jams”) run over seven years for a four-year undergraduate course. A closer look at budgets suggests that the deficits can be substantially minimized simply by proper and efficient financial management and reducing the “system loss.” Howsoever one may try, public university education in Bangladesh will remain highly subsidized for the foreseeable future.

Private University Finances

The principal limitation of private universities is that they have to depend for the most part on tuition fees paid by students. Limitations of infrastructure and other academic facilities mean they are unable to recruit larger numbers of students. On average, the ratio of admitted students to admission seekers is around 1:4. The tuition fees are high and the range of courses is limited. Courses would normally include business, IT, pharmacy, telecommunication, engineering, architecture and similarly job-oriented courses.

Very few students in private universities are willing to pay high fees to study the liberal arts, humanities and social sciences, as these courses do not often lead to high-paying jobs.

Bangladesh Education Journal 45

Teaching basic sciences is also expensive and the private universities are not yet ready to invest in such courses. The private universities are likely to remain focused on the employment market and job-oriented courses for the foreseeable future. This is not unusual at an early stage of development of the private system, and has been the case in many other countries.

IV. Emergence of Private Universities

Private Universities in Other Countries

Although the concept of the private university is relatively new in Bangladesh, it has existed in other parts of the world for a long time. A private university is an institution that is run outside of government control. In the US, many of the most prestigious universities including those belonging to the Ivy League are private. These include such well-known institutions as Harvard, Yale, Penn, Dartmouth, Princeton, Columbia and Cornell. Many smaller or less prestigious private universities are run by religious orders. Some US private universities such as the American University in Cairo, the American University in Sarjah or the American University of Beirut operate outside the US.

In the UK, the line between private and public universities is blurred. All British universities have a tradition of institutional autonomy which has developed over centuries. In the first

thhalf of the 20 century, universities began to rely on the government for most of their funding. The apprehension that the universities might lose their autonomy because of this financial dependence proved to be largely unfounded. Respecting the age-old tradition, the government has generally refrained from interfering in the internal matters of universities.

In Germany, there are 63 private universities, most of which offer courses in applied sciences, business and IT. They are relatively small compared to the 233 public universities in the country; few private universities have a student population of more than a thousand. There are also 43 church-run universities in Germany. They specialize in church music, nursing, religious education, theology, social work, special needs education, and curative/therapeutic care.

India has witnessed a mushrooming growth in private universities in the recent past. Some of them, such as specialized research and training institutions in a particular field, are branded as “deemed universities.” In 2004, the Supreme Court of India ordered closure of about 100 private universities in the small state of Chattisgarh. These “universities” had no infrastructural facilities worthy of a university, and were essentially shops for selling degrees. On the other hand, some of the private universities have earned reputations as high quality multi-disciplinary higher education institutions.

The Legal Framework

The Private University Act of Bangladesh was passed in 1992 and the first private university of the country, the North South University, started functioning in the same year. Private

44 Bangladesh Education Journal

full at commercial rate, and their salary level for faculty members is much higher than in the public universities. Thus the per student expenditure figure for private universities reflects actual costs. On the other hand, public universities operate from their own campuses, utilities are highly subsidized, and salaries are relatively low.

Of the total recurring budget in the public universities, 86 percent is spent on salary, pensions, utilities and transport, and only 14 percent goes to the improvement of teaching and research. The total budget allocation in the education sector by the government is about eight percent of the total national revenue budget. Of this, the share of the public universities has always been less than one percent - the highest in recent years being 0.86 percent in 2004-2005, and the lowest 0.75 percent in 2001-2002 (UGC 2005, p.32).

The public universities always operate on a deficit budget that leads to the juggling of budget lines and involvement in financial irregularities to make ends meet. The University Grants Commission and the government have often proposed that the universities should increase their own earnings to pay for a higher share of the budget. This is easier said than done. Everywhere public education is subsidized heavily.

One commonly suggested source of increased revenue for universities is tuition fees. Compared to other countries in the region, the fees are low, but given the earning capacity of a middle class family in Bangladesh, from where the bulk of the students at public universities come, the present fee structure may not be unreasonable.

The tuition fee, of course, is only a small part of the cost to the family. There is also the cost of accommodation. Even in the older and well-established public universities, only 38 percent of the students can avail themselves of the residential facilities. The majority of students have to make their own arrangements. The problem is compounded by the fact that the academic sessions neither start nor finish on time. In some universities these extended sessions (commonly known as “session jams”) run over seven years for a four-year undergraduate course. A closer look at budgets suggests that the deficits can be substantially minimized simply by proper and efficient financial management and reducing the “system loss.” Howsoever one may try, public university education in Bangladesh will remain highly subsidized for the foreseeable future.

Private University Finances

The principal limitation of private universities is that they have to depend for the most part on tuition fees paid by students. Limitations of infrastructure and other academic facilities mean they are unable to recruit larger numbers of students. On average, the ratio of admitted students to admission seekers is around 1:4. The tuition fees are high and the range of courses is limited. Courses would normally include business, IT, pharmacy, telecommunication, engineering, architecture and similarly job-oriented courses.

Very few students in private universities are willing to pay high fees to study the liberal arts, humanities and social sciences, as these courses do not often lead to high-paying jobs.

Bangladesh Education Journal 45

Teaching basic sciences is also expensive and the private universities are not yet ready to invest in such courses. The private universities are likely to remain focused on the employment market and job-oriented courses for the foreseeable future. This is not unusual at an early stage of development of the private system, and has been the case in many other countries.

IV. Emergence of Private Universities

Private Universities in Other Countries

Although the concept of the private university is relatively new in Bangladesh, it has existed in other parts of the world for a long time. A private university is an institution that is run outside of government control. In the US, many of the most prestigious universities including those belonging to the Ivy League are private. These include such well-known institutions as Harvard, Yale, Penn, Dartmouth, Princeton, Columbia and Cornell. Many smaller or less prestigious private universities are run by religious orders. Some US private universities such as the American University in Cairo, the American University in Sarjah or the American University of Beirut operate outside the US.

In the UK, the line between private and public universities is blurred. All British universities have a tradition of institutional autonomy which has developed over centuries. In the first

thhalf of the 20 century, universities began to rely on the government for most of their funding. The apprehension that the universities might lose their autonomy because of this financial dependence proved to be largely unfounded. Respecting the age-old tradition, the government has generally refrained from interfering in the internal matters of universities.

In Germany, there are 63 private universities, most of which offer courses in applied sciences, business and IT. They are relatively small compared to the 233 public universities in the country; few private universities have a student population of more than a thousand. There are also 43 church-run universities in Germany. They specialize in church music, nursing, religious education, theology, social work, special needs education, and curative/therapeutic care.

India has witnessed a mushrooming growth in private universities in the recent past. Some of them, such as specialized research and training institutions in a particular field, are branded as “deemed universities.” In 2004, the Supreme Court of India ordered closure of about 100 private universities in the small state of Chattisgarh. These “universities” had no infrastructural facilities worthy of a university, and were essentially shops for selling degrees. On the other hand, some of the private universities have earned reputations as high quality multi-disciplinary higher education institutions.

The Legal Framework

The Private University Act of Bangladesh was passed in 1992 and the first private university of the country, the North South University, started functioning in the same year. Private

46 Bangladesh Education Journal

universities in Bangladesh are not completely outside government control. The top administrative and academic positions, including that of the vice-chancellor, are formally appointed on the recommendation of the governing body of the respective university, by the President of the country, who is statutorily the Chancellor of all universities. The Ministry of Education is supposed to enforce a degree of control over the functioning of private universities in the country through the UGC.

The Private University Act of 1992 stipulates that, amongst other requirements, a private university have a fixed deposit of Taka five crore with a scheduled bank of the country and that it must move into its own permanent premises measuring five acres within five years from the day of its commencement. The curriculum and courses must also be approved by the UGC.

Many dedicated individuals have played a pioneering role in the development of the private universities. A good amount of ground work was done by Dr. Alimullah Miyan, the former director of the Institute of Business Administration (IBA), Dhaka University, in the latter part of the 1980s. In 1989, when the present author was traveling with him in the US, an extensive discussion took place regarding the private university concept. Dr. Miyan was busy preparing the necessary draft documents for the proposal to enact laws towards setting up private universities in Bangladesh. Dr. Miyan himself became the founder of the International University of Business, Agriculture and Technology in 1993.

V. The State of Private Universities

Rapid Rise in Numbers

In Bangladesh there were 56 private universities in 2007. The promoters of private universities in Bangladesh can be classified into five broad categories:

a) Retired civil bureaucrats

b) Well-established businessmen

c) Senior academicians

d) Active politicians

e) NGOs

There are also private universities of one more category operating in Bangladesh. These are the Bangladeshi campuses of some overseas private universities, generally not well-known in their country of origin.

The growth of private universities was in part a response to the growing number of students leaving the country for higher education in the 1980s. The existing public universities in Bangladesh were not able to provide enough seats or facilities to meet the demand. Today, on average, only one in 25 applying for admission are admitted to the public universities.

The 1980s also witnessed some of the worst incidences of campus violence in the country's history. Even school-going-age children were being sent away by the thousands to neighbouring India for their education. At one point, about 100,000 students at all levels were studying in India. Those who could afford it sent their children to the US, the UK, Canada, Australia, Thailand or Singapore. Not all the overseas institutions where Bangladeshi students went were of acceptable quality.

Under the three recent governments in Bangladesh, 14 private universities were granted government authorization from 1991 to 1996, 9 from 1996 to 2001, and 33 from 2001 to 2006. All have yet to become fully functional. In 2001 there were 27,245 students studying in 23 private universities. By the end of 2006, this number had risen to 88,669, an average increase of 24% per year. (UGC 2005, p.121)

Objectives and Clientele

Most of the enrollment in private universities of Bangladesh is still in the area of business studies. This subject happens to be the bread-winner for most private universities. As previously mentioned, education in private universities is expensive and the costs are not subsidized by the government. The universities have to bear the entire recurring and development expenditure out of the fees realized from the students. In many countries, especially in the US, private universities receive substantial amounts of endowment funding from private benefactors, corporate houses and alumni. The 20 richest universities in the US (Harvard, Berkley, MIT etc), both private and public, have endowments that collectively amount to almost $200 billion (Clausen 2006, p. 1). Such practices are practically non-existent in Bangladesh. Sources of funding other than student fees have yet to be explored in most private universities.

The intentions of the early pioneers of private university education in Bangladesh were to limit migration of students and the drain on foreign currency from Bangladesh and to expand opportunities for quality university education in the country. It is high time now for an appropriate regulatory body, perhaps under the auspices of UGC, to determine to what extent these original intentions have been fulfilled. A small number excepted, private universities do not have the proper infrastructure or academic facilities, nor are they able to provide proper academic leadership. Some private university founders themselves have managed to usurp the post of vice-chancellor, replacing well-qualified and experienced academic leaders. A Dhaka University senior professor, forced to leave the post of vice-chancellor in a private university, commented that none of the founders who were fighting amongst themselves for vice-chancellorships had the requisite qualifications and qualities to be the head of a primary school, let alone a university.

Management Issues

Some private university management boards are made up entirely of family members. Such boards often try to run the universities as a family business, continually interfering with the running of the university and disregarding all established academic norms and interests.

Bangladesh Education Journal 47

46 Bangladesh Education Journal

universities in Bangladesh are not completely outside government control. The top administrative and academic positions, including that of the vice-chancellor, are formally appointed on the recommendation of the governing body of the respective university, by the President of the country, who is statutorily the Chancellor of all universities. The Ministry of Education is supposed to enforce a degree of control over the functioning of private universities in the country through the UGC.

The Private University Act of 1992 stipulates that, amongst other requirements, a private university have a fixed deposit of Taka five crore with a scheduled bank of the country and that it must move into its own permanent premises measuring five acres within five years from the day of its commencement. The curriculum and courses must also be approved by the UGC.

Many dedicated individuals have played a pioneering role in the development of the private universities. A good amount of ground work was done by Dr. Alimullah Miyan, the former director of the Institute of Business Administration (IBA), Dhaka University, in the latter part of the 1980s. In 1989, when the present author was traveling with him in the US, an extensive discussion took place regarding the private university concept. Dr. Miyan was busy preparing the necessary draft documents for the proposal to enact laws towards setting up private universities in Bangladesh. Dr. Miyan himself became the founder of the International University of Business, Agriculture and Technology in 1993.

V. The State of Private Universities

Rapid Rise in Numbers

In Bangladesh there were 56 private universities in 2007. The promoters of private universities in Bangladesh can be classified into five broad categories:

a) Retired civil bureaucrats

b) Well-established businessmen

c) Senior academicians

d) Active politicians

e) NGOs

There are also private universities of one more category operating in Bangladesh. These are the Bangladeshi campuses of some overseas private universities, generally not well-known in their country of origin.

The growth of private universities was in part a response to the growing number of students leaving the country for higher education in the 1980s. The existing public universities in Bangladesh were not able to provide enough seats or facilities to meet the demand. Today, on average, only one in 25 applying for admission are admitted to the public universities.

The 1980s also witnessed some of the worst incidences of campus violence in the country's history. Even school-going-age children were being sent away by the thousands to neighbouring India for their education. At one point, about 100,000 students at all levels were studying in India. Those who could afford it sent their children to the US, the UK, Canada, Australia, Thailand or Singapore. Not all the overseas institutions where Bangladeshi students went were of acceptable quality.

Under the three recent governments in Bangladesh, 14 private universities were granted government authorization from 1991 to 1996, 9 from 1996 to 2001, and 33 from 2001 to 2006. All have yet to become fully functional. In 2001 there were 27,245 students studying in 23 private universities. By the end of 2006, this number had risen to 88,669, an average increase of 24% per year. (UGC 2005, p.121)

Objectives and Clientele

Most of the enrollment in private universities of Bangladesh is still in the area of business studies. This subject happens to be the bread-winner for most private universities. As previously mentioned, education in private universities is expensive and the costs are not subsidized by the government. The universities have to bear the entire recurring and development expenditure out of the fees realized from the students. In many countries, especially in the US, private universities receive substantial amounts of endowment funding from private benefactors, corporate houses and alumni. The 20 richest universities in the US (Harvard, Berkley, MIT etc), both private and public, have endowments that collectively amount to almost $200 billion (Clausen 2006, p. 1). Such practices are practically non-existent in Bangladesh. Sources of funding other than student fees have yet to be explored in most private universities.

The intentions of the early pioneers of private university education in Bangladesh were to limit migration of students and the drain on foreign currency from Bangladesh and to expand opportunities for quality university education in the country. It is high time now for an appropriate regulatory body, perhaps under the auspices of UGC, to determine to what extent these original intentions have been fulfilled. A small number excepted, private universities do not have the proper infrastructure or academic facilities, nor are they able to provide proper academic leadership. Some private university founders themselves have managed to usurp the post of vice-chancellor, replacing well-qualified and experienced academic leaders. A Dhaka University senior professor, forced to leave the post of vice-chancellor in a private university, commented that none of the founders who were fighting amongst themselves for vice-chancellorships had the requisite qualifications and qualities to be the head of a primary school, let alone a university.

Management Issues

Some private university management boards are made up entirely of family members. Such boards often try to run the universities as a family business, continually interfering with the running of the university and disregarding all established academic norms and interests.

Bangladesh Education Journal 47

There are, of course, honourable exceptions, where individuals have used family fortunes and connections to develop the private university as a genuine centre of learning.

As in the case of public universities, the government has not always been free from biases and prejudices in overseeing the affairs of the private universities. At one point in time, there were 26 private universities without a vice-chancellor, though names were proposed by the university boards to the government for the appointments to be made by the President in his capacity as Chancellor of all universities. The appointments were held up because the names proposed did not meet the political loyalty test. On the other hand, some appointments were made within a week or less from the day the nominations were made. Two universities had to wait for four years until they had their regular vice-chancellors appointed; and this only after the Caretaker Government assumed office in January 2007.

Some of the private universities have installed a commendable system of recruitment of faculty members which involves short-listing the candidates and asking them to deliver a presentation before a group of faculty members. Such a practice provides some idea of the ability of a person to teach in a classroom situation. Once the candidate has passed this stage, she/he has to appear before the formal selection committee comprising the vice-chancellor, deans, department chairpersons and a representative of the governing board. This practice ensures better selection of academic personnel in a transparent manner, but it is not common to all private universities. Faculty recruitment in some private universities is done on a walk-in basis and often the chief criterion for these recruitments is how “inexpensive” the candidate is and how many courses he or she can teach with the minimum possible remuneration, thus compromising quality in teaching.

The practice of faculty evaluation by students and the chairperson of the concerned department has been introduced in some private universities. This holds the faculty member more accountable to the students and to the department to which he/she belongs. The public universities could immensely benefit from such practices.

Some private university board members do not have enough familiarity with and understanding of the academic world. They try to run their universities either as one of their business concerns or as a government department. Some universities have installed a system of their teaching staff punching time cards as they come in and leave the university. Such a practice is not appropriate for inculcating norms of academic responsibility, nor does it enhance the image of the university or help retain qualified faculty members.

The problem of availability of qualified and experienced faculty members is extremely acute. Some private university administrations do not understand this reality; they follow policies and practices which prompt senior faculty members to leave. The attrition rate of faculty members in private universities is quite high. This is in part because the overall work environment is not attractive due to unwise management decisions and practices.

A high turnover or attrition rate in private universities may have a negative demonstration effect on adjunct faculty members, most of whom come from the public universities. Some

48 Bangladesh Education Journal

adjunct faculty members also come from the corporate world, NGOs, and the government. The contribution of adjunct faculty members to the development of private universities is immense. The private universities in Bangladesh would never have started without the support of some senior faculty from the major public institutions, such as Dhaka, Jahangirnagar, BUET, Chittagong or Rajshahi Universities.

Many private universities do not have proper admission procedures. Some insist on quality students by conducting standard admission tests and viva voce, while it is alleged that in others admission can be bought. These latter universities have consequently succeeded in becoming little more than sales centers of certificates and diplomas. This commercial approach has had an adverse impact on the overall image of private university education in the country. UGC, with proper leadership, vision and intention, has to effectively exercise its watchdog role over the administrative and academic affairs of private universities.

Besides the 56 private universities operating in Bangladesh with the approval of the UGC and the government, there are about a dozen foreign university branches functioning in the country. According to media reports, their operations are often non-transparent. Some of them advertise that students can do their courses partially in Bangladesh and then complete their graduation in the institution's home country. Reports are often published that none of these universities have the proper permission from the appropriate authorities in Bangladesh to offer courses here. If the reports are true, it is mysterious as to why the government is so hesitant to take action against them. If the government wants to encourage established foreign educational institutions to operate in Bangladesh, it needs a proper policy. India, for example, has recently allowed foreign universities to run courses in the country, but under close government guidance, supervision and control.

VI. The Way Forward

The Global Context

Andre Beteille, an eminent sociologist, said: “Universities are not only centres of learning, however badly or well they play their part in transmission and creation of knowledge, they are also social institutions that provide the setting for a very distinctive kind of interaction among young men and women, and between generations” (Beteille 2005, p. 1). In the early days of university education in this country and on the sub-continent, education was promoted as an instrument of social development and change. However, tertiary education opportunities remained limited under the British rule. In the post-colonial period since 1947, opportunities expanded to some extent. Each of the former administrative divisions in Bangladesh had at least one university and a few government colleges affiliated to the universities.

The Bangladesh government pursued a policy of expansion, planning to open new universities and converting some of the former technical institutions into technical universities. However, maintaining the quality of the academic programmes in the new

Bangladesh Education Journal 49

There are, of course, honourable exceptions, where individuals have used family fortunes and connections to develop the private university as a genuine centre of learning.

As in the case of public universities, the government has not always been free from biases and prejudices in overseeing the affairs of the private universities. At one point in time, there were 26 private universities without a vice-chancellor, though names were proposed by the university boards to the government for the appointments to be made by the President in his capacity as Chancellor of all universities. The appointments were held up because the names proposed did not meet the political loyalty test. On the other hand, some appointments were made within a week or less from the day the nominations were made. Two universities had to wait for four years until they had their regular vice-chancellors appointed; and this only after the Caretaker Government assumed office in January 2007.

Some of the private universities have installed a commendable system of recruitment of faculty members which involves short-listing the candidates and asking them to deliver a presentation before a group of faculty members. Such a practice provides some idea of the ability of a person to teach in a classroom situation. Once the candidate has passed this stage, she/he has to appear before the formal selection committee comprising the vice-chancellor, deans, department chairpersons and a representative of the governing board. This practice ensures better selection of academic personnel in a transparent manner, but it is not common to all private universities. Faculty recruitment in some private universities is done on a walk-in basis and often the chief criterion for these recruitments is how “inexpensive” the candidate is and how many courses he or she can teach with the minimum possible remuneration, thus compromising quality in teaching.

The practice of faculty evaluation by students and the chairperson of the concerned department has been introduced in some private universities. This holds the faculty member more accountable to the students and to the department to which he/she belongs. The public universities could immensely benefit from such practices.

Some private university board members do not have enough familiarity with and understanding of the academic world. They try to run their universities either as one of their business concerns or as a government department. Some universities have installed a system of their teaching staff punching time cards as they come in and leave the university. Such a practice is not appropriate for inculcating norms of academic responsibility, nor does it enhance the image of the university or help retain qualified faculty members.

The problem of availability of qualified and experienced faculty members is extremely acute. Some private university administrations do not understand this reality; they follow policies and practices which prompt senior faculty members to leave. The attrition rate of faculty members in private universities is quite high. This is in part because the overall work environment is not attractive due to unwise management decisions and practices.

A high turnover or attrition rate in private universities may have a negative demonstration effect on adjunct faculty members, most of whom come from the public universities. Some

48 Bangladesh Education Journal

adjunct faculty members also come from the corporate world, NGOs, and the government. The contribution of adjunct faculty members to the development of private universities is immense. The private universities in Bangladesh would never have started without the support of some senior faculty from the major public institutions, such as Dhaka, Jahangirnagar, BUET, Chittagong or Rajshahi Universities.

Many private universities do not have proper admission procedures. Some insist on quality students by conducting standard admission tests and viva voce, while it is alleged that in others admission can be bought. These latter universities have consequently succeeded in becoming little more than sales centers of certificates and diplomas. This commercial approach has had an adverse impact on the overall image of private university education in the country. UGC, with proper leadership, vision and intention, has to effectively exercise its watchdog role over the administrative and academic affairs of private universities.

Besides the 56 private universities operating in Bangladesh with the approval of the UGC and the government, there are about a dozen foreign university branches functioning in the country. According to media reports, their operations are often non-transparent. Some of them advertise that students can do their courses partially in Bangladesh and then complete their graduation in the institution's home country. Reports are often published that none of these universities have the proper permission from the appropriate authorities in Bangladesh to offer courses here. If the reports are true, it is mysterious as to why the government is so hesitant to take action against them. If the government wants to encourage established foreign educational institutions to operate in Bangladesh, it needs a proper policy. India, for example, has recently allowed foreign universities to run courses in the country, but under close government guidance, supervision and control.

VI. The Way Forward

The Global Context

Andre Beteille, an eminent sociologist, said: “Universities are not only centres of learning, however badly or well they play their part in transmission and creation of knowledge, they are also social institutions that provide the setting for a very distinctive kind of interaction among young men and women, and between generations” (Beteille 2005, p. 1). In the early days of university education in this country and on the sub-continent, education was promoted as an instrument of social development and change. However, tertiary education opportunities remained limited under the British rule. In the post-colonial period since 1947, opportunities expanded to some extent. Each of the former administrative divisions in Bangladesh had at least one university and a few government colleges affiliated to the universities.

The Bangladesh government pursued a policy of expansion, planning to open new universities and converting some of the former technical institutions into technical universities. However, maintaining the quality of the academic programmes in the new

Bangladesh Education Journal 49

universities, as well as in the older ones, remained a continuing challenge. Politicization and bureaucratic control, the neglect of merit in faculty appointment and promotion, and the inadequacy of funds have kept the public universities impoverished both financially and academically. Successive regimes in Bangladesh have failed to take sensible and pragmatic measures to arrest the progressive downward slide of university education in the country.

The private universities have emerged in response to the failings of the public system, but they were not intended to be an alternative to public universities. They can play only a complementary role and fill a gap in the country's tertiary education system. The basic task of creation and dissemination of knowledge in the fields of the liberal arts, humanities, basic sciences, social sciences, medicine, etc., will remain primarily the domain of the public universities. Unless things improve dramatically and rapidly in both the public and the private system, Bangladesh will not find its place in the global education system.

The global scenario of socio-economic development is changing as knowledge supplants physical capital as the source of present and future wealth. Technology is driving much of the process, with information technology, biotechnology and other innovations leading to remarkable changes in the way we live and work.

As knowledge becomes more important, so does higher education. Countries have to educate more of their young people to a global standard. The quality of knowledge generated within higher education institutions and its application to the wider economy is increasingly critical to national competitiveness.

The task force report of UNESCO and the World Bank on Higher Education acknowledges the critical role of higher education in developing countries. However, the growth of higher education in these countries has not been considered a priority. The UNESCO and World Bank report state:

…Since the 1980s many national governments and international donors have assigned higher education a relatively low priority. Narrow and misleading economic analyses have contributed to the view that public investments in universities and colleges bring meager returns compared to investments in primary and secondary schools and higher education aggravates income inequality. Faculty are often underqualified, lack motivation and are often poorly rewarded. Students are poorly taught and curricula underdeveloped. Developed countries, meanwhile, are constantly raising the stakes. Quite simply, many developing countries will need to work much harder to maintain their position, let alone catch up. There are notable exceptions but currently, across most of the developing world, the potential of higher education to promote development is being realized only marginally. (UNESCO 2001, p. 2)

Action Priorities

Students in Bangladesh may compete with students from the more developed countries and do well. The univesity faculty in Bangladesh are often able to demonstrate their ability to

50 Bangladesh Education Journal

conduct world class research. But these are individual efforts rather than the outcome of a system that is properly planned, adequately resourced and functioning effectively.

The systemic and far-reaching changes in governance, administration and academic affairs needed in university education in Bangladesh call for attention on a priority basis to some key areas indicated in this paper. These include clearer articulation of policy, improved governance and management, and adequate provision for and better use of financial resources.

i. Articulation of higher education policy

The goals, priorities and strategies in higher education and strategies for achieving the stdefined outcomes in the context of the 21 century global market, the knowledge

economy and national aspirations and values must be articulated and delineated clearly. This is not a one-shot affair and requires a mechanism involving major stakeholders to continue a focus on policies, priorities and their implementation.

The structure and content of higher education curricula and teaching-learning practices, the balance between specialized and general liberal arts education, the complementarity of public and private providers of higher education, and the links between primary, secondary and tertiary stages of education should be important elements of policy consideration.

ii.Governance and management of higher education

Critical issues in this category are:

a. Depoliticisation of policy-making, management, personnel practices, and administration of higher education systems and institutions with a focus on the overarching goals of maintaining quality norms and protecting academic freedom in higher education.

b. An effective and genuinely autonomous UGC as an overseeing body, mediator between the government and the higher education institutions, and an initiator of policy discourse.

c. Establishment of norms of quality and performance criteria of institutions, specialized fields of study and research, teacher and student performance and mechanisms for enforcement of standards and criteria including the accreditation system.

d. Greater self-regulation, peer review and internal accountability, and transparency in decision-making in institutions for quality assurance.

iii.Financing of higher education:

Key elements in this category include:

a. Significantly higher allocation of public resources to universities and other institutions of higher education and exploring new avenues for resource mobilization, such as research and consultancy, student loans, corporate sponsorship, philanthropy, etc.

Bangladesh Education Journal 51

universities, as well as in the older ones, remained a continuing challenge. Politicization and bureaucratic control, the neglect of merit in faculty appointment and promotion, and the inadequacy of funds have kept the public universities impoverished both financially and academically. Successive regimes in Bangladesh have failed to take sensible and pragmatic measures to arrest the progressive downward slide of university education in the country.

The private universities have emerged in response to the failings of the public system, but they were not intended to be an alternative to public universities. They can play only a complementary role and fill a gap in the country's tertiary education system. The basic task of creation and dissemination of knowledge in the fields of the liberal arts, humanities, basic sciences, social sciences, medicine, etc., will remain primarily the domain of the public universities. Unless things improve dramatically and rapidly in both the public and the private system, Bangladesh will not find its place in the global education system.

The global scenario of socio-economic development is changing as knowledge supplants physical capital as the source of present and future wealth. Technology is driving much of the process, with information technology, biotechnology and other innovations leading to remarkable changes in the way we live and work.

As knowledge becomes more important, so does higher education. Countries have to educate more of their young people to a global standard. The quality of knowledge generated within higher education institutions and its application to the wider economy is increasingly critical to national competitiveness.

The task force report of UNESCO and the World Bank on Higher Education acknowledges the critical role of higher education in developing countries. However, the growth of higher education in these countries has not been considered a priority. The UNESCO and World Bank report state:

…Since the 1980s many national governments and international donors have assigned higher education a relatively low priority. Narrow and misleading economic analyses have contributed to the view that public investments in universities and colleges bring meager returns compared to investments in primary and secondary schools and higher education aggravates income inequality. Faculty are often underqualified, lack motivation and are often poorly rewarded. Students are poorly taught and curricula underdeveloped. Developed countries, meanwhile, are constantly raising the stakes. Quite simply, many developing countries will need to work much harder to maintain their position, let alone catch up. There are notable exceptions but currently, across most of the developing world, the potential of higher education to promote development is being realized only marginally. (UNESCO 2001, p. 2)

Action Priorities

Students in Bangladesh may compete with students from the more developed countries and do well. The univesity faculty in Bangladesh are often able to demonstrate their ability to

50 Bangladesh Education Journal

conduct world class research. But these are individual efforts rather than the outcome of a system that is properly planned, adequately resourced and functioning effectively.

The systemic and far-reaching changes in governance, administration and academic affairs needed in university education in Bangladesh call for attention on a priority basis to some key areas indicated in this paper. These include clearer articulation of policy, improved governance and management, and adequate provision for and better use of financial resources.

i. Articulation of higher education policy

The goals, priorities and strategies in higher education and strategies for achieving the stdefined outcomes in the context of the 21 century global market, the knowledge

economy and national aspirations and values must be articulated and delineated clearly. This is not a one-shot affair and requires a mechanism involving major stakeholders to continue a focus on policies, priorities and their implementation.

The structure and content of higher education curricula and teaching-learning practices, the balance between specialized and general liberal arts education, the complementarity of public and private providers of higher education, and the links between primary, secondary and tertiary stages of education should be important elements of policy consideration.

ii.Governance and management of higher education

Critical issues in this category are:

a. Depoliticisation of policy-making, management, personnel practices, and administration of higher education systems and institutions with a focus on the overarching goals of maintaining quality norms and protecting academic freedom in higher education.

b. An effective and genuinely autonomous UGC as an overseeing body, mediator between the government and the higher education institutions, and an initiator of policy discourse.

c. Establishment of norms of quality and performance criteria of institutions, specialized fields of study and research, teacher and student performance and mechanisms for enforcement of standards and criteria including the accreditation system.

d. Greater self-regulation, peer review and internal accountability, and transparency in decision-making in institutions for quality assurance.

iii.Financing of higher education:

Key elements in this category include:

a. Significantly higher allocation of public resources to universities and other institutions of higher education and exploring new avenues for resource mobilization, such as research and consultancy, student loans, corporate sponsorship, philanthropy, etc.

Bangladesh Education Journal 51

b. Mutually complementary and coordinated approach among and between public and private institutions to promote goals of quality, nurturing talents, equity in opportunities, and meeting specialised needs for national development.

c. Adequate remuneration for teachers to attract and retain best talents to higher education institutions; linking incentives and rewards to performance in teaching, research and academic leadership based on transparent criteria

stBangladesh is positioned between two emerging titans of the 21 century - China and India. This geo-political position confronts Bangladesh with great challenges and opportunities, if Bangladesh can take on the challenges and seize the opportunities. Development of a system

stof higher education that meets the quality standards of the 21 century is the royal road to fulfillment of the potential of our young people and prosperity for the nation.

References

1. Beteille, A. (2005). “Universities as Public Institutions,” Economic and Political Weekly, July 30, 2005.

2. Clausen, C. (2006). “The New Ivory Tower,” The Wilson Quarterly, Vol. 30. No. 4,

Autumn 2006. Washington D.C.

3. Rahim, M.A. (1981). The History of the University of Dacca. Dhaka: University of Dhaka.

4. UGC (2005). Annual Report of the UGC 2005. Dhaka: University Grants Commission.

5. UNESCO (2001). Higher Education in Developing Countries - Peril and Promise. Paris: UNESCO.

52 Bangladesh Education Journal

AppendixSome Useful Statistics

A. Public Universities (2005)

1. Total number of pubic universities: 29

2. Total number of students: 116,397 (Regular)

(Foreign: 244)

Male: 63%

Female: 37%

Science: 21%

Non-Science: 79%

3 Total number of teachers: 6,921(including 1,260 on study leave)

4 Teacher Student Ratio: 1: 17

5. Staff Student Ratio: 1: 60

6. Total number of students in affiliated colleges (1,733) 780,000

7. Recurring expenses per student yearly:

Highest: Medical university (BSMMU) : Taka 159,906.76

Lowest: Islami University: 17,610.00

Bangladesh Open University: 1,924.00

Average: 37,090.00

Income from own source: 5-12%

Expenses for Salary/pension/electricity/transport: 86%

Teaching (academic): 14%

8. Residential Accommodation: 47,541

Male: 33,758

Female: 13,783

Percentage of students in residence 41

Bangladesh Education Journal 53

b. Mutually complementary and coordinated approach among and between public and private institutions to promote goals of quality, nurturing talents, equity in opportunities, and meeting specialised needs for national development.

c. Adequate remuneration for teachers to attract and retain best talents to higher education institutions; linking incentives and rewards to performance in teaching, research and academic leadership based on transparent criteria

stBangladesh is positioned between two emerging titans of the 21 century - China and India. This geo-political position confronts Bangladesh with great challenges and opportunities, if Bangladesh can take on the challenges and seize the opportunities. Development of a system

stof higher education that meets the quality standards of the 21 century is the royal road to fulfillment of the potential of our young people and prosperity for the nation.

References

1. Beteille, A. (2005). “Universities as Public Institutions,” Economic and Political Weekly, July 30, 2005.

2. Clausen, C. (2006). “The New Ivory Tower,” The Wilson Quarterly, Vol. 30. No. 4,

Autumn 2006. Washington D.C.

3. Rahim, M.A. (1981). The History of the University of Dacca. Dhaka: University of Dhaka.

4. UGC (2005). Annual Report of the UGC 2005. Dhaka: University Grants Commission.

5. UNESCO (2001). Higher Education in Developing Countries - Peril and Promise. Paris: UNESCO.

52 Bangladesh Education Journal

AppendixSome Useful Statistics

A. Public Universities (2005)

1. Total number of pubic universities: 29

2. Total number of students: 116,397 (Regular)

(Foreign: 244)

Male: 63%

Female: 37%

Science: 21%

Non-Science: 79%

3 Total number of teachers: 6,921(including 1,260 on study leave)

4 Teacher Student Ratio: 1: 17

5. Staff Student Ratio: 1: 60

6. Total number of students in affiliated colleges (1,733) 780,000

7. Recurring expenses per student yearly:

Highest: Medical university (BSMMU) : Taka 159,906.76

Lowest: Islami University: 17,610.00

Bangladesh Open University: 1,924.00

Average: 37,090.00

Income from own source: 5-12%

Expenses for Salary/pension/electricity/transport: 86%

Teaching (academic): 14%

8. Residential Accommodation: 47,541

Male: 33,758

Female: 13,783

Percentage of students in residence 41

Bangladesh Education Journal 53

9. Seats available for first year admission:

In 18 public Universities: 18,919

Private universities (including distant education): 32,068

Students passing HSC examination 264,000

B. Private Universities (2005)

1. Private University Act passed in 1992 (President of the Republic is the Chancellor of all private universities by the Act)

2. Total Private universities: 56 (6 asked to close;Some yet to start operation)

3. Total number of students: 88,669 ( 695 foreign students)

4. Total number of teachers: 5,638

Full Time: 3,319

Part time: 2, 319

5. Teacher student ratio: 1:16

6. Average expenses per student: Taka 84,648.00

USTC: Tk. 148,856.00

NSU: 66,852.00

IIUC 51,493.00

IUB: 87,125.00

Ahsanullah: 68,354.00

AIUB 67,913.00

EWU: 67,559.00

BRAC: 119,035.00

7. Degrees awarded so far: 15,000 +8. Largest enrollment: Business Administration.

Source: UGC Annual Report 2005

54 Bangladesh Education Journal

The Second Primary Education Development Programme

( PEDP II)

Highlights of a Consultation with Civil Society

I. Welcome Statement

Ms. Rasheda K. Choudhury, Director of CAMPE expressed her gratitude to the participants of the consultation including the government representatives and the development partners. She noted that the consultation was the result of lobbying for such a sharing with the Ministry of Primary and Mass Education as the mid-term review (MTR) was going on. She emphasized the importance of forging partnerships to achieve the goals of PEDP II. The civil society including NGOs, CBOs, and research organizations and academic organizations can contribute to the success of PEDP-II. Since PEDP II was designed with a focus on quality primary education, the attention in all the efforts must be on quality with access and equity, she said. This program must address, asserted Ms. Choudhury, the problems of accessibility of disadvantaged children belonging to poor families, remote areas, those with special needs, and ethnic groups.

She promised to offer all support on behalf of the NGOs working in the education sector and members of civil society to the Directorate of Primary Education (DPE) in any aspect of the realization and implementation of PEDP-II. The NGOs have expertise, experience and professionalism, which should be fully exploited. She urged that the involvement of the civil society should be not just in sharing information, but also in improving the delivery of primary education.

[Editor's Note: A consultation with the civil society during mid-term review of the Second Primary Education Development Programme (PEDP II) was organized by Campaign for Popular Education (CAMPE) and the Education Watch Group at the LGED Auditorium on 5 November 2007. About 120 participants representing concerned government agencies, particularly, the Ministry of Primary and Mass Education (MOPME), Directorate of Primary Education (DPE), civil society groups, researchers, development partners, people from the print and electronic media, academics, and national and international NGO personnel attended the consultation. The meeting was chaired by Dr. Manzoor Ahmed, Director of the Institute of Educational Development, BRAC University, who is also a member of the Education Watch Advisory Board.

The account below, compiled by CAMPE, is not a verbatim report of the meeting, but a summary of key points made in the course of presentations, comments, questions and responses. The highlights of the consultation is published in the journal because of its topical interest.]

A Topical Report

9. Seats available for first year admission:

In 18 public Universities: 18,919

Private universities (including distant education): 32,068

Students passing HSC examination 264,000

B. Private Universities (2005)

1. Private University Act passed in 1992 (President of the Republic is the Chancellor of all private universities by the Act)

2. Total Private universities: 56 (6 asked to close;Some yet to start operation)

3. Total number of students: 88,669 ( 695 foreign students)

4. Total number of teachers: 5,638

Full Time: 3,319

Part time: 2, 319

5. Teacher student ratio: 1:16

6. Average expenses per student: Taka 84,648.00

USTC: Tk. 148,856.00

NSU: 66,852.00

IIUC 51,493.00

IUB: 87,125.00

Ahsanullah: 68,354.00

AIUB 67,913.00

EWU: 67,559.00

BRAC: 119,035.00

7. Degrees awarded so far: 15,000 +8. Largest enrollment: Business Administration.

Source: UGC Annual Report 2005

54 Bangladesh Education Journal

The Second Primary Education Development Programme

( PEDP II)

Highlights of a Consultation with Civil Society

I. Welcome Statement

Ms. Rasheda K. Choudhury, Director of CAMPE expressed her gratitude to the participants of the consultation including the government representatives and the development partners. She noted that the consultation was the result of lobbying for such a sharing with the Ministry of Primary and Mass Education as the mid-term review (MTR) was going on. She emphasized the importance of forging partnerships to achieve the goals of PEDP II. The civil society including NGOs, CBOs, and research organizations and academic organizations can contribute to the success of PEDP-II. Since PEDP II was designed with a focus on quality primary education, the attention in all the efforts must be on quality with access and equity, she said. This program must address, asserted Ms. Choudhury, the problems of accessibility of disadvantaged children belonging to poor families, remote areas, those with special needs, and ethnic groups.

She promised to offer all support on behalf of the NGOs working in the education sector and members of civil society to the Directorate of Primary Education (DPE) in any aspect of the realization and implementation of PEDP-II. The NGOs have expertise, experience and professionalism, which should be fully exploited. She urged that the involvement of the civil society should be not just in sharing information, but also in improving the delivery of primary education.

[Editor's Note: A consultation with the civil society during mid-term review of the Second Primary Education Development Programme (PEDP II) was organized by Campaign for Popular Education (CAMPE) and the Education Watch Group at the LGED Auditorium on 5 November 2007. About 120 participants representing concerned government agencies, particularly, the Ministry of Primary and Mass Education (MOPME), Directorate of Primary Education (DPE), civil society groups, researchers, development partners, people from the print and electronic media, academics, and national and international NGO personnel attended the consultation. The meeting was chaired by Dr. Manzoor Ahmed, Director of the Institute of Educational Development, BRAC University, who is also a member of the Education Watch Advisory Board.

The account below, compiled by CAMPE, is not a verbatim report of the meeting, but a summary of key points made in the course of presentations, comments, questions and responses. The highlights of the consultation is published in the journal because of its topical interest.]

A Topical Report

II. PEDP II Progress

Chowdhury Mufad Ahmed, Joint Program Director, PEDP-II, presented the progress made so far in the Second Primary Education Development Programme (PEDP-II) with an informative and comprehensive PowerPoint presentation.

Mr. Ahmed noted that despite delayed start, and very complex financing mechanism, and constraints regarding understanding and implementation procedure of a programme approach, fund utilization in two and a half years has been satisfactory.

He mentioned that, in a formal sense, it may be said that PEDPII programme completed its fourth year since its official starting date, but the real implementation period was two and half years since the loans became effective. He also noted that PEDPII was the first sector-wide programme in the education sector of Bangladesh. He reported that a large number of personnel were transferred from the PEDP first phase to revenue budget, that a total of 14,200 new assistant teachers were recruited and 10,578 teachers and employees would be recruited in the primary schools by December 2007. Now PEDPII is at the midpoint. So it was not yet the time to make a judgment about the success or the failure of PEDPII.

As noted, a large number of posts has been brought under regular budget and a large number of teacher appointments have been made. Major accomplishments have been recorded in construction of classrooms. Ground has been laid for quality improvement.

The backlog of untrained teachers has been significantly reduced and subject-based training in URCs carried out. Preparation is underway for redesigning C-in- Ed; inclusive education and gender frame work have been prepared. SLIP implementation on a pilot basis has started and guidelines for innovation grants have been prepared.

He concluded by mentioning major challengesr more systematic attention to quality in construction and operational matters; classroom teaching learning; applying the inclusive education and gender framework, effectively introducing school level and upazila level planning; better data base for effective monitoring, capacity building at field and central levels, and ultimately making a real difference in learning outcome of children.

Mr. Ahmed regretted that there have been mis-information and half-truths in some observations from some civil society organistaions and there has been mis-leading or incomplete reporting in the media. He urged greater balance and fairness in observations and reporting in order to help achieve the goals of PEDP II.

III. Comments by Designated Discussants

After the presentation, four designated discussants gave their views.

Professor Nazmul Haq, IER, Dhaka University

l So far progress in PEDP-II is evident in the quantitative areas; a much greater qualitative emphasis is needed.

l Quality of education is a multidimensional issue; different aspects are required to be addressed simultaneously. For instance, if buildings are constructed but teachers are not deputed or the curriculum is changed, but textbooks remain the same, the goal will not be achieved.

l Reduction of dropout remains a challenge; there is also “virtual exclusion” and low and in-effective contact hours which neutralize the effect of retention.

l Teachers are being trained through different programmes but are the teachers using the skills in class? The essential conditions for better teaching-learning in class must be created.

l Textbooks are provided, but teachers' guide and workbooks and supplementary reading for teachers and students are virtually absent.

l PTIs and URCs are critical resources for teacher development; their reforms and development are needed which is not making a headway.

l Quality primary education is a national agenda; government alone cannot and need not carry the whole burden without the support of all who can and want to contribute.

l If the government would like to benefit from the voices and judgments of the civil society and the non-government stakeholders including the academic and research community, an independent advisory committee can be appointed to advise the government on major issues of primary education development. Such a body can provide an objective assessment of potential contribution of non-government actors to achieving the PEDPII goals.

Dr. Shafiqul Islam, Director, Education, BRAC

l Attendance rate of enrolled students is not at an acceptable level and need serious attention.

l B a n g l a d e s h h a s a s s e t s a n d c a p a b i l i t i e s i n n o n - g o v e r n m e n t organizations/institutions which should be used in PEDPII.

l Though PEDP-II follows the program approach in the education sector, there appear to be not enough provisions for piloting new interventions. BRAC has much experience and a strong mechanism for testing and piloting interventions.

l PEDP-II is focused on quality of education; greater emphasis should be on initiatives directly related to quality improvement.

l BRAC Education Programmme, which is now some 30 years old, has a wealth of experience in dealing with critical issues in primary education and testing feasible approaches. BRAC remains ready to offer any assistance needed.

l PEDP-II needs to seriously review and re-design important components of the teaching learning process in the classroom to achieve its quality objectives.

56 Bangladesh Education Journal Bangladesh Education Journal 57

II. PEDP II Progress

Chowdhury Mufad Ahmed, Joint Program Director, PEDP-II, presented the progress made so far in the Second Primary Education Development Programme (PEDP-II) with an informative and comprehensive PowerPoint presentation.

Mr. Ahmed noted that despite delayed start, and very complex financing mechanism, and constraints regarding understanding and implementation procedure of a programme approach, fund utilization in two and a half years has been satisfactory.

He mentioned that, in a formal sense, it may be said that PEDPII programme completed its fourth year since its official starting date, but the real implementation period was two and half years since the loans became effective. He also noted that PEDPII was the first sector-wide programme in the education sector of Bangladesh. He reported that a large number of personnel were transferred from the PEDP first phase to revenue budget, that a total of 14,200 new assistant teachers were recruited and 10,578 teachers and employees would be recruited in the primary schools by December 2007. Now PEDPII is at the midpoint. So it was not yet the time to make a judgment about the success or the failure of PEDPII.

As noted, a large number of posts has been brought under regular budget and a large number of teacher appointments have been made. Major accomplishments have been recorded in construction of classrooms. Ground has been laid for quality improvement.

The backlog of untrained teachers has been significantly reduced and subject-based training in URCs carried out. Preparation is underway for redesigning C-in- Ed; inclusive education and gender frame work have been prepared. SLIP implementation on a pilot basis has started and guidelines for innovation grants have been prepared.

He concluded by mentioning major challengesr more systematic attention to quality in construction and operational matters; classroom teaching learning; applying the inclusive education and gender framework, effectively introducing school level and upazila level planning; better data base for effective monitoring, capacity building at field and central levels, and ultimately making a real difference in learning outcome of children.

Mr. Ahmed regretted that there have been mis-information and half-truths in some observations from some civil society organistaions and there has been mis-leading or incomplete reporting in the media. He urged greater balance and fairness in observations and reporting in order to help achieve the goals of PEDP II.

III. Comments by Designated Discussants

After the presentation, four designated discussants gave their views.

Professor Nazmul Haq, IER, Dhaka University

l So far progress in PEDP-II is evident in the quantitative areas; a much greater qualitative emphasis is needed.

l Quality of education is a multidimensional issue; different aspects are required to be addressed simultaneously. For instance, if buildings are constructed but teachers are not deputed or the curriculum is changed, but textbooks remain the same, the goal will not be achieved.

l Reduction of dropout remains a challenge; there is also “virtual exclusion” and low and in-effective contact hours which neutralize the effect of retention.

l Teachers are being trained through different programmes but are the teachers using the skills in class? The essential conditions for better teaching-learning in class must be created.

l Textbooks are provided, but teachers' guide and workbooks and supplementary reading for teachers and students are virtually absent.

l PTIs and URCs are critical resources for teacher development; their reforms and development are needed which is not making a headway.

l Quality primary education is a national agenda; government alone cannot and need not carry the whole burden without the support of all who can and want to contribute.

l If the government would like to benefit from the voices and judgments of the civil society and the non-government stakeholders including the academic and research community, an independent advisory committee can be appointed to advise the government on major issues of primary education development. Such a body can provide an objective assessment of potential contribution of non-government actors to achieving the PEDPII goals.

Dr. Shafiqul Islam, Director, Education, BRAC

l Attendance rate of enrolled students is not at an acceptable level and need serious attention.

l B a n g l a d e s h h a s a s s e t s a n d c a p a b i l i t i e s i n n o n - g o v e r n m e n t organizations/institutions which should be used in PEDPII.

l Though PEDP-II follows the program approach in the education sector, there appear to be not enough provisions for piloting new interventions. BRAC has much experience and a strong mechanism for testing and piloting interventions.

l PEDP-II is focused on quality of education; greater emphasis should be on initiatives directly related to quality improvement.

l BRAC Education Programmme, which is now some 30 years old, has a wealth of experience in dealing with critical issues in primary education and testing feasible approaches. BRAC remains ready to offer any assistance needed.

l PEDP-II needs to seriously review and re-design important components of the teaching learning process in the classroom to achieve its quality objectives.

56 Bangladesh Education Journal Bangladesh Education Journal 57

M. Habibur Rahman, Director, Education, SC-USA

l Quality of education is a national concern. To achieve the goal of quality education the coordinated effort of the government and NGOs is a must.

l The improvement of quality is dependent on how the community perceive and understand quality; the civil society bodies can be partners in this community involvement process.

l Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE) including preschool is one important and sure answer to quality problem. Pre-school has shown to reduce dropout and increase attendance and completion rates.

l Essentially through NGO efforts, major steps have been taken to extend standard preschool program to almost a quarter of the eligible children; Bangladesh Early Childhood Development Network (BEN) has developed curricular framework for preschool and operational framework for ECD with the encouragement of MOPME and MOWCA respectively. Shishu Academy, UNICEF and major NGOs active in ECD have been involved in this effort. Future expansion of preschool and ECD should be based on these models; no need to re-invent the wheel.

l NGOs have strong capacities in various areas including Non-formal education, pre-school, ECCE and inclusive education. These experiences and capacities must be used by the Government in PEDP-II.

l Government should take the initiative, with community and NGO cooperation, in area-based mapping in each Upazila of school-age children and the providers of education services and how they match essential for planning and ensuring quality education for all.

l· BRAC, Caritas, Save Alliance and others have demonstrated their commitment and taken initiative in serving children with special needs. The education of the disadvantaged children should be prioritized in PEDP-II and the NGOs with a track record must be taken as partners.

l The Paris Declaration on harmonization, to which donors and the government are committed, requires that the contribution of all actors, including non-government national actors, are encouraged and promoted in a coordinated way.

Dr. M. Ahmadullah Miah, Director, Research and Advocacy, DAM

l The SLIP guidelines and trial draw on some experience from the IDEAL project supported by UNICEF. Although the concept was sound, the earlier effort was not encouraging, because the supportive conditions did not exist. The past lessons must be taken into account for school-based planning and improvement of learning.

l Class room-based plan for one or two critical steps that the teachers, parents and the school can take to keep the children in class and help them perform better must be the focus of SLIP not a very elaborate and time-consuming exercise with many rules and procedures. This would cut back further the already limited time of teachers for teaching. The actions may be different in each class and each school.

l SMCs should be strengthened by enhancing their understanding and skills and the community should be more closely involved in the affairs of the school.

l NGO experience in primary education must be utilised; a case in point is DAM's primary school support with Plan's assistance, which has shown promising outcomes.

l Existing teacher training is not producing the desired results. Just chalking up numbers without improving the effectiveness of PTI training is futile. Reform in PTI training has been under consideration for a long time and moving very slowly; models and experiences that exist in the country should be utilized to design and trial more effective practical and efficient approaches.

l For the size of the program and scale of investment in PEDP II, and considering how critical are the stakes, the state of essential data regarding basic indicators such as net enrollment and dropout is deplorable. Data collection, generation, analysis and reporting for PEDP-II should be more systematic, objective and up-to-date. There are non-government institutions in the country which can help, if asked.

IV. Comments from the Government andDevelopment Partners

On behalf of the Ministry of Primary and Mass Education, apart from the presentation from the Joint Programme Director, the Secretary of Ministry of Primary and Mass Education (MOPME) and the Director General, Directorate of Primary Education (DPE) spoke. On behalf of the donors, Ms Hua Du, the ADB Country Director; Steffan Lock of the European Commission, Chair of the PEDPII Donors Consortium; and Brajesh Panth, ADB Programme Manger for PEDP II, spoke.

Mr. M. Musharraf Hossain Bhuiyan, Secretary, MoPME, welcomed the opportunity to have the consultation with the civil society and non-government stakeholders of PEDP II. He said that while there were important accomplishments, major challenges remained ahead. He made the following points:

l The dropout rate of 47% was reported in the 2005 baseline survey of PEDPII. A comparison with earlier data showing 33% dropout is not appropriate because the methodology and the coverage base were not the same. More recent data have been collected, but are yet to be processed.

l He was optimistic that that significant progress in primary education of our country would be achieved with the completion of PEDPII.

l The innovative grants provision under PEDPII allows scope of involving NGOs in this program. The guideline in English is being translated into Bangla to make these more accessible to small NGOs.

l The government is in control of PEDPII and owns the programme. Eleven development partners are supporting the government to implement the program successfully.

58 Bangladesh Education Journal Bangladesh Education Journal 59

M. Habibur Rahman, Director, Education, SC-USA

l Quality of education is a national concern. To achieve the goal of quality education the coordinated effort of the government and NGOs is a must.

l The improvement of quality is dependent on how the community perceive and understand quality; the civil society bodies can be partners in this community involvement process.

l Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE) including preschool is one important and sure answer to quality problem. Pre-school has shown to reduce dropout and increase attendance and completion rates.

l Essentially through NGO efforts, major steps have been taken to extend standard preschool program to almost a quarter of the eligible children; Bangladesh Early Childhood Development Network (BEN) has developed curricular framework for preschool and operational framework for ECD with the encouragement of MOPME and MOWCA respectively. Shishu Academy, UNICEF and major NGOs active in ECD have been involved in this effort. Future expansion of preschool and ECD should be based on these models; no need to re-invent the wheel.

l NGOs have strong capacities in various areas including Non-formal education, pre-school, ECCE and inclusive education. These experiences and capacities must be used by the Government in PEDP-II.

l Government should take the initiative, with community and NGO cooperation, in area-based mapping in each Upazila of school-age children and the providers of education services and how they match essential for planning and ensuring quality education for all.

l· BRAC, Caritas, Save Alliance and others have demonstrated their commitment and taken initiative in serving children with special needs. The education of the disadvantaged children should be prioritized in PEDP-II and the NGOs with a track record must be taken as partners.

l The Paris Declaration on harmonization, to which donors and the government are committed, requires that the contribution of all actors, including non-government national actors, are encouraged and promoted in a coordinated way.

Dr. M. Ahmadullah Miah, Director, Research and Advocacy, DAM

l The SLIP guidelines and trial draw on some experience from the IDEAL project supported by UNICEF. Although the concept was sound, the earlier effort was not encouraging, because the supportive conditions did not exist. The past lessons must be taken into account for school-based planning and improvement of learning.

l Class room-based plan for one or two critical steps that the teachers, parents and the school can take to keep the children in class and help them perform better must be the focus of SLIP not a very elaborate and time-consuming exercise with many rules and procedures. This would cut back further the already limited time of teachers for teaching. The actions may be different in each class and each school.

l SMCs should be strengthened by enhancing their understanding and skills and the community should be more closely involved in the affairs of the school.

l NGO experience in primary education must be utilised; a case in point is DAM's primary school support with Plan's assistance, which has shown promising outcomes.

l Existing teacher training is not producing the desired results. Just chalking up numbers without improving the effectiveness of PTI training is futile. Reform in PTI training has been under consideration for a long time and moving very slowly; models and experiences that exist in the country should be utilized to design and trial more effective practical and efficient approaches.

l For the size of the program and scale of investment in PEDP II, and considering how critical are the stakes, the state of essential data regarding basic indicators such as net enrollment and dropout is deplorable. Data collection, generation, analysis and reporting for PEDP-II should be more systematic, objective and up-to-date. There are non-government institutions in the country which can help, if asked.

IV. Comments from the Government andDevelopment Partners

On behalf of the Ministry of Primary and Mass Education, apart from the presentation from the Joint Programme Director, the Secretary of Ministry of Primary and Mass Education (MOPME) and the Director General, Directorate of Primary Education (DPE) spoke. On behalf of the donors, Ms Hua Du, the ADB Country Director; Steffan Lock of the European Commission, Chair of the PEDPII Donors Consortium; and Brajesh Panth, ADB Programme Manger for PEDP II, spoke.

Mr. M. Musharraf Hossain Bhuiyan, Secretary, MoPME, welcomed the opportunity to have the consultation with the civil society and non-government stakeholders of PEDP II. He said that while there were important accomplishments, major challenges remained ahead. He made the following points:

l The dropout rate of 47% was reported in the 2005 baseline survey of PEDPII. A comparison with earlier data showing 33% dropout is not appropriate because the methodology and the coverage base were not the same. More recent data have been collected, but are yet to be processed.

l He was optimistic that that significant progress in primary education of our country would be achieved with the completion of PEDPII.

l The innovative grants provision under PEDPII allows scope of involving NGOs in this program. The guideline in English is being translated into Bangla to make these more accessible to small NGOs.

l The government is in control of PEDPII and owns the programme. Eleven development partners are supporting the government to implement the program successfully.

58 Bangladesh Education Journal Bangladesh Education Journal 59

l Because of the delayed start of implementation, the programme duration is likely to be extended by a year.

He also mentioned that the main areas of collaboration with the non-government actors may be inclusive education, participation in innovation grant, and preschool education. He expressed his support for more frequent consultation and sharing of information with the civil society and non-government actors in education.

Ms Hua Du, Country Director, ADB, was pleased that the consultation had been arranged. She made the following points.

l First round innovative grants have been awarded to 10 NGOs to address mostly access related issues. There is now an understanding that this will have to be expanded in the second round for more NGOs to participate more widely.

l Inclusive education strategies and action plans have been approved and now the focus is on implementation. This will open up opportunities for greater interaction with NGOs and better involvement, since some of them are doing excellent work.

l The draft policy for early childhood education (preschool education) was prepared with extensive collaboration of NGOs. This will continue to provide more opportunities at the implementation level.

l For the first time MOPE/DPE organized an interaction with the civil society organizations in July 2007. This type of interaction needs to be regular to exchange views and benefit from each other. Another interaction was organized by the NGOs in September 2007 where MOPME and DPE officials as well as DPs participated.

l PEDPII is a program approach and is in a stage of transition. All of us are learning. MoPME/DPE have begun to respond to some of the concerns of CSOs. There is now more information sharing in different forms. DPE has established its website and also for PEDPII. Progress report is also available on the website. CSOs should continue to provide feedback to help improve it.

l As we move forward with PEDPII, more opportunities would be evolving. The government is trying to scale-up school level improvement plans (SLIPs) and upazila primary education plans (UPEPs). This will also open up opportunities to collaborate and develop partnership in different forms at the field level where it will be possible to jointly address the challenges of providing quality education to all.

l It is important that this interaction is taking place at the time of the MTR. Constructive feedback from the civil society will be really helpful to enhance implementation of PEDPII. It is also important to learn from each other by appreciating the constraints and challenges of both parties. The open dialogue must continue.

V. Comments/suggestions from the floor

Comments were made and questions were posed by the audience from the floor. The

highlights are noted below.

l PEDPII is covering only formal education, but excludes the madrasa and other complementary activities such as youth and adult literacy, or second chance opportunities.

l PEDP should address the unaddressed issues relating to EFA national plan of action and relevant elements of PRSP and MDGs.

l Quality education needs quality teacher, but in PEDPII work on the development of teachers has not been given due urgency. PTIs provide training in two shifts which takes teachers away from school which are already short of teachers. How about provision for substitute teachers, when teachers are in training or on long leave?

l Quality teachers are being recruited under PEDP; improvement in this area is much appreciated. However, the capable teaches are not continuing in teaching due to poor salary and benefits.

l Currently teachers are getting training after joining in service, which is wastage of public money. Teachers can be recruited from those who have already completed the PTI training.

l Textbook quality should be enhanced and complemented by other learning aids, such as, teacher's guide and supplementary materials.

l Attention must be given to changing the teaching-learning transaction in the classroom; systematic involvement in PEDP II is essential of those including NGO education programmes which can offer practical experience in bringing about such change.

l Teacher-student contact hours should be increased and the classroom environment must be improved, along with a manageable class size.

l Tangible and substantial progress should be made in inclusive education without further delay; replication of a wide range of good practices that exist, especially in NGO programs, must be given priority.

l The gender framework that has been prepared should be put into action without delay with the involvement of all who have some experience in this area and can contribute to implementation.

l Community and culture-based education programs should be developed and tried to reach every child. Teaching and learning materials in ethnic languages are essential to serve children of these minorities.

VI. More DP and Government Comments

Dr. Stefan Lock, Chair, PEDP-II Consortium, noted that MTR was going on and the implementation process and the framework was under scrutiny. Listening to the voices of the Civil Society Organistaions (CSO) and understanding the importance of involving CSOs in the implementation of PEDPII in achieving the goal of the program was a very meaningful

60 Bangladesh Education Journal Bangladesh Education Journal 61

l Because of the delayed start of implementation, the programme duration is likely to be extended by a year.

He also mentioned that the main areas of collaboration with the non-government actors may be inclusive education, participation in innovation grant, and preschool education. He expressed his support for more frequent consultation and sharing of information with the civil society and non-government actors in education.

Ms Hua Du, Country Director, ADB, was pleased that the consultation had been arranged. She made the following points.

l First round innovative grants have been awarded to 10 NGOs to address mostly access related issues. There is now an understanding that this will have to be expanded in the second round for more NGOs to participate more widely.

l Inclusive education strategies and action plans have been approved and now the focus is on implementation. This will open up opportunities for greater interaction with NGOs and better involvement, since some of them are doing excellent work.

l The draft policy for early childhood education (preschool education) was prepared with extensive collaboration of NGOs. This will continue to provide more opportunities at the implementation level.

l For the first time MOPE/DPE organized an interaction with the civil society organizations in July 2007. This type of interaction needs to be regular to exchange views and benefit from each other. Another interaction was organized by the NGOs in September 2007 where MOPME and DPE officials as well as DPs participated.

l PEDPII is a program approach and is in a stage of transition. All of us are learning. MoPME/DPE have begun to respond to some of the concerns of CSOs. There is now more information sharing in different forms. DPE has established its website and also for PEDPII. Progress report is also available on the website. CSOs should continue to provide feedback to help improve it.

l As we move forward with PEDPII, more opportunities would be evolving. The government is trying to scale-up school level improvement plans (SLIPs) and upazila primary education plans (UPEPs). This will also open up opportunities to collaborate and develop partnership in different forms at the field level where it will be possible to jointly address the challenges of providing quality education to all.

l It is important that this interaction is taking place at the time of the MTR. Constructive feedback from the civil society will be really helpful to enhance implementation of PEDPII. It is also important to learn from each other by appreciating the constraints and challenges of both parties. The open dialogue must continue.

V. Comments/suggestions from the floor

Comments were made and questions were posed by the audience from the floor. The

highlights are noted below.

l PEDPII is covering only formal education, but excludes the madrasa and other complementary activities such as youth and adult literacy, or second chance opportunities.

l PEDP should address the unaddressed issues relating to EFA national plan of action and relevant elements of PRSP and MDGs.

l Quality education needs quality teacher, but in PEDPII work on the development of teachers has not been given due urgency. PTIs provide training in two shifts which takes teachers away from school which are already short of teachers. How about provision for substitute teachers, when teachers are in training or on long leave?

l Quality teachers are being recruited under PEDP; improvement in this area is much appreciated. However, the capable teaches are not continuing in teaching due to poor salary and benefits.

l Currently teachers are getting training after joining in service, which is wastage of public money. Teachers can be recruited from those who have already completed the PTI training.

l Textbook quality should be enhanced and complemented by other learning aids, such as, teacher's guide and supplementary materials.

l Attention must be given to changing the teaching-learning transaction in the classroom; systematic involvement in PEDP II is essential of those including NGO education programmes which can offer practical experience in bringing about such change.

l Teacher-student contact hours should be increased and the classroom environment must be improved, along with a manageable class size.

l Tangible and substantial progress should be made in inclusive education without further delay; replication of a wide range of good practices that exist, especially in NGO programs, must be given priority.

l The gender framework that has been prepared should be put into action without delay with the involvement of all who have some experience in this area and can contribute to implementation.

l Community and culture-based education programs should be developed and tried to reach every child. Teaching and learning materials in ethnic languages are essential to serve children of these minorities.

VI. More DP and Government Comments

Dr. Stefan Lock, Chair, PEDP-II Consortium, noted that MTR was going on and the implementation process and the framework was under scrutiny. Listening to the voices of the Civil Society Organistaions (CSO) and understanding the importance of involving CSOs in the implementation of PEDPII in achieving the goal of the program was a very meaningful

60 Bangladesh Education Journal Bangladesh Education Journal 61

experience. All have spoken about the need for joint efforts of the government, NGOs and others. He was hopeful that in the near future this desired collaboration would be stronger.

Mr. Lock saw several areas for working together by government and other actors:

- Reviewing and dialoguing about progress

- Reality check provided from the stakeholders' point of view

- Substantial quality interventions, e.g., implementing SLIP and teaching in ethnic languages

- Technical consultancy through institutional partnership; especially with academic and research institutions

- Collaboration in research and analytical work.

Mr. Brajesh P. Panth, Program Manager, PEDP-II, ADB, said that quality education is an important issue not only for the government but also for the development partners. Developing new education materials, classroom learning system, and other key issues relating to quality enhancement are the priority in providing support; the development partners are optimistic about addressing these issues leading to good outcomes.

Mr. Khondoker Md. Asaduzzaman, Director General, DPE, who is also the Programme Director of PEDP II, said that the issue of inclusive education is very important and DPE expects to start implementing the framework that has been developed in the coming year. Double shift training in PTIs is also a concern and training of teachers in single shift will take place very soon. He mentioned that a committee has prepared a recommendation regarding changes in the C-in-Ed primary teacher training course in PTIs and has been presented to MOPME. A decision is expected to be taken and implemented shortly.

The Bangla textbook for Class I which was subject to criticism is being revised according to recommendations compiled with the assistance of CAMPE. A new textbook prepared by NCTB would be available for the 2009 academic year.

Benefits to the teachers have recently been increased, but the benefit does not cover all the teachers to the same degree and this is a big concern. Quality education is not achievable within a day, it needs time and every one should understand this and have patience.

Mr Asaduzzaman said that it would not be wise or proper to conclude that PEDP is a failed programme. We should wait, he said, till the completion of the programme, because all involved in DPE and in the programme are working hard to achieve the results; and they are confident about making substantial progress.

The Director General said that any major change in PEDPP II in respect of collaboration with non-government actors or in the implementation mode cannot be expected, because of the limitations of the operational procedures and rules of the government. He added that this type of consultation would definitely help setting the priorities and changing the wrong ones towards a positive direction.

VII. Concluding Comments by the Chair

Dr. Manzoor Ahmed, Director, BU-IED, the moderartor of the consultation, remarked that the principal stakeholders of PEDP II were the government, the development partners and the civil society bodies including, parents, teachers, communities and education NGOs. They were represented in force in the consultation. This consultation, while the MTR was going on, was a milestone. The challenge still was to go beyond consultation and sharing, which must continue, but actually to begin working together, allowing all who can, to contribute to achieve the goals. The mid-term review should be an opportunity to consider course correction for the second half of the programme and also to start thinking about longer term needs. He did not expect radical changes immediately, but said that many barriers to change are in the mindset, and the occasion for necessary changes that the MTR provided should not be lost.

In summing up the comments and discussion, the chair went on to underscore the following points.

l A research and development strand within PEDP II for quality improvement interventions should be built in and the implementation framework, including the content and the mechanism of PP, should be modified accordingly. This should be a key outcome of MTR.

l Education NGOs with a strong track record and research institutions and capacities in the county should be utilized in main quality intervention areas including classroom pedagogy, teacher training and teacher support, learning materials, and enhancing accountability of schools. NGO involvement should not be confined to the marginal innovation grants, which is still to be started in full swing.

l Teacher's guides and workbooks and essential learning materials besides the textbook should be provided in the hands of teachers and students. There is no plausible reason for not doing so without any delay, when an amount of materials already developed by NGOs and academic institutions, based on the official curriculum, are available for immediate use.

l Primary teacher training needs to be more practical and effective. Again National Academy of Primary Education and the PTIs can work collaboratively with national institutions and NGOs to adapt methods and materials that have been developed and tried.

l Core school provisions and teaching-learning standards, anticipated in PEDP II are critical for better student performance. UPEP is an important mechanism for this purpose. Piloting on a small scale in each division should be undertaken for planning, decision-making, and greater local control over resources. Full use should be made of committed and capable NGOs and academic institutions in piloting, research and development.

l Development of URCs as a genuine resource base for supporting teachers and schools is a key quality intervention, but not easy to implement effectively. URC

62 Bangladesh Education Journal Bangladesh Education Journal 63

experience. All have spoken about the need for joint efforts of the government, NGOs and others. He was hopeful that in the near future this desired collaboration would be stronger.

Mr. Lock saw several areas for working together by government and other actors:

- Reviewing and dialoguing about progress

- Reality check provided from the stakeholders' point of view

- Substantial quality interventions, e.g., implementing SLIP and teaching in ethnic languages

- Technical consultancy through institutional partnership; especially with academic and research institutions

- Collaboration in research and analytical work.

Mr. Brajesh P. Panth, Program Manager, PEDP-II, ADB, said that quality education is an important issue not only for the government but also for the development partners. Developing new education materials, classroom learning system, and other key issues relating to quality enhancement are the priority in providing support; the development partners are optimistic about addressing these issues leading to good outcomes.

Mr. Khondoker Md. Asaduzzaman, Director General, DPE, who is also the Programme Director of PEDP II, said that the issue of inclusive education is very important and DPE expects to start implementing the framework that has been developed in the coming year. Double shift training in PTIs is also a concern and training of teachers in single shift will take place very soon. He mentioned that a committee has prepared a recommendation regarding changes in the C-in-Ed primary teacher training course in PTIs and has been presented to MOPME. A decision is expected to be taken and implemented shortly.

The Bangla textbook for Class I which was subject to criticism is being revised according to recommendations compiled with the assistance of CAMPE. A new textbook prepared by NCTB would be available for the 2009 academic year.

Benefits to the teachers have recently been increased, but the benefit does not cover all the teachers to the same degree and this is a big concern. Quality education is not achievable within a day, it needs time and every one should understand this and have patience.

Mr Asaduzzaman said that it would not be wise or proper to conclude that PEDP is a failed programme. We should wait, he said, till the completion of the programme, because all involved in DPE and in the programme are working hard to achieve the results; and they are confident about making substantial progress.

The Director General said that any major change in PEDPP II in respect of collaboration with non-government actors or in the implementation mode cannot be expected, because of the limitations of the operational procedures and rules of the government. He added that this type of consultation would definitely help setting the priorities and changing the wrong ones towards a positive direction.

VII. Concluding Comments by the Chair

Dr. Manzoor Ahmed, Director, BU-IED, the moderartor of the consultation, remarked that the principal stakeholders of PEDP II were the government, the development partners and the civil society bodies including, parents, teachers, communities and education NGOs. They were represented in force in the consultation. This consultation, while the MTR was going on, was a milestone. The challenge still was to go beyond consultation and sharing, which must continue, but actually to begin working together, allowing all who can, to contribute to achieve the goals. The mid-term review should be an opportunity to consider course correction for the second half of the programme and also to start thinking about longer term needs. He did not expect radical changes immediately, but said that many barriers to change are in the mindset, and the occasion for necessary changes that the MTR provided should not be lost.

In summing up the comments and discussion, the chair went on to underscore the following points.

l A research and development strand within PEDP II for quality improvement interventions should be built in and the implementation framework, including the content and the mechanism of PP, should be modified accordingly. This should be a key outcome of MTR.

l Education NGOs with a strong track record and research institutions and capacities in the county should be utilized in main quality intervention areas including classroom pedagogy, teacher training and teacher support, learning materials, and enhancing accountability of schools. NGO involvement should not be confined to the marginal innovation grants, which is still to be started in full swing.

l Teacher's guides and workbooks and essential learning materials besides the textbook should be provided in the hands of teachers and students. There is no plausible reason for not doing so without any delay, when an amount of materials already developed by NGOs and academic institutions, based on the official curriculum, are available for immediate use.

l Primary teacher training needs to be more practical and effective. Again National Academy of Primary Education and the PTIs can work collaboratively with national institutions and NGOs to adapt methods and materials that have been developed and tried.

l Core school provisions and teaching-learning standards, anticipated in PEDP II are critical for better student performance. UPEP is an important mechanism for this purpose. Piloting on a small scale in each division should be undertaken for planning, decision-making, and greater local control over resources. Full use should be made of committed and capable NGOs and academic institutions in piloting, research and development.

l Development of URCs as a genuine resource base for supporting teachers and schools is a key quality intervention, but not easy to implement effectively. URC

62 Bangladesh Education Journal Bangladesh Education Journal 63

work also should be in tandem with the support and supervision work of the Upazila education staff. Building a resource team around the URC and making it work should involve NGOs and research institutions.

l The belated piloting of School Level Improvement Plan (SLIP) is burdened by elaborate guidelines and procedures. As designed now, it and appears to be unworkable, because it is too demanding on teachers' scarce time and the requirements are utterly disproportionate to the small amount of fund to be paid to school. It should be a means for engaging teachers and parents seriously in a simple and specific action focused on a specific result, such as, reducing dropout and improving performance by a certain proportion of those who lag behind. Trials designed properly and undertaken collaboratively with appropriate research institutions could show the way.

l NGOs should be supported and encouraged to expand pre-schools, already begun on a sizeable scale by them -- especially for first-generation learners from disadvantaged families.

l An independent committee composed of people with relevant background, and active in education, should be considered for advising the government, especially, with regard to working in cooperation with all who can contribute to achieving the primary education goals.

Dr Ahmed said that it was not too early to begin exploring issues that cannot be addressed within the scope of PEDP II, but are critical for primary education development and achieving the EFA 2015 goals. These include:

l Developing, through consultation with stakeholders, minimum standards for school provisions and a common core curriculum for all children and all types of primary schools, including madrasas, in order to establish a unified primary education system, although there may be a diversity in delivery of services.

l Extending universal primary education up to grade eight.

l Rethinking about public education resources - substantially increasing these resources; allocating these on the basis of well-considered and transparent criteria including child population in each upazila, and utilizing these to achieve quality and equity objectives based on local, decentralised and school-level planning.

l Exploring and developing new modalities of partnerships among government and non-government actors in the country and with external partners to develop and implement strategies to achieve the educational for all goals and build capacities for this purpose.

The chair thanked all for organising and participating in this event. He expressed the confidence that the consultation and sharing of information will continue. He also hoped that this would lead to partnerships in action among all actors in education to achieve the goals in primary education.

Gramer Manush Gramer Orthoniti: Jibon Jibikar Poribortoner Porjaluchona (Rural people Rural Economy: A Study of Change in Life and Livelihood)

By Abdul Bayes and Mahabub Hossain

Dhaka: Writers' Foundation Bangladesh and Swaraj Prokashony, 2007, 512 pp.

In spite of progress in harnessing technology for food production in Bangladesh, ten million people, not assured of three square meals a day, suffer silent hunger. A million hectares of farmland are lost to non-farm use every year and so the food security of at least 1.5 million additional people comes under threat.

Rene Dumont, the French agronomist, warned in 1973 about the danger of not conserving scarce farming land for self-reliant development of “Sonar Bangla”. Development policy and action have yet to face up to this challenge in fighting poverty. Two eminent scholars suggest how to do so after watching the change in lives of rural people over the last two decades.

Prof. Abdul Bayes of Jahangirnagar University and Dr. Mahabub Hossain, Executive Director of BRAC and formerly of the International Rice Research Institute in Manila, have followed the evolution of the rural economy and how it has influenced the lives of rural families.

They tracked a sample of households in 62 villages in as many upazilas since 1988. They went back to the same households to take a snapshot of their lives in 2000 and 2004. They report their findings in a seminal book released in Bangla. An English edition is in the offing. All interested in educational development and its ramifications for fighting poverty in Bangladesh must take note of this book.

The good news is the study's confirmation that the average size of the household has come down in two decades from close to six to close to five. The proportion of infants and children under ten has also come down from over one-third to a quarter of the total household membership.

*Manzoor Ahmed

Education and Rural Poverty

* Director of BRAC University Institute of Educational Development (BU-IED).

64 Bangladesh Education Journal Book Review

work also should be in tandem with the support and supervision work of the Upazila education staff. Building a resource team around the URC and making it work should involve NGOs and research institutions.

l The belated piloting of School Level Improvement Plan (SLIP) is burdened by elaborate guidelines and procedures. As designed now, it and appears to be unworkable, because it is too demanding on teachers' scarce time and the requirements are utterly disproportionate to the small amount of fund to be paid to school. It should be a means for engaging teachers and parents seriously in a simple and specific action focused on a specific result, such as, reducing dropout and improving performance by a certain proportion of those who lag behind. Trials designed properly and undertaken collaboratively with appropriate research institutions could show the way.

l NGOs should be supported and encouraged to expand pre-schools, already begun on a sizeable scale by them -- especially for first-generation learners from disadvantaged families.

l An independent committee composed of people with relevant background, and active in education, should be considered for advising the government, especially, with regard to working in cooperation with all who can contribute to achieving the primary education goals.

Dr Ahmed said that it was not too early to begin exploring issues that cannot be addressed within the scope of PEDP II, but are critical for primary education development and achieving the EFA 2015 goals. These include:

l Developing, through consultation with stakeholders, minimum standards for school provisions and a common core curriculum for all children and all types of primary schools, including madrasas, in order to establish a unified primary education system, although there may be a diversity in delivery of services.

l Extending universal primary education up to grade eight.

l Rethinking about public education resources - substantially increasing these resources; allocating these on the basis of well-considered and transparent criteria including child population in each upazila, and utilizing these to achieve quality and equity objectives based on local, decentralised and school-level planning.

l Exploring and developing new modalities of partnerships among government and non-government actors in the country and with external partners to develop and implement strategies to achieve the educational for all goals and build capacities for this purpose.

The chair thanked all for organising and participating in this event. He expressed the confidence that the consultation and sharing of information will continue. He also hoped that this would lead to partnerships in action among all actors in education to achieve the goals in primary education.

Gramer Manush Gramer Orthoniti: Jibon Jibikar Poribortoner Porjaluchona (Rural people Rural Economy: A Study of Change in Life and Livelihood)

By Abdul Bayes and Mahabub Hossain

Dhaka: Writers' Foundation Bangladesh and Swaraj Prokashony, 2007, 512 pp.

In spite of progress in harnessing technology for food production in Bangladesh, ten million people, not assured of three square meals a day, suffer silent hunger. A million hectares of farmland are lost to non-farm use every year and so the food security of at least 1.5 million additional people comes under threat.

Rene Dumont, the French agronomist, warned in 1973 about the danger of not conserving scarce farming land for self-reliant development of “Sonar Bangla”. Development policy and action have yet to face up to this challenge in fighting poverty. Two eminent scholars suggest how to do so after watching the change in lives of rural people over the last two decades.

Prof. Abdul Bayes of Jahangirnagar University and Dr. Mahabub Hossain, Executive Director of BRAC and formerly of the International Rice Research Institute in Manila, have followed the evolution of the rural economy and how it has influenced the lives of rural families.

They tracked a sample of households in 62 villages in as many upazilas since 1988. They went back to the same households to take a snapshot of their lives in 2000 and 2004. They report their findings in a seminal book released in Bangla. An English edition is in the offing. All interested in educational development and its ramifications for fighting poverty in Bangladesh must take note of this book.

The good news is the study's confirmation that the average size of the household has come down in two decades from close to six to close to five. The proportion of infants and children under ten has also come down from over one-third to a quarter of the total household membership.

*Manzoor Ahmed

Education and Rural Poverty

* Director of BRAC University Institute of Educational Development (BU-IED).

64 Bangladesh Education Journal Book Review

Child labour (11-15 years) has come down by half from 22.7 percent of the rural workers to 11.8 percent. Non-farm employment among the rural work force has increased from 30 to 48 percent a necessary condition for raising productivity and earning in the rural economy.

Particularly relevant for education is the finding that the population in the designated age-group (6-10 years) for primary schooling has decreased from 20 percent to 14 percent in two decades. Primary school enrolment has gone up from 60 percent to 93 and 94 percent respectively for boys and girls.

All households have been beneficiaries of positive change. Unfortunately, however, the relative gap between the poor and the better-off households has widened. For instance, in the case of virtually landless households (owning no more than the homestead), average years of schooling increased from 1.74 to 3.19. But for middle and large farmers, the increase was from 5.59 to 7.73 years. “Educational disparity is probably one of the main causes of income disparity in rural society,” conclude the researchers (p.65).

Ownership of physical capital for landless households increased from $161 to $246, but the ratio of disparity with middle and large farmers remained 1:4 over two decades. The writers cite research that suggests that about a quarter of the rural households are safely well-off and 30 percent are in chronic poverty. The remaining 45 percent are precariously perched on the poverty line and may fall below the line any time by the vagaries of nature, falling victim to a serious health problem, or when a business decision goes sour.

The researchers investigated people's perception of their poverty status and their ideas about the way out of it. It is interesting that the thought process of the rural people and scholarly analysis largely coincide in identification of problems and their solutions.

Popular wisdom supports the view that low per capita income is the driving force behind income poverty and broader human poverty (access to education and health care, ownership of productive assets and control over one's life choices). Land ownership (beyond the homestead) and effective participation in education are seen as the key to altering one's prospects.

The writers conclude that a radical land redistribution policy is not realistic, but that increased labour productivity and capital accumulation are attainable goals. The policy package for the poor must include effective education and skill training, improved health care, and access to credit. They estimate that 40 percent of the increase in income for landless households can be attributed to labour and 25 percent to capital accumulation derived from NGO and other credit sources. (p.507)

The basic thrust of the policy is eminently sensible, and is one policy makers must heed. The writers return to the critical question of conserving and using optimally the scarce land resources, which must be viewed within a broader context of a strategy for integrated regional planning and development. Regional planning must incorporate growth centres, improved road networks (with proper maintenance), rural electricity, distribution of health

and education facilities, and cultural and recreational opportunities. The push and pull factors driving rural people to a few increasingly unlivable urban mega-centres must be reversed.

New forms of effective partnerships must be promoted, embracing NGOs, local government with some clout, community organizations, and central government agencies. The aim will be to increase access to credit, technology, self-employment support, life-long and non-formal learning, and greater opportunities for women and girls.

The writers underscore the role of education and offer several suggestions. These would bear further scrutiny with regard to how education programmes actually function and contribute to poverty reduction, before they are turned into specific action points.

Initial enrolment in primary education indeed has become nearly universal, but its extremely low quality (very high dropout and very low learning outcome) means that children of the poor are virtually denied primary education. The same applies to secondary education, only with greater intensity.

International experience and lessons of several decades show that secondary school is a very blunt and inefficient instrument for equipping young people with employment skills. Secondary education is now seen as part of a basic education that must offer general communication skills, basic math and science and computer literacy, which will make young learners easily trainable on-the-job or in market-responsive vocational/technical centers.

The writers report that 60 percent of the adult household members were literate. It was not explained how the literacy level was determined. Independent surveys based on simple tests showed a literacy rate of between 40 and 50 percent and only 20 percent by a somewhat more rigorous criterion of functional skills for the 15+ group. The implication for combating poverty is that opportunities for improving literacy skills and other relevant knowledge for a better life and livelihood must be widely available through a network of community learning centers (run through NGO collaboration).

The broad vision, the web of interconnected strategies, and the required time perspective for rural, and indeed national, development beg the question don't we need to consider re-adopting a five-year planning process with a medium term perspective plan? Why was it

thabandoned? China is in the midst of implementing the 11 five-year plan and India is busy thpreparing its own 11 five-year plan. Such a planning framework would serve the country

better than the externally driven and ad hoc prescriptions of the poverty reduction strategy paper or the policy support instrument. We need to have our policy in place first before it can be supported.

66 Bangladesh Education Journal Bangladesh Education Journal 67

Child labour (11-15 years) has come down by half from 22.7 percent of the rural workers to 11.8 percent. Non-farm employment among the rural work force has increased from 30 to 48 percent a necessary condition for raising productivity and earning in the rural economy.

Particularly relevant for education is the finding that the population in the designated age-group (6-10 years) for primary schooling has decreased from 20 percent to 14 percent in two decades. Primary school enrolment has gone up from 60 percent to 93 and 94 percent respectively for boys and girls.

All households have been beneficiaries of positive change. Unfortunately, however, the relative gap between the poor and the better-off households has widened. For instance, in the case of virtually landless households (owning no more than the homestead), average years of schooling increased from 1.74 to 3.19. But for middle and large farmers, the increase was from 5.59 to 7.73 years. “Educational disparity is probably one of the main causes of income disparity in rural society,” conclude the researchers (p.65).

Ownership of physical capital for landless households increased from $161 to $246, but the ratio of disparity with middle and large farmers remained 1:4 over two decades. The writers cite research that suggests that about a quarter of the rural households are safely well-off and 30 percent are in chronic poverty. The remaining 45 percent are precariously perched on the poverty line and may fall below the line any time by the vagaries of nature, falling victim to a serious health problem, or when a business decision goes sour.

The researchers investigated people's perception of their poverty status and their ideas about the way out of it. It is interesting that the thought process of the rural people and scholarly analysis largely coincide in identification of problems and their solutions.

Popular wisdom supports the view that low per capita income is the driving force behind income poverty and broader human poverty (access to education and health care, ownership of productive assets and control over one's life choices). Land ownership (beyond the homestead) and effective participation in education are seen as the key to altering one's prospects.

The writers conclude that a radical land redistribution policy is not realistic, but that increased labour productivity and capital accumulation are attainable goals. The policy package for the poor must include effective education and skill training, improved health care, and access to credit. They estimate that 40 percent of the increase in income for landless households can be attributed to labour and 25 percent to capital accumulation derived from NGO and other credit sources. (p.507)

The basic thrust of the policy is eminently sensible, and is one policy makers must heed. The writers return to the critical question of conserving and using optimally the scarce land resources, which must be viewed within a broader context of a strategy for integrated regional planning and development. Regional planning must incorporate growth centres, improved road networks (with proper maintenance), rural electricity, distribution of health

and education facilities, and cultural and recreational opportunities. The push and pull factors driving rural people to a few increasingly unlivable urban mega-centres must be reversed.

New forms of effective partnerships must be promoted, embracing NGOs, local government with some clout, community organizations, and central government agencies. The aim will be to increase access to credit, technology, self-employment support, life-long and non-formal learning, and greater opportunities for women and girls.

The writers underscore the role of education and offer several suggestions. These would bear further scrutiny with regard to how education programmes actually function and contribute to poverty reduction, before they are turned into specific action points.

Initial enrolment in primary education indeed has become nearly universal, but its extremely low quality (very high dropout and very low learning outcome) means that children of the poor are virtually denied primary education. The same applies to secondary education, only with greater intensity.

International experience and lessons of several decades show that secondary school is a very blunt and inefficient instrument for equipping young people with employment skills. Secondary education is now seen as part of a basic education that must offer general communication skills, basic math and science and computer literacy, which will make young learners easily trainable on-the-job or in market-responsive vocational/technical centers.

The writers report that 60 percent of the adult household members were literate. It was not explained how the literacy level was determined. Independent surveys based on simple tests showed a literacy rate of between 40 and 50 percent and only 20 percent by a somewhat more rigorous criterion of functional skills for the 15+ group. The implication for combating poverty is that opportunities for improving literacy skills and other relevant knowledge for a better life and livelihood must be widely available through a network of community learning centers (run through NGO collaboration).

The broad vision, the web of interconnected strategies, and the required time perspective for rural, and indeed national, development beg the question don't we need to consider re-adopting a five-year planning process with a medium term perspective plan? Why was it

thabandoned? China is in the midst of implementing the 11 five-year plan and India is busy thpreparing its own 11 five-year plan. Such a planning framework would serve the country

better than the externally driven and ad hoc prescriptions of the poverty reduction strategy paper or the policy support instrument. We need to have our policy in place first before it can be supported.

66 Bangladesh Education Journal Bangladesh Education Journal 67