balanced literacy reference guide 2012 - mnps2010 - …literacy... · guided writing ......
TRANSCRIPT
BALANCED LITERACY
REFERENCE GUIDE
METROPOLITAN NASHVILLE PUBLIC SCHOOLS
ELEMENTARY SCHOOL READING
REVISED 2012
2
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TOPIC PAGE
Balanced Literacy—An Overview .............................................................3 Balanced Literacy Framework....................................................................4 Teaching and Learning Cycle......................................................................5 Five Elements of Effective Reading Instruction ........................................6 Setting up a Balanced Literacy Classroom.................................................7 Using the Basal Reading Series.................................................................10 MNPS Text Level Correlation Chart.........................................................11 Suggested Room Arrangement..................................................................12 Teacher Self-Reflection Worksheet...........................................................13
Reading Interactive Read Aloud.............................................................................16 Shared/Performance Reading ..................................................................17 Guided Reading .......................................................................................18 Independent Reading ...............................................................................19 Word Study...............................................................................................20 Comprehension Strategies .......................................................................21
Writing
Modeled Writing......................................................................................23 Shared Writing.........................................................................................24 Interactive Writing...................................................................................25 Guided Writing .......................................................................................26 Independent Writing ...............................................................................27 Assessment in a Balanced Literacy Classroom.......................................28 Glossary of Literacy Terms ....................................................................31 Bibliography ...........................................................................................39
Date Updated & Published Revision History Review Date Last Reviewed February 2012 February 2012 Annually February 2012 March 2011 May 2012 January 2009
June 2007 June 2006
3
BALANCED L ITERACY —AN OVERVIEW
“The Essential Reading Life -- If we want our students to be excited about literacy, they need teachers who love coming to work, who are literacy learners themselves, who find ways to make curriculum relevant to children’s lives, and who can put high-stakes testing in perspective.” Routman, Reading Essentials, 2003 Balanced literacy instruction respects and addresses the needs of all learners, views teachers as informed decision-makers, is flexible, and is research-based. A balanced literacy approach to instruction provides students with daily opportunities to engage in various reading and writing activities to help them communicate more effectively. In a balanced literacy framework, students participate in read alouds, shared reading, guided reading, independent reading and word study. In addition, they engage in modeled writing, shared writing, interactive writing, guided writing, and independent writing. During balanced literacy instruction, there is a gradual release of responsibility over time as the student becomes more independent. The role of the teacher is to model, guide, and coach before students are asked to work independently. The role of the administrator is to be informed, guide instruction and implementation, and support teachers in obtaining necessary resources.
Finally, the balanced literacy framework provides teachers with the foundation for integrating instruction that will support the goals for the common core state standards. “To build a foundation for college and career readiness, students must read widely and deeply from among a broad range of high-quality, increasingly challenging literary and informational texts. Through extensive reading of stories, dramas, poems, and myths from diverse cultures and different time periods, students gain literary and cultural knowledge as well as familiarity with various text structures and elements. By reading texts in history/social studies, science, and other disciplines, students build a foundation of knowledge in these fields that will also give them the background to be better readers in all content areas. Students can only gain this foundation when the curriculum is intentionally and coherently structured to develop rich content knowledge within and across grades. Students also acquire the habits of reading independently and closely, which are essential to their future success.”
Common Core State Standards Document (2012): http://www.corestandards.org/assets/CCSSI_ELA%20Standards.pdf
4
Balanced Literacy Framework
Word Study
Reading
I Do We Do You Do
Writing
I Do We Do You Do
• Read Aloud
• Shared Reading
• Guided Reading
• Independent Reading
• Modeled/Shared Writing
• Interactive Writing
• Guided Writing
• Independent Writing
5
Teaching and Learning Cycle
ASSESSMENT Gathering information
about a student’s performance
EVALUATION Analyzing the assessment
data to inform instructional needs
PLANNING Planning appropriate
instruction and gathering materials based on student
needs
TEACHING Modeling and providing guided and independent practice opportunities
6
Comprehension The act of construction of meaning from text.
Without understanding, there is
no reading.
Vocabulary (as a text
characteristic) Words and their
meanings.
Fluency To read text with good momentum, phrasing, appropriate pausing, accuracy, intonation,
and stress.
Phonics The knowledge of
letter-sound relationships and how
they are used in reading and writing.
Phonemic Awareness
The ability to hear individual sounds in words and to identify
particular sounds.
FIVE ELEMENTS OF
EFFECTIVE READING
INSTRUCTION
7
SETTING UP A BALANCED L ITERACY CLASSROOM Definition: The teacher designs a classroom environment that offers opportunities and space for whole-class, small-
group, and independent work. The classroom environment supports students at their instructional level, includes activities that allow them to take risks, and provides time for the teacher to observe and encourage students during learning.
Purpose: To promote student engagement in literacy activities involving meaningful reading and writing. The Role of the Teacher is: • to set up a classroom environment that provides space for whole-class instruction, areas for small-group work, and
quiet areas for independent work; • to use flexible, fluid grouping; • to offer a classroom environment that offers students a variety of print resources, including leveled books, big books,
writing journals, charts of poems and rhymes, word walls, sound cards and collections of students’ work; and • to establish literacy centers or work stations that offer students a variety of differentiated and open-ended tasks. The Role of the Student is: • to participate actively in guided reading groups as well as in a variety of reading and writing activities including
shared reading, paired reading, literature circles, and independent reading; and • to complete open-ended tasks in classroom literacy centers or work stations. The Administrator Will See: • classroom environments that offer students time for paired reading, independent reading and writing, guided reading
and writing, and shared reading and writing; • a variety of literacy centers that are differentiated and provide students with open-ended tasks related to the learning; • well-defined areas for whole-class, small-group, and independent work; • the use of flexible grouping; • numerous displays of print resources and student work; • a system for managing student movement; and • classroom libraries that contain a variety of literary genres (including fiction, nonfiction, poetry, and plays), big
books, and leveled books. The Role of Parents/Families is: • to be informed about their children’s classroom environment and how this environment supports student growth
throughout the school year; • to support teachers in establishing a strong classroom environment by encouraging their children to participate fully in
class activities; • to read to their children and listen to their children practice reading at home; • to offer simple resources when requested by the teacher; and • when possible, to volunteer in the classroom.
8
SETTING UP A BALANCED L ITERACY CLASSROOM (CONTINUED )
“The most lavishly appointed classroom may turn into shambles if routines for using it have not been established.” New Zealand Department of Education The effectiveness of instruction depends on developing, in the classroom, a community of readers, writers, and learners. The following pages provide possible learning centers and three examples of how a teacher might organize learning centers in a balanced literacy classroom. MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS HOW THEY WORK Literacy Center Organization Chart A literacy center organization chart outlines how heterogeneous groups of
students move during learning center time. As groups of students move through the centers, the teacher provides explicit instruction within a guided reading or writing homogenous group.
Group Management As the teacher pulls small groups of students for guided reading or guided
writing, half of the remaining students remain at their desks/tables working on independent, meaningful, productive literacy activities and half go to differentiated and meaningful literacy centers which are related to the instruction taking place in the classroom.
Menus of Ideas The teacher provides students with a menu of literacy activities from which to
choose. Theses activities may include independent reading, response journals, writing folders, writers’ notebooks, art responses, technology activities related to their reading needs, or an open-ended literacy task.
LITERACY CENTERS WHAT THEY LOOK LIKE
A physical area (or station) designated for specific learning purposes. It is designed to provide appropriate materials to help students work independently or collaboratively (with partners or in small groups) to meet literacy goals. A literacy center can be portable, temporary or permanent. The integration of literacy centers can support improvement in reading comprehension, language, social, and writing development. Literacy centers facilitate problem-solving because students are able to explore, invent, discover, and create alone or with others at centers.
Reading the Room Students use pointers to read material posted on the classroom walls. Book Boxes (Browsing Boxes) Book/browsing boxes are where "familiar texts" are placed after guided
reading. These familiar books are stored in crates, on shelves, baskets, etc. according to reading levels. This activity gives children the opportunity to
practice using reading strategies on easy, familiar text and to build fluency through rereading. For younger students, browsing boxes may house a word ring (containing classmate names and pictures as well as star words and color and number words).
9
SETTING UP A BALANCED L ITERACY CLASSROOM (CONTINUED )
Writing Center The teacher provides a varied, large supply of pencils, colored pens, erasers,
staplers, tape, sticky notes, interesting stationery, envelopes, dictionaries, thesauruses and other reference materials. The teacher may also establish a message board or post office where students leave messages, they have written for others to read.
Alphabet Center Magnetic letters, alphabet books, white boards, and lists of students’
names or spelling words can be placed in the center. Students can sort and match sound cards, magnetic letters, make words, or trace alphabet books to improved their letter knowledge, phonemic awareness, phonics, and spelling.
Overhead/LCD Projector Students can be taught how to use the overhead/LCD projector to reread
familiar poems, rhymes, and stories that have been written on transparencies. Students can use this center to practice their handwriting and to write their own stories on blank transparencies.
Computer Center Students use computers to write stories, write reports, practice spelling words,
do research, or to use learning games that support their development as readers and writers.
Reading Center Contains leveled books on students’ independent levels for independent
reading and possible props to retell or act out stories. Books are categorized by topic, author, and/or genre. Depending on grade level, books that are part of a series, award winners, collections of short stories, journals, magazines and newspapers may also be included. A richly varied classroom collection will enable students not only to expand their reading abilities but also expand their world.
Project or Theme Center Activities allow students to explore self-selected research, science, or
social studies projects. This center should include resources related to themes the class is studying.
Resources: Fountas & Pinnell; Guided Reading: Good First Teaching for All Children, 1996 Fountas & Pinnell; Matching Books to Readers: Using Leveled Books in Guided Reading, K-3, 1999 Fountas & Pinnell; Guiding Readers and Writers Grades 3-6, 2001
10
Using the Basal Reading Series Within a Balanced Literacy Framework
• Read Alouds o Trade books o Theme Biographies
• Shared Reading
o Big books o Student anthology o Charts o Trade books
• Guided Reading
o Leveled Readers (based on the student’s instructional level, classroom libraries are only leveled within your grade level. Example: The second grade library is leveled E-P, MNPS 8-32)
• Independent Reading
o Big books o Student anthology o Charts o Trade books o Leveled readers in browsing boxes
• Writing (Shared Modeled, Guided/Independent) o Use the above mentioned resources in mini-lessons for writer’s craft and literature responses o Teacher’s guide for mini-lessons in management, craft, and conventions during writer’s
workshop
• Word Study o Teacher’s guide for ideas and activities to use within individualized instruction
Note: Teacher’s guide may provide ideas for modeling and demonstrating strategy and skill instruction during reader’s workshop, shared reading, and interactive think alouds as well as ideas for literacy centers and cross curricular content area reading.
11
MNPS Text Level Correlation Chart Grade
Level MNPS Reading
Recovery/
Rigby
Fountas &
Pinnell
Guided
Reading
Stage Lexile
Band
*“Stretch”
Lexile Band (Common Core)
1 1 A
2 2 B
3 3
4 4 C E
mergent
5 5
K
6 6 D B
eginning Reader
7 7
8 8 E
9 9
10 10 F
12 12 G
14 14 H
16 16 I
1st
18 18 J
Early
200 - 400
N/A
20 20 K
21 L
22 22
24 24
2ND
26 Rigby 23
M
Transitional/
Early Fluent
300 - 500
28 Rigby 24
32 Rigby 25 N
3RD 34 Rigby 26 O/P/Q
420 -
700
450L–790L
36 Rigby 27 Q/R
40 Rigby 28 Q/R 4TH 42 Rigby 29 S/T
600 -
830
44 Rigby 30 5TH
U/V
Self-Extending/Fluent
800-
920
770L–980L
*Stretch Band -
The Common Core
Standards
advocate a
“staircase” of
increasing text
complexity,
beginning in grade
2, so that students
can develop their
reading skills and
apply them to
more difficult
texts. At the
lowest grade in
each band,
students focus on
reading texts
within that text
complexity band.
In the subsequent
grade or grades
within a band,
students must
“stretch” to read a
certain proportion
of texts from the
next higher text
complexity band.
This pattern
repeats itself
throughout the
grades so that
students can both
build on earlier
literacy gains and
challenge
themselves with
texts at a higher
complexity level.
Lexile ranges on
left help to
determine what
text is appropriate
for each grade
band and what
should be
considered
“stretch” text.
Revised 8/2011 Students should enter the year on the preceding year’s benchmark. Mid-year benchmarks are indicated by bold italics. End of year benchmarks are indicated with shading.
12
Suggested Room Arrangement For An Elementary Balanced Literacy Classroom
Center Storage
Working Word Wall
Bookshelves
Bookshelves
Window
Writing S
upplies
Bookcase
File
Cabinet
Center Table Collaborative
Learning
LC
D
Pro
ject
or
Teacher’s
Desk
Rug Area
Whole Group Instruction � Read Alouds � Shared Reading
Door
Computer Center
Key Features ►Small group instruction area ►Differentiated literacy centers or work stations ►Large group instruction area ►Print rich environment (e.g., active word walls, classroom library, big books, ►Collaborative groups leveled readers, collections of student work) ►Literature Circles
Sin
k B
ulle
tin B
oard
B
ulle
tin B
oard
13
SELF-REFLECTION WORKSHEET FOR MY BALANCED L ITERACY CLASSROOM Interactive Read Aloud – The teacher reads a picture book, short story, or novel (fiction and nonfiction) to class. Occurs every day. What should I be doing? What should I see my students doing? _____ Reading with enthusiasm and expression. _____ Students are attentive and engaged. _____ Selecting books for a purpose. _____ Students respond to the text (orally and/or written). _____ Modeling strategies/thinking aloud. Shared/Performance Reading – The teacher and students read together from a shared text. The text might be a big book (primary), a poem (chart or transparency), basal reader, short story or novel. The text should be on or slightly above grade level. What should I be doing? What should I see my students doing? _____ Encouraging students to talk about reading experiences. _____ Students read along in unison with others, in parts, or solo. _____ Reading interesting and concept-rich materials. _____ Students respond to the text (orally and/or written). _____ Providing opportunities to learn about the reading process. _____ Modeling strategies/thinking aloud. Guided Reading – (Grades K-4) The teacher works with a small group of students (4 to 6) who are reading at about the same level and have similar instructional needs. The students have individual copies of the text and independently read softly or silently (NOT ROUND ROBIN) while the teacher observes, assesses, coaches, prompts, and instructs. The text should be at an instructional level (90 – 94% accuracy). What should I be doing? What should I see my students doing? _____ Working with a small group (4 to 6) students. _____ Students read independently. _____ Utilizing assessments to make instructional decisions. _____ Students use strategies to solve any problems in text. _____ Providing 1 or 2 teaching points for text. _____ Students respond to the text (orally and/or written). _____ Modeling strategies/thinking aloud. _____ Remainder of class works independently on purposeful _____ Circulating among the group; working with individuals. literacy activities or in literacy centers or literature circles. Literature Circles – (Grades 3-4) Literature study is focused examination of text. It involves reading, thinking about works of literature and collaborating with others to reflect on, analyze, and critique literature. The purpose is to foster critical thinking, build students’ knowledge of authors and illustrators, and make students aware of the value of their personal responses to what they read. Students read the same texts/books and meet to discuss and respond together. Response is also given in writing.
What should I be doing? What should I see my students doing? _____ Forming small homogenous groups. _____ Selecting texts for group to read. _____ Sometimes selecting text for groups to read. _____ Students with assigned roles following role duties. _____ Facilitating discussions. _____ Meeting several times to discuss text. _____ Asking students to select books they might like for _____ Reading and referring to sections of text to support a group read. discussion and assigned work. _____ Assigning purposeful reading and writing tasks to groups.
• A basic sequence of literature study (now and in later grades) – self-select, form group, make schedule, read-think-note, discuss, response or project.
Modeled Writing – The teacher demonstrates the act of writing by thinking aloud as he/she composes text in front of students.
What should I be doing? What should I see my students doing? _____ Using explicit language/terminology to model critical _____ Students listen and watch writing process concepts. _____ Students use strategies that have been modeled. _____ Thinking aloud about actions and choices in writing. _____ Using modeled writing as a mini-lesson to introduce new writing skills/genres. _____ Demonstrating importance of composing a meaningful,
14
coherent message for a particular audience/specific purpose. _____ Demonstrating correct use of print conventions (capitalization, punctuation, print directionality, grammar conventions). _____ Demonstrating spelling strategies and connecting to word study. _____ Showing how to use graphic organizers. _____ Modeling writing using a prompt.
Shared Writing – An activity—either whole-class or small-group—in which the teacher and students share the composing process.
What should I be doing? What should I see my students doing? _____ Introducing lesson/topic by modeling how to begin writing. _____ Students provide ideas for writing. _____ Planning text and helping students generate ideas for writing. _____ Students read and reread composition with teacher. _____ Recording students’ ideas. _____ Reinforcing print conventions capitalization, punctuation, print directionally, and grammar conventions. _____ Circulating among the group; working with individuals.
Interactive Writing – Teaching context in which teacher and students cooperatively plan, compose, and write a group text; both teacher and students act as scribes (in turn).
What should I be doing? What should I see my students doing? _____ Introducing lesson by modeling how to begin writing, _____ Students providing writing ideas. _____ Planning text and helping students generate ideas for writing. _____ Students serving in an apprentice role. _____ Recording students’ ideas, reinforcing print and grammar _____ Students engaging in writing the composition, conventions. contributing letters, words, phrases, and sentences. _____ Making connections between unknown to known words. _____ Students reading and rereading compositions with the _____ Asking students to participate in the writing at strategic points teacher to clarify and confirm correct responses. by asking individuals to write known letters, words, or phrases. _____ Moving students to independence by not doing what they can do for themselves.
Guided Writing – Focused writing instruction to a small group of students in order to lead them to independent writing. Students engage in writing a variety of genres. Teacher guides the process and provides minilessons and conferences. (Not a parallel to guided reading.)
What should I be doing? What should I see my students doing? _____ Meeting with individuals/small groups with similar needs. _____ Students making choices and decisions, _____ Observing and assessing students’ writing. _____ Students writing for a variety of purposes and _____ Prompting, coaching, and guiding students through the audiences. writing process. _____ Students responding to peers and receiving peer _____ Responding as a reader. feedback to writing. _____ Asking opened-ended questions. _____ Extending students’ thinking in the process of composing. _____ Aiding students in developing their voice. _____ Fostering writing independence.
Independent Writing – Teacher/students choose a particular form or genre and students utilize the skills to become lifelong writers.
What should I be doing? What should I see my students doing? _____ Creating opportunities for students to engage in authentic, _____ Students writing for their own purpose. purposeful writing. _____ Students selecting the topic and content for writing. _____ Responding to the content of the students’ writing. _____ Students using different writing genres. _____ Assisting students with the revision and editing process. _____ Students revising and editing writing. _____ Holding conferences with individual writers. _____ Students accepting feedback from peers and the teacher.
15
Word Study – Instruction used by the teacher to introduce, teach, and provide students with opportunities to practice using their knowledge of phonemic awareness, letter recognition, letter-sound relationships, phonics, spelling patterns, and vocabulary.
What should I be doing? What should I see my students doing? _____Teaching phonemic awareness, letters, sounds, _____Using knowledge of sounds and letters to decode, spelling patterns and decoding in a systematic progression. read and spell words. _____Providing opportunities for students to explore words through _____Using the spelling patterns of known words to decode, sorts, word walls, making words, and other activities. read and spell new words. _____Utilizing assessment data to differentiate word study _____Completing word sorts and other activities to practice instruction (Grades 2-4). word recognition, decoding, and spelling.
16
INTERACTIVE READ ALOUD Definition: The teacher daily reads aloud materials that are at students’ listening level but above their reading level.
The students are actively engaged in thinking and talking about the text. “The teacher reads aloud to the whole class or small groups. A carefully selected body of children’s literature is used; the collection contains a variety of genres and represents our diverse society. Favorite texts, selected for special features, are reread many times.” Fountas & Pinnell, Guided Reading, 1996
Purpose: To improve students’ listening skills, reading comprehension, and attitudes toward reading, and to build
vocabulary and background knowledge. Reading aloud also allows the teacher to model fluent oral reading. Texts rich in meaning or language and class favorites are read again and again and are used as a base for other activities. “Brief discussion takes place before and after reading as well as at a few planned times during the reading.” Fountas & Pinnell, Teaching for Comprehending and Fluency, 2006
The Role of the Teacher is: • to establish a literacy-rich environment, • to share age-appropriate texts with students and to model appropriate reading behavior, • to reread favorite books, • to read a variety of genre and other materials (including magazines and newspapers), • to include books and other materials that students can read on their own • to engage students in thinking within, beyond, and about a text (during and after reading), • to look for evidence that students can notice and incorporate new information into their own understands, • to notice if students can make inferences based on the available information, • to look for evidence that students can think analytically about texts, noticing the writer’s craft and style, and • to engage students in literacy-related play activities and language games. The Role of the Student is: • to enjoy listening to and discussing literature read aloud, • to retell simple narrative stories, • to use descriptive language to explain and explore ideas in the literature they hear, • to engage in routines like “turn and talk” to facilitate skill in small group discussion, and • to understand that print carries the message in literature. The Administrator Will See: • the teacher enthusiastically reading literature to students everyday, • the teacher is a happy and effective reading model, • the teacher is respectful of all students’ cultures and backgrounds, and • students who are engaged in listening and discussing literature being read aloud. The Role of Parents/Families is: • to visit libraries and bookstores frequently, and • to read and reread stories to and with their children. Resource: Fountas & Pinnell, Guided Reading, 1996 Fountas & Pinnell; Teaching for Comprehending and Fluency, 2006 Fountas & Pinnell, The Continuum of Literacy Learning, 2011 Routman, Reading Essentials, 2003
17
SHARED /PERFORMANCE READING Definition: When the teacher and students read together in unison from a shared text (big book, enlarged text on chart
or screen, individual books). “The teacher leads the group, pointing to words or phrases. Reading is usually in unison, although there are adaptations, such as groups may read alternating lines or individuals reading some lines.” Fountas & Pinnell, The Continuum of Literacy Learning, 2011
Purpose: To build upon children’s interests and to increase their enjoyment and appreciation of stories, poems,
rhymes, and chants. “The scaffold of shared reading,…, makes it possible for the teacher to choose challenging materials, above the independent reading level of the children.”
Routman, Reading Essentials, 2003 The Role of the Teacher is: • to provide students with shared text (big book, enlarged text, individual books) that meets instructional needs, • to encourage students to talk about reading experiences, • to read interesting and concept-rich materials with the students, • to help students build vocabulary, • to provide many opportunities for students to explore and apply concepts being learned, • to look for evidence that students can think analytically about texts, and • to provide many opportunities for students to participate in the reading of the selected text (choral, groups,
individuals). The Role of the Student is: • to understand concepts of print such as the left-to-right and top-to-bottom progression of text, • to participate in the reading in some way (choral, group, individual), • to make predictions about the reading, • to match spoken words or phrases with written ones, • to explore and identify concepts being learned, and • to demonstrate understanding of text meaning. The Administrator Will See: • teacher engaging students in learning how to read, • teacher noticing and commenting on what students are able to do and are doing well, • students understanding that print carries a message, • students understanding that print is read left-to-right and top-to-bottom, • students participating in the reading in various ways, • students making attempts to read on their own, • students making predictions, • students beginning to match spoken words and phrases with written ones, and • students demonstrating comprehension. Resource: Cunningham & Allington, Classrooms That Work: They Can all Read and Write, 1999 Fountas & Pinnell, Teaching for Comprehending and Fluency, 2006 Fountas & Pinnell, The Continuum of Literacy Learning, 2011 Routman, Reading Essentials, 2003
18
GUIDED READING Definition: Based on assessment, the teacher works with a small group of students (no more than 6 is ideal) who are
reading at about the same instructional level and have similar needs. The students have individual copies of the text (leveled readers) and independently read orally or silently the entire selection as the teacher observes, coaches, prompts, and evaluates their performance. This is not round robin reading. Students do not take turns reading a page orally as other students listen.
Purpose: To support and encourage the development of strategies to process increasingly challenging texts with
fluency and understanding leading to independent reading. “…the greatest strength of guided reading is that it offers support for all the readers in our classrooms; the strongest and the weakest, the motivated and the indifferent, the million-word kids and the thousand-word kids.”
Rog, Guiding Readers, 2012 The Role of the Teacher is: • to utilize data from text-leveled assessments to form guided reading groups (4-6 students), • to provide opportunities for students to read at their instructional level, • to select appropriate text for students to read and discuss in a range of genres, • to support the development of students’ vocabularies by selecting materials that expand their knowledge of words and
promote language development, • to guide interactions with individual students, • to make specific teaching points before and after reading of text, • to model strategies and provide practice for identifying unknown words, • to demonstrate and model strategies to use when comprehension breaks down, and • to observe reading behaviors and provide prompts as needed. The Role of the Students is: • to read and retell familiar stories, • to read orally with reasonable fluency, • to identify an increasing number of words by sight, • to use a variety of reading strategies to read new words, • to use comprehension strategies (e.g., rereading, predicting, questioning, contextualizing). The Administrator Will See: • teacher setting high expectations for all students, • teacher providing regular opportunities for students to share and collaborate, • teacher asking questions that promote higher level thinking, • teacher evaluating student reading behaviors, • students reading new words by using a variety of reading strategies, and • students demonstrating comprehension. The Role of Parents/Families is: • to talk about their favorite books, • to read to their children and encourage them to read to family, • to encourage children to share what they are learning about reading, and to become involved in school activities. Resource: Fountas & Pinnell, Guided Reading: Good First Teaching for all Children, 1996 Fountas & Pinnell, The Continuum of Literacy Learning, 2011
19
INDEPENDENT READING Definition: Students read individually or in pairs from a variety of materials. Some independent reading is from a
collection of materials at the student’s reading level. “Primarily, the learners are using what they have already learned and practiced to problem solve successfully on their own.”
Routman, Reading Essentials, 2003 Purpose: To provide opportunities for students to apply reading strategies, develop fluency, and build their
confidence as readers, and to work on their own to improve their reading achievement. The Role of the Teacher is: • to match texts to students’ abilities, • to support students in choosing texts, • to create a community of literacy learners, • to provide students opportunities for independent reading practice to facilitate the fluency required for comprehension, • to read and discuss a range of different genres, • to create a climate that encourages students to engage in analytic evaluation and reflective thinking, and • to monitor students’ choices of materials for independent reading. The Role of the Student is: • to use reading for various purposes, • to read fluently and to enjoy reading, • to practice reading strategies, • to recognize and discuss elements of different genres, and • to make critical connections between texts. The Administrator Will See: • a print-rich environment with ample classroom library or book collection with texts that are appropriate levels for
students to read independently, • teacher providing time daily for students to read self-selected books, • teacher encouraging students to solve their own problems and to take ownership of their own learning, • teacher letting students know how they will be evaluated. • students reading independently with fluency and accuracy, • students reading for different purposes. The Role of Parents/Families is: • to build their children’s love of literature in all of its forms, • to visit libraries and bookstores regularly, • to discuss with the teacher what their children can do in reading, during family-teacher conferences, • to engage their children in activities that require reading for many purposes, and • to support with reading materials their children’s interests or hobbies. Resource: Fountas & Pinnell, Matching Books to Readers: Using Leveled Books in Guided Reading, K-3, 1999 Routman, Reading Essentials, 2003
20
WORD STUDY Definition: Instruction used by the teacher to introduce, teach, and provide students with opportunities to practice
using their knowledge of phonemic awareness, letter recognition, letter-sound relationships, phonics, spelling patterns, and vocabulary. “Such information enables the teachers to design instructional experiences that build systematically on what students know.”
Ganske, Word Journeys, 2000. Purpose: To help students’ achieve the automatic word recognition necessary for fluency and proficient
comprehension. “The purpose of word study is twofold. First students develop a general knowledge of English spelling…Second, word study increases specific knowledge of words---the spelling and meaning of individual words.”
Bear; Invernizzi; Templeton; & Johnston. Words Their Way; Fourth Edition, 2008 The Role of the Teacher is: • to see that all students develop phonemic awareness, to teach letters, sounds, and spelling patterns and decoding in a
systematic progression, • to monitor students’ progress consistently and to provide early intervention for students whose demonstrated
weaknesses are limiting their progress and placing them at risk of failing to learn to read, • to provide opportunities for students to use phonetic spelling as conventional spelling develops, • to provide opportunities for students to read easy and familiar books, and decodable texts to facilitate the fluency
required for comprehension, and • to use activities such as word walls, word sorts, and making words, to promote students’ word recognition, decoding,
and spelling. The Role of the Student is: • to use knowledge of sounds and letters to decode, read and spell words, and • to use the spelling patterns of known words to decode, read and spell new words. The Administrator Will See: • whole-group or small-group explicit instruction in working with letters and words, • students using the word wall, • evidence of word banks or student dictionaries, • students writing daily at their developmental level, and • students completing word sorts. The Role of Parents/Families is: • to encourage their children to make new words with magnetic letters and other devices and materials, • to listen to their children read familiar and easy text, • to play word games with their children, • to encourage their children to use phonetic and conventional writing, and • to talk regularly with the teacher about their children’s progress. Resources: Bear, Invernizzi, Templeton, & Johnston; Words Their Way, Fourth Edition, 2008 Ganske, Word Journeys, 2000 National Reading Panel, Teaching Children to Read: An Evidence-Based Assessment of the Scientific Research Literature on Reading and Its Implications for Reading Instruction, 2000
21
COMPREHENSION STRATEGIES Definition: The ability of readers to construct meaning from a piece of written text. Comprehension instruction
should be an integral part of reading instruction. Purpose: To help students read for meaning. Literacy researchers have documented that proficient readers use a small set of reading strategies to construct meaning as they read. The teacher can introduce and discuss each of these strategies separately. However, the students, with help from the teacher, must learn to integrate and apply all of the strategies as they read. Research shows that, as they read, proficient readers: • Activate Prior Knowledge Proficient readers take what they know about themselves, the world, and other texts that they have read and apply that
information to get meaning from the text they are currently reading. • Create Visual Images Proficient readers form pictures or visual images in their mind that add depth to the situations or characters on which
their text focuses. These pictures appear to enhance memory for the text and provide deeper understanding. • Ask Questions/Form Meaning of the Text Proficient readers form questions as they read. These questions clarify, extend and create meaning from the text.
They propel readers forward, capture large units of meaning, make readers active and keep them engaged. • Make Inferences By combining their background knowledge with an author’s words, proficient readers are able to construct meaning
that is not specifically written into the text. Applying this strategy allows readers to create a deeper meaning that enhances their memory of the text.
• Summarize and Synthesize Proficient readers use all the strategies above to delete trivial and redundant information, to determine what is
important, and to organize that information according to concepts. The result is a recreation of the text that that is not identical to the original and that can be unique to each reader without losing the author’s intended meaning.
• Self-Monitor Reading Proficient readers consistently self-monitor their reading as they move through text. Throughout their reading, they
integrate this self-assessment with other strategies, both in terms of understanding and in terms of word identification. • Determine Importance Proficient readers think about what they have read and its importance. The reader will evaluate the text. • Make Predictions Proficient readers guess what will happen next and then read on to see if their prediction was correct. • Analyze Text Structure Proficient readers will utilize text features to enhance comprehension, (e.g., read the title, look at the
illustrations, read captions, graphs, sidebars, boldface print).
22
COMPREHENSION STRATEGIES (CONTINUED ) Not all beginning readers understand that text should make sense. Some see reading as a word calling exercise. The fact that reading should make sense needs to be explicitly stated and reinforced. Research also tells us that even after primary grade students have been taught comprehension strategies, they often have difficulty using them independently. Therefore, primary-grade teachers need to teach and model the effective use of comprehension strategies before, during, and after reading on a regular basis. 1. Prior to reading the text, activate prior knowledge and model predicting and questioning strategies. 2. During reading, teachers read and think aloud to model comprehension strategies and clarify meaning. 3. After reading the text, teachers model summarizing, making connections to other texts and self-evaluation. DURING INSTRUCTION The Role of the Teacher is: • to select short but engaging texts that lend themselves to modeling specific comprehension strategies, • to teach and model strategies using a variety of texts and genres, • to teach students to recognize and use text structure as a tool for understanding, • to read and plan how to use the text (e.g., where to stop and think-aloud), • to read the text aloud, stopping periodically, according to the plan, to explain how one or more comprehension
strategy is helping her/him to comprehend, • to begin to model, after focusing on each of the strategies, how the strategies come together in different ways
depending on the kind of text that is being read, • to continue to read aloud over time, but to begin to release responsibility for thinking aloud to students, and • to use higher order questions and discussions to monitor students’ grasp and application of comprehension strategies. The Role of the Student is: • at first, to listen to the teacher read and think aloud, • to continue to listen to read alouds, but begin to take some responsibility for thinking aloud about the ways to use
comprehension strategies, • over time, to continue to listen to read alouds, and to participate in small groups to discuss the strategies used during
reading without listening to the teacher discuss the strategies. • to write or record some of the strategies he/she uses, and • to monitor their own comprehension. The Administrator Will See: • teacher selecting texts and planning lessons and read alouds according to a strategy-instruction plan, • teacher reading aloud and stopping at planned places to think-aloud about what comprehension strategies to use and
how to use them, • later, the teacher reading aloud and stopping at planned places to involve students in thinking aloud about
comprehension strategy use, • still later, the teacher reading aloud and stopping at planned places to allow students to engage on their own in
discussion of comprehension strategies, and • at later stages, students joining teacher and then forming small groups by themselves to discuss usage of
comprehension strategies. Resources: Keene & Zimmermann. Mosaic of Thought: Teaching Comprehension in a Reader’s Workshop, 1997 National Reading Panel, Teaching Children to Read: An Evidence-Based Assessment of the Scientific Research Literature on Reading and Its Implications for Reading Instruction, 2000 Stephens & Brown. A Handbook of Content Literacy Strategies: 76 Practical Reading And Writing Ideas, 2000
23
MODELED WRITING Definition: The teacher demonstrates the act of writing by thinking aloud as he/she composes a text in front of students.
“The teacher or expert shows precisely ‘how to do it’ by initiating, modeling, explaining, thinking aloud, and writing aloud. … The teacher also demonstrates the satisfaction she takes in writing.”
Routman, Writing Essentials, 2005 Purpose: To allow students to hear the thinking that accompanies the process of writing, including topic choice, how to
start the piece, looking for a better word, revising, and editing. “Students observe the teacher planning, drafting, making choices, rereading, evaluating, revising, editing, and monitoring. They may be invited to participate in a limited way, but there is no pressure to perform.” Routman, Writing Essentials, 2005
The Role of the Teacher is: • to use explicit language and actions to model critical writing-process concepts, • to think aloud about actions and choices in writing, • to show students the metacognitive strategies involved in reading and writing, • to use modeled writing as a mini-lesson to introduce the process of writing in a particular genre, • to demonstrate the importance of composing a meaningful, coherent message for a particular audience and a specific purpose, • to demonstrate the correct use of print conventions (print directionality, capitalization, punctuation, conventional grammar), • to demonstrate spelling strategies and connect word study to phonics lessons, • to demonstrate rereading as a process to help students to remember what they are writing about, • to show how to use graphic organizers, and • to model writing using a prompt. The Role of the Student is: • to listen and watch, and • to use strategies that have been modeled by the teacher. The Administrator Will See: • teacher modeling, explaining, thinking aloud about the writing process, • whole-group and small-group instructions, • use of chart paper, overheads, or technology, • a focused lesson usually no longer than 30 minutes, and • students reading (chorally, pairs, and possibly individually) what the teacher writes. The Role of Parents/Families is: • to model their own writing through functional genres (e.g., letters {formal/friendly}, grocery lists, notes), and • to encourage and support their children by providing materials and opportunities for writing. Resources: Graves, A Fresh Look at Writing, 1994 Routman, Writing Essentials, 2005
24
SHARED WRITING Definition: An activity—either whole-class or small-group—in which the teacher and students share the composing
process. The key is the composition. By recording what he/she and the class want to say, the teacher reinforces concepts of print. “The teacher is still in charge (and holds the pen), but now the children collaborate on the writing a much as they are able. Scaffolded conversations---as a class, in a small group, with a partner---are integral to the composing process.”
Routman, Writing Essentials, 2005 Purpose: To help students learn about the writing process through structured conversations during the sharing
session. The focus is on the content of the message. The content can be a daily message, response to literature, lists, and so forth. “Shared writing experiences make it possible to write challenging text that no single child could write independently; they raise expectations for what’s possible.”
Routman, Writing Essentials, 2005 The Role of the Teacher is: • to introduce the lesson/topic by modeling how to begin writing. • to plan text and to help students generate ideas for writing. • to record students’ ideas, • to compose text with students, • to reinforce print conventions (print directionality, capitalization, punctuation, conventional grammar), and • to utilize composed text as a model, example, or reference for student writing and discussion. The Role of the Student is: • to provide ideas for the writing, • to contribute to class/group composition, and • to read and reread the composition with the teacher. The Administrators Will See: • the teacher working with students in whole-class or small-group settings, • the teacher modeling what he/she is doing as he/she records what the group wants to say, • students contributing ideas to the writing, • students discussing correct use of print directionality, capitalization, punctuation, conventional grammar, and • students reading/rereading the composition with the teacher. The Role of Parents/Families is: • to encourage their children to write for a variety of purposes, (e.g., lists, letters, invitations, diaries, stories, poems, and
plans for a trip). Resources: Graves, A Fresh Look at Writing, 1994 Routman, Writing Essentials, 2005
25
INTERACTIVE WRITING Definition: Writing in which the teacher and students compose, with the teacher “sharing the pen” with students at strategic
points. “A teaching context in which teacher and students cooperatively plan, compose, and write a group text; both teacher and students act as scribes (in turn).”
Fountas & Pinnell, The Continuum of Literacy Learning, 2011 Purpose: To provide opportunities to plan and construct texts, models the connection among and between sounds, letters,
and words, increases spelling knowledge, produces written language resources in the classroom. The Role of the Teacher is: • to introduce the lesson by modeling how to begin writing, • to plan the text and to help students generate ideas for writing, • to record students’ ideas, reinforcing print conventions such as capitalization, punctuation, and print directionality, • to reinforce students’ phonemic awareness through writing, • to make connections of unknown to known words, • to ask students to participate in the writing at strategic points by asking individuals to contribute a letter, word, or phrase, and • to move students to independence by not doing what they can do for themselves. The Role of the Student is: • to provide writing ideas, • to serve in an apprentice role, • to engage actively in writing the composition, contributing known letters and words, • to reinforce print conventions such as capitalization, punctuation, and print directionality, • to read and reread compositions with the teacher, and • to confirm correct responses. The Administrator Will See: • teacher working with whole groups and at times, small groups of students, • teacher modeling and reinforcing what she/he is doing as she/he records what the group wants to say, • teacher encouraging students to write parts of the composition, • teacher helping students to make connections between unknown and known words, • students contributing ideas to the composition, and • students contributing to the composition by supplying known letters, words, and phrases. The Role of Parents/Families is: • to encourage their children to experiment with writing, • to encourage their children’s curiosity about writing and to model the usefulness of writing by writing (e.g., letters,
invitations, diaries, grocery lists, notes), and • to read with their children to expose them to a variety of writing genres. Resources: McCarrier, Pinnell, & Fountas. Interactive Writing: How Language & Literacy Come Together, K-2, 2000 Fountas & Pinnell, The Continuum of Literacy Learning, 2011
26
GUIDED WRITING Definition: “Guided writing is not parallel to guided reading.” The teacher works with the whole class or a small group of
students who have similar needs and coaches them as they write a composition. Routman, Writing Essentials, 2005 Purpose: To provide focused writing instruction to a small group of students in order to lead them to independent writing.
“Children engage in writing a variety of genres. Teacher guides the process and provides mini-lessons and conferences.” Fountas & Pinnell, Guided Reading, 1996
The Role of the Teacher is: • to observe and assess students’ writing, • to meet with individuals or small groups who have similar needs, • to prompt, coach, and guide students through the writing process, • to reinforce print conventions such as capitalization, punctuation, and print directionality, • to respond as a reader, • to ask opened-ended questions, • to extend students’ thinking in the process of composing, • to aid students in developing their voice, • to foster writing independence, and • to accept and expect approximations of spellings. The Role of the Student is: • to make choices and decisions, • to write for a variety of purposes and audiences, • to write in a variety of genres, and • to respond to peers and to receive peer responses to writing. The Administrator Will See: • whole-group, small groups and individuals involved in writing, • teacher interacting with students during roving conferences, whole-class shares, and one-on-one conferences, and • students seeking help from their peers to respond to their writing. The Role of Parents/Families is: • to encourage their children to experiment with writing, • to encourage their children to apply what they have learned about writing by writing (e.g., letters, invitations, diaries,
grocery lists, notes), and • to read with their children to expose them to a variety of writing genres. Resources: Cunningham, & Allington, Classrooms That Work: They Can all Read and Write (2nd ed.), 1999 New Zealand Ministry of Education, Dancing With the Pen: The Learner as a Writer, 1994 Fountas & Pinnell, Guided Reading, 1996 Routman, Writing Essentials, 2005
27
INDEPENDENT WRITING “Every study of young writers I’ve done for the last twenty years has underestimated what they can do. In fact, we know very little about the human potential for writing.” Graves, A Fresh Look at Writing, 1994 Definition: Teacher/students choose a particular form or genre and students utilize the skills to become lifelong writers. Purpose: To encourage students to experiment, choose their own topics, problem-solve, monitor, and explore the use of written language. The Role of the Teacher is: • to create opportunities for students to engage in authentic, purposeful writing, • to respond to the content of the students’ writing, and • to assist students with the revision and editing process, and • to hold conferences with individual writers. The Role of the Student is: • to write for their own purpose (e.g., to document what they have learned, express feelings), • to select the topic and content for writing, • to use different writing genres, • to revise and edit writing, and • to accept feedback from peers and the teacher. The Administrator Will See: • students engaged in writing, • teacher interacting with students, • literacy centers for writing, • teacher creating enthusiasm for writing, and • teacher creating authentic purposes for writing. The Role of the Parents/Families is: • to encourage writing for a variety of purposes (e.g., lists, letters, invitations, diaries, stories, poems, or plans for a trip). Resources: Graves, A Fresh Look at Writing, 1994. Fountas & Pinnell, Guided Reading, 1996 Routman, Writing Essentials, 2005
28
ASSESSMENT IN A BALANCED L ITERACY CLASSROOM Definition : Assessment is the collection of data about students’ performance in order to inform instruction. Evaluation
is the interpretation of the data collected. Purpose: To support the identification of a student’s strengths as well as to determine what teaching needs to occur
next; shows how readers are changing over time; group and regroup for guided reading groups; and serve as a foundation for working with parents and providing evidence and examples that will help them understand how their children are developing as readers and writers.
The Role of the Teacher is: • to understand that assessment has two forms: summative assessment and formative assessment.
Comparison of Formative and Summative Assessment Formative Assessment Summative Assessment Purpose To guide instruction and improve on
instructional decisions/methods and to provide student feedback
To measure student competency at certain points in time
When administeredOngoing throughout the unit of study End of unit of study/school year • to use a variety of assessment tools and to understand the purpose of each tool. The Role of the Student is: • to participate in each assessment, providing the teacher with data about what she/he knows and is able to do, as well as
identifying areas of focus for future teaching. The Administrator Will See: • teacher using a variety of assessment tools. • teacher collecting and analyzing data to inform instruction, and • evidence that the teacher shares assessment information with parents. The Role of Parents/Families is: • to be informed about their children’s reading progress at various times throughout the school year. • to support their children’s progress by promoting and encouraging more reading and writing opportunities outside the
school day, and • to communicate observations and concerns to their children’s teachers. DISTRICT ASSESSMENTS FOR BALANCED L ITERACY INSTRUCTION : ASSESSMENT HOW IT INFORMS INSTRUCTION Running Records Involves the observation and recording of all the student’s oral reading behaviors as
she/he reads aloud text. Allows the teacher to assess a student’s fluency and word knowledge and to determine instructional, independent, and frustration reading levels, as well as the cues and strategies the student uses. There are two forms of running records; formal and informal. Formal running records (Text-Level Assessments, provided by the district) are given five times a year—entry into grade level and at the end of each nine week grading period. These running records are recorded on the standards-based report card to inform parents of their child’s progress in reading during the nine weeks. Informal running records are given by teachers to track student progress in reading during the grading period. These assist teachers in determining movement in guided reading groups.
29
ASSESSMENT IN A BALANCED L ITERACY CLASSROOM CONTINUED DIBELS Next Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS) is a set of measures
used to assess early literacy and reading skills for students from kindergarten through sixth grade. Teachers and coaches can use DIBELS Next to identify students who may be at risk for reading difficulties; help teachers identify areas to target instructional support; monitor at-risk students while they receive additional, targeted instruction; and examine the effectiveness of your school’s system of instructional supports. DIBELS assesses basic early literacy skills, or the essential skills that every child must master to become a proficient reader (national Reading Panel, 2000; National Research Council, 1996). DIBELS Next is comprised of six measures. These are standardized assessments, which mean they are administered and scored exactly the same way each time with every student. They are brief, reliable, and valid assessments that measure student progress over time. These are used three times a year to benchmark students and between benchmarks to progress monitor students that may be at risk for future reading difficulty on skill areas in which they are receiving instruction.
1. First Sound Fluency (FSF): The assessor says words, and the student says the first sound for each word.
2. Letter Naming Fluency (LNF): The student is presented with a sheet of letters and asked to name the letters.
3. Phoneme Segmentation Fluency (PSF): The assessor says words, and the student says the individual sounds for each word.
4. Nonsense Word Fluency (NWF): The student is presented with a list of VC and CVC nonsense words (e.g., sig, rav, ov) and asked to read the words.
5. DIBELS Oral Reading Fluency (DORF): The student is presented with a reading passage and asked to read aloud. The student is then asked to retell what he/she just read.
6. Daze: The student is presented with a reading passage where some words are replaced by a multiple choice box that includes the original word and two distracters. The student reads the passage silently and selects the word in each box that best fits the meaning.
OPTIONAL ASSESSMENTS APPROPRIATE FOR EARLY L ITERACY INSTRUCTION : Concepts About Print Assesses what the student knows and is attending to about books and print. Does
the student know that we read English from left to right and from the top to the bottom of the page? Can the student identify where there is something to read on a page? Does the student know how to handle a book and where the book begins? Does the student know title, title page, author, and illustrator? Helps the teacher decide when the student has enough book knowledge to move into guided reading.
Phonemic Awareness Before they can be successful as beginning readers, young children must be able to
segment words into phonemes and blend or combine separate phonemes into words. Research indicates that a predictor of early reading achievement is the ability to segment and blend sounds. Spelling is an easy way to evaluate a child’s phonemic awareness. How well students spell words is one of the best indicators of their levels of phonemic awareness. A spelling test will give the teacher an indication of whether students know words are made up of letters and how far along they are on the developmental continuum of phonemic awareness. Early on, students only hear and write the beginning sound (The word rake is spelled “r”.). As they become more phonemically aware, they spell words with the beginning and ending letter sounds. (The word rake is spelled “rk”.). They go on to move through later stages of development where they begin to add the vowels they hear
30
ASSESSMENT IN A BALANCED L ITERACY CLASSROOM CONTINUED in the middle of a word. In addition to having students spell words, teachers can
also have students isolate or segment one or more of the sounds in a spoken word, have students blend or combine separate phonemes into words or have them
manipulate the sounds in a word. These spelling segmentation and blending tasks give teachers an indication of whether students know the difference between words and sounds and can understand and begin to use the alphabetic nature of our language to decode and read words.
High Frequency Sight Word Lists Indicates the extent to which a student is accumulating a sight word vocabulary that
is necessary for fluency and comprehension. Lists are available on Gradespeed. Decodable Word Lists Indicates how accurately and quickly a student can apply decoding skills to read
decodable words such as fat, big, net, or mop. Teachers can identify areas of strength and need and plan for future instruction.
Writing Words Permits the teachers to observe all the words a student can write in a 5- or 10-
minute period. Word writing provides a record of high-frequency words that a students knows.
Retelling of a Story This involves asking a student to retell a previously read story. Helps the teacher to
assess a student’s memory for text, how well she/he can sequence events, and her/his ability to recall the important details of the story.
Comprehension Questions Through questioning during and after the text is read, the teacher can determine if
the student uses background information, or schema, in making connections with the text. The teacher can also determine the student’s ability to make predictions and inferences, ask questions, and summarize the main ideas and details of the text. Individual Reading Inventories are one form of assessment that includes measures of student’s comprehension. Almost all commercially available reading tests include measures of comprehension. Care should be taken in selecting questions that assess the strategies and skills that are being taught and that will help students become strategic, independent readers.
Resources: Clay, Concepts About Print: What Have Children Learned About the Way We Print Language? 2000 Clay, Running Records for Classroom Teachers, 2000 Gentry, The Literacy Map, 2000 Harp, The Handbook of Literacy Assessment and Evaluation, 1996 National Reading Panel, Teaching Children to Read: An Evidence-Based Assessment of the Scientific Research Literature on Reading and Its Implications for Reading Instruction, 2000 Snow, Burns, & Griffin, Preventing Reading Difficulties in Young Children, 1998 Fountas & Pinnell, Teaching for Comprehending and Fluency, 2006 Fisher & Frey, Checking for Understanding, 2007
31
GLOSSARY OF L ITERACY TERMS
1. Alphabetic Principle – The relationship between letters and their sounds. 2. Automaticity – The ability to accurately and quickly recognize many words as whole units (e.g., sight words). 3. Basal Readers – Commercially published collections of high quality reading selections, including stories,
informational texts, poetry, and plays that have been grouped together by grade level and according to difficulty. Tennessee adopts, every six years, basal textbooks in the various content areas.
4. Big Books – Oversized books, usually containing rhyme, rhythm, and predictable content that teachers use for read
alouds in situations that are designed to replicate parent-child book reading and acquaint students with the reading process.
5. Blending – Quickly putting together the sounds of individual letters to produce a word. 6. Book Room – This is a designated area where leveled readers, literacy materials, and professional development
materials are arranged for teachers to checkout. These items are used to help teachers implement balanced literacy. 7. Choral Reading – An instructional strategy to help beginning readers who struggle with fluency when they encounter
difficult text. The teacher and student(s) look at the same text, the teacher reads aloud slowly, and the student(s) reads along with or slightly behind the teacher’s voice.
8. Classroom Libraries – Books that are a permanent part of a classroom and from which students choose during daily
independent reading time. 9. Coaching – Teaching that takes the form of prompts and cues to scaffold students from dependent to independent
reading behaviors. 10. Common Core State Standards - The Common Core State Standards provide a consistent, clear understanding of what
students are expected to learn, so teachers and parents know what they need to do to help them. The standards are designed to be robust and relevant to the real world, reflecting the knowledge and skills that our young people need for success in college and careers. With American students fully prepared for the future, our communities will be best positioned to compete successfully in the global economy.
11. Comprehension – The act of constructing meaning from text. Includes strategies or processes such as the reader
activating existing knowledge, making connections between text and the existing knowledge, questioning the text, visualizing, inferencing, summarizing/synthesizing, and self-monitoring.
12. Comprehension Instruction – A research-based plan of instruction to teach comprehension strategies. The teacher
and/or the curriculum determine the sequence. These strategies must be modeled for students and usage of the strategies must be made clear.
13. Concept of Word – The knowledge that a written word is stable over time and space (e.g., the letters c – a – t will
always be read as cat). This is also identified as the ability to match spoken words to print words (i.e., pointing to each word when reading or leaving spaces between words during writing).
14. Concepts of Print – The knowledge of written text that children must develop to become proficient (e.g., matching
written words to spoken words, moving through a book from front to back, reading from top to bottom).
32
GLOSSARY OF L ITERACY TERMS (CONTINUED ) 15. Connected Text -- Written words that are joined as sentences (e.g., stories, articles) to convey a message, provide
information, etc. Word lists that do not convey meaning are not connected text. 16. Constructivism – A theory of knowledge or learning that describes children as active learners who organize new
information and relate it to their prior knowledge and learning. 17. Decodable Text – Text that is written for beginning readers. Contain a high number of regularly spelled, decodable
words, along with a set of high-frequency words. 18. Decoding – The ability to translate the alphabet letters into recognizable sounds (e.g., saying /f/ for the letter f) and to
use that knowledge to sound out and pronounce words. 19. Developmental – A pattern of change that moves from novice through advanced behaviors (e.g., crawling leads to
walking; emergent spelling leads to correct spelling). 20. Developmental Spelling Analysis (DSA) – This program includes an inventory to determine the student’s stage of
development in spelling. After determining a student’s level the instructional strategies/activities come from Words Their Way and Word Journeys.
21. Dialect – Language variations across cultures. Dialects differ from the standard language forms used in written
works. 22. DIBELS – Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills created by Roland H. Good III and Ruth A. Kaminski,
University of Oregon. Powerful research validated assessment tool measuring phonological awareness, the alphabetic principle, and fluency. The information gathered from this assessment helps teachers group students for instruction, track growth, and predict outcomes for high-stakes tests. There are separate measures for each grade level.
23. Direct Instruction – A planned, explicit, systematic sequence of instruction that has a goal or set of goals. Not
synonymous with commercially published programs of the same name. 24. Directionality – Beginning readers’ understanding that print is read and written from left to right and moves from top
to bottom of a page. 25. Echo Reading – An instructional strategy to help beginning readers with difficult text. Teacher and student(s) each
have the same text. The teacher reads one part alone (e.g., sentence, line, page). Then the student(s) immediately rereads that same text.
26. Emergent Literacy – A view that literacy learning begins at birth and is encouraged by having children participate
early in a range of literacy and language activities. Activities formerly identified as pretend reading and/or scribble writing are now recognized as valid, systematic, important developmental steps through which children move on the way to correct or convention reading and writing.
27. Environmental Print – Common words and messages that guide us through our world (e.g., signs, advertisements,
labels, directions). 28. Essential Literature – A district initiative to ensure every student has access to quality literature each year he/she is in
school. Books are housed, in classroom sets, in the Media Center.
33
GLOSSARY OF L ITERACY TERMS (CONTINUED ) 29. Explicit Instruction – A teacher-directed strategy that emphasizes the teaching of a specific task and the steps needed
to master it. 30. Expository Text – An expository text sets out to describe objects, events or processes in an objective manner, present
or convey an argument, to state the solution to a problem or to explain a situation. 31. Expressive Language – A person’s knowledge of words that is demonstrated through her/his talking and /or writing. 32. Family Literacy – Varied and complex ways that family members use written literacy during their interactions with
each other (e.g., lists, letters, messages, storybook reading). 33. Feedback – The teacher’s response to students’ behaviors as they demonstrate what has been taught. Intended to
accelerate learning and encourage self-monitoring. 34. Flexible Grouping – The temporary grouping of students for instruction, based on some common need or learning
goal. This contrasts with reading groups that remains together for most or all of the school year. 35. Fluency – A reader’s expression, phrasing, and speed as she/he reads a text. The term “fluent” describes a level of
automatic, accurate word recognition and reading that is correlated with better comprehension. Fluency can also refer to the speed and efficiency with which words are spelled.
36. Frustrational (“Too Difficult”) Text – Text that is too difficult for a student to read, even with teacher assistance.
Reading is labored or word-by-word, with the capacity for comprehension reduced. Sometimes used as teacher read-aloud instead of assigned as student reading.
37. Functional Print – Print that fills a purpose (e.g., signs, directions, lists). 38. Genre – Categories used to describe written materials that are based on their shared structure, organization and/or
perspective (e.g., first person narrative, biography, historical fiction, poetry, non-fiction). 39. Grapheme – A letter that represents a sound (e.g., f represents /f/). 40. Guided Reading – An instructional procedure in which the teacher works with a small group of students who are
reading at about the same achievement level. Students each have a copy of the text and read orally or silently at the same time. The teacher observes, coaches, prompts, and evaluates their performance.
41. Guided Writing – An instructional procedure in which the teacher works with a small group of students who have
similar needs and coaches them as they write a composition. The emphasis is on leading students to independent writing.
42. Independent (“Easily Read”) Text – Text that a student is able to read without assistance. Reading is smooth and
fluent with a high percentage of accuracy (95-100%) and comprehension. 43. Independent Writing – The writing that students initiate (e.g., journaling, writing assignments, notes to classmates,
notes to parents).. This allows a student to practice previously taught writing skills.
34
GLOSSARY OF L ITERACY TERMS (CONTINUED ) 44. Inference – A comprehension strategy that requires readers to “fill in the gaps” in texts. Proficient readers activate
and join their own experiences and knowledge with information they read to construct meaning. The combination provides information that is not written in text (e.g., readers might infer from the sentence “She grabbed the handlebars and began pedaling.” that the character is riding a bike). Inferences can be made between consecutive sentences, across several paragraphs, and across more that one text or other sources of information.
45. Informal Assessment – Information that documents student progress. Usually occurs during normal classroom
instruction as the teacher teaches, observes, and interacts with students. Examples can include running records, reading conferences, etc.
46. Informational Text – A text genre that provides information, persuades, or explains, and is based in truth, as opposed
to fiction. Examples include textbooks, newspapers articles, some magazines, and encyclopedias. 47. Instructional (“Just Right”) Text – Text that requires assistance from a teacher but is neither too difficult nor too easy
for students to read. Identified by the student’s oral or silent reading rate (faster at each grade level), percentage of correctly read words (optimally 90-94%), and percentage of correct comprehension responses (at least 80%) as text is read.
48. Interactive Writing – Writing in which the teacher and students compose, with the teacher “sharing the pen” with
students at strategic points. By evaluating student development, the teacher chooses when to ask for student participation and when to provide instruction.
49. Journal Writing – A collection of student writing produced over time (often in a notebook). Can contain correct or
emergent spellings and illustrations, can be open-ended or structured by the teacher. Journal writing occurs on a regular basis to practice writing instruction that occurs in other settings.
50. K-W-L – An instructional strategy that enhances comprehension by documenting what children already Know, Want
to learn, and Learn. 51. Letter Knowledge – Knowledge of the names and shapes of letters. 52. Leveled Readers – The name for sets of small books that are controlled and sequenced for difficulty and length and
used to teach reading. Popular in the primary grades, with illustrations closely tied to the text, language is conversational or “natural,” as opposed to the more controlled language of earlier reading materials.
53. Literacy Centers – Literacy Centers are specially designed classroom areas organized for independent, self-managed,
student work while the teacher is working with individual students or a small group. Literacy Centers are differentiated and allow students to practice previously taught skills.
54. Literacy Circles -- Small, heterogeneous groups, often student-directed literature conversations about an excellent
text. 55. Literacy Coach – A fulltime highly-skilled literacy coach is provided to each elementary school. The coach serves as
literacy leader and reading instruction coach to all classroom teachers. The Literacy Coach provides on-going, job-embedded professional development as he/she models effective reading strategies in classrooms and leads instructional improvement discussions during team planning sessions and staff meetings.
35
GLOSSARY OF L ITERACY TERMS (CONTINUED ) 56. Meaning from Text – A comprehension strategy. Proficient readers move through text and determine which pieces of
information are necessary to construct meaning. 57. Mentor – A knowledgeable person (usually the teacher) who acts as a coach to assist others (See Scaffolding). 58. Metacognition – Knowledge and control of one’s own thinking and learning. In reading, metacognition refers to the
reader being aware of when reading makes sense and adjusting his or her reading when comprehension fails. 59. Mini-writing Lesson – Short, specific writing lessons that usually address common concerns (e.g., writing process,
craft, strategies, writing or print conventions). 60. Modeled Writing – An instructional procedure in which the teacher brainstorms, plans, and composes a piece of
written text as students watch. Accompanied by a verbal explanation of each stage of the process and done on the board, an overhead, or a large chart.
61. Modeling – Teacher performance of specific proficient behaviors (e.g., reads, writes, identifies words, self-monitors)
so that students can observe and learn. The procedure gains power when it is accompanied by a teacher think-aloud that explains the specific proficient behavior.
62. Narrative Text – A text genre that tells a story. Generally includes the elements of character, setting, plot, and theme.
Varieties include first-person narratives, fictional stories, and biographies. 63. Onset – All the sounds in a word that come before the first vowel (e.g., the /bl/ in the word blank, the /sh/ in ship). 64. Partner, Paired, or Buddy Reading – A cooperative reading method to provide reading practice in instructional text
and/or to help a student through more difficult text. Two students take turns reading from the same text. If the text is more difficult for one student, the other student gives help.
65. Phoneme – The units speech that make up words and make a difference to meaning. If a student changes the first
phoneme in the word sat from /s/ to /p/, it changes the meaning of the word. Phonemes are not letters; the number of phonemes in a word does not always match the number of letters (e.g., dog and chin each have three phonemes: /d/. . ./o/. . ./g/, /ch/. . ./i/. . ./n/).
66. Phonemic Awareness – A child’s understanding that every spoken word is made up of a sequence of phonemes. The
phonemes that make up a word can be heard when the word is said slowly (e.g., rope is made up of three phonemes: /r/, /o/ and /p/). It differs only by one phoneme from rip, soap, ripe, road and rode. Phonemic awareness is key to understanding the logic behind the alphabetic nature of our language and this to the ability to learn to spell, use phonics and learn to read.
67. Phonics – The knowledge of letter-sound relationships and how they are used in reading and writing. Instructional
practices in phonics teach children how the spellings of words are related to speech sounds in systematic ways. Learning phonics presumes phonemic awareness. Students who have persistent difficulties in learning and using phonics to decode words may well need assistance in strengthening their phonemic awareness. See Alphabetic Principle and Phonemic Awareness.
68. Portfolio Assessment – A collection of one student’s papers (e.g., writing assignments, assessments) and artifacts
(e.g., projects). It provides a multi-faceted way to gauge a student’s progress over a period of time.
36
GLOSSARY OF L ITERACY TERMS (CONTINUED ) 69. Practice – In reading, using a strategy that is learned but not automatic until it is internalized (e.g., asking questions of
a text until asking questions becomes automatic). 70. Predictable Book – Books that repeat lines and patterns of text. Repetition makes the text memorable and, therefore,
easier for young students to remember, read, and reread. 71. Prediction – Readers’ ideas about what will happen in a text that are based on connections to other texts, knowledge
of text structure, and to their personal experiences. Proficient readers predict, consciously or unconsciously, how texts evolve from beginning to end and monitor whether their predictions are correct.
72. Primary Language – The first language in which a student learned to speak. Students who speak in two languages are
said to have a first and a second language. 73. Print Rich – Describes a classroom environment in which there is a wide variety and quantity of writing and reading
materials that are both visible and available to students and they play important, ongoing roles in significant daily activities.
74. Prior Knowledge – A comprehension strategy. Proficient readers activate and join their personal experiences and
knowledge to portions of text they are reading in order to construct meaning. 75. Question – For students, a comprehension strategy to self-assess and to construct meaning. For teachers, one way to
monitor student understanding (teaching questions can range widely from literal to very complex). 76. Read-aloud –The teacher daily reads aloud materials that are at students’ listening level but above their reading level.
The students are actively engaged in thinking and talking about the text. 77. Reading Group – A static group of 6-12 students, who meet on a regular basis over a semester or year. The teacher
judges the students in the group to have similar levels of reading proficiency and has them read and discuss the same instruction-level texts. Skills and strategies are also taught in the group.
78. Reading Levels – The three levels: independent, instructional, and frustration are identified using a running record; the
term is also used to indicate the grade levels appropriate for reading written material. 79. Reading Proficiency – Reading in which comprehension, fluency, decoding, and rate are well developed. 80. Repeated Reading – For teachers -- rereading a book aloud to increase students’ understanding and/or memory of the
text; for students -- rereading a book to increase fluency and understanding or to provide enjoyment. 81. Retelling – An oral reconstruction of a previously read text. Retellings can be used as instruction or for assessment. 82. Rime – The first vowel in a word and all the sounds that follow it (e.g., /ank/ in blank and /ip/ in ship). 83. Running Record – A written record (using a series of symbols) that documents how a student read aloud a text and
provides information about a student’s current reading proficiency. It includes mispronunciations, self-corrections, re-readings, record of accuracy, etc. It is also called an Oral Reading Record and may be part of an Informal Reading Inventory.
37
GLOSSARY OF L ITERACY TERMS (CONTINUED ) 84. Scaffolding – Teacher coaching, prompting, and cueing students in response to their behaviors during a specific
literacy task. As the student becomes more able, teacher support is gradually withdrawn. 85. Self-monitoring – A comprehension strategy. Proficient readers constantly monitor their understanding and make
adjustments as necessary. 86. Self-selected Reading – Usually lasts from 10 to 20 minutes depending on the grade level. During this time, the
students read independently or with a partner a book of their own selection. The teacher should also read for some portion of the time to serve as a model, and should also circulate to hold individual mini-conferences, keep students motivated and encouraged, and to provide on-the-spot, incidental teaching. Throughout this time, students may also make entries in their journals.
87. Self-selection – Students select their own texts to read. Sometimes scaffolded by the teacher (e.g., showing students
how to select a text at the right reading and interest level). 88. Shared Reading – A method of reading a text that is usually too difficult for the student(s) to read without help: The
teacher reads aloud at the rate that allows the student(s) to join in, although usually slightly behind the teacher. As she/he reads, the teacher models specific reading behaviors (e.g., decoding, self-monitoring, making meaning).
89. Shared Writing – An instructional strategy in which the teacher and students contribute to plan, brainstorm, compose,
and transcribe a composition. Shared writing is frequently done on the board, an overhead projector, or a large chart. Concepts about print are taught and reinforced during writing.
90. Sight Word Vocabulary – Stockpile of words students recognize instantly. See Vocabulary. 91. Small Group – Approximately 4-6 students that the teacher separates from the class to facilitate instruction. Groups
can be either hetero- or homogeneous and have either static or changing members. It is usually identified as homogeneous (in achievement) and static.
92. Sound Boxes – A row of joined squares (2-4) into which students move a chip or finger to signify each sound they
hear in a word (e.g., 3 squares for cat, with one box for /c/, one for /a/, and one for /t/). 93. Sound Cards – A type of flash card that contains a picture and a letter(s). These environmental pictures are used to
assist students in forming and producing the correct sound. 94. Standardized Assessment – A testing instrument that has been designed for use in many settings and is accompanied
by directions and procedures for administering it in a consistent standardized way that will allow for a common interpretation of scores and an understanding that scores from multiple sites mean the same thing and indicate comparable levels of proficiency. Standardized tests have been checked for validity (i.e., it tests the concept it is intended to test) and reliability.
95. Standards-Based Report Cards –PreK-5 report cards based on grade level academic standards. Standards-Based
Report Cards provide parents detailed information concerning the academic achievement of their children based upon specific grade level standards.
96. Strategy – A type of instruction that focuses on research-based processes that defines particular aspects of reading.
Strategy instruction can take place during writing, word study, and comprehension activities.
38
GLOSSARY OF L ITERACY TERMS (CONTINUED ) 97. Summarize – The process of pulling together the essential elements in a longer passage of text. 98. Syllable – A unit of spoken language. In English, a syllable can consist of a vowel sound alone or a vowel sound with
one or more consonant sounds preceding and/or following. 99. Synthesize – A comprehension strategy. More complex than a summary, it requires the reader to activate prior
knowledge, determine what is important, ask questions of the text, visualize, infer, and self-monitor. These actions come together to create a synthesis of the text and appear to define comprehension or the construction of meaning.
100. TN Curriculum Standards– The standards were developed to ensure that K-12 Tennessee students learn the skills
needed to succeed in school, in the workplace, and in their lives, with the ultimate goal for students to become life-long learners. In 2014-15 the Tennessee will be switching to the Common Core State Standards as reflected in the “Race to the Top” legislation.
101. Think-aloud Strategy – Teacher modeling of a literacy behavior and verbalizing about what he/she is thinking (e.g.,
reads aloud, stops to ask a question about the text, and verbalizes the question and how it helps him/her to better understand the text).
102. Tracking Print – The understanding of and ability to read print from left to right and from top to bottom of a page.
This is also described as the ability to match a spoken word to the print that matches the word. 103. Trade Book – A book written as a piece of literature (i.e., available in bookstores and libraries). The focus is to
inform or entertain, not specifically to teach reading, as are basal readers (See Basal Readers.). 104. Visualize – A comprehension strategy. Proficient readers create visual images as they read and add their own
knowledge to those images to construct meaning. 105. Vocabulary (listening, speaking, reading and sight) – 1. The words students understand and know the meaning of
when they hear them. 2. The words students can pronounce and use accurately when they are speaking. 3. The words students understand the meaning of when they are reading but may not necessarily be able to pronounce. 4. The words a student can read and pronounce accurately and automatically, with no necessity for decoding or guessing.
106. Whole Group Instruction – Instruction provided to all members of the class at the same time. Also defined as one
activity/task in which all students in the class engage at the same time. 107. Word Attack – Tasks that readers perform when they do not instantly recognize a word (e.g., left-to-right blending or
sounds, using known parts of words, phonics, structural analysis, context, beginning sound + pictures). 108. Word Study – A plan of instruction for teaching, studying, practicing, and learning words that follows a sequence
predetermined by the teacher or the curriculum (i.e., a sequence-based on how learning words develops). 109. Word Wall – A chart or charts that categorize important vocabulary (e.g., by beginning sounds, content areas). Word
walls are used for various word-study activities, including practice with writing. 110. Wordless Books – Books without print, in which the storylines are carried by illustrations alone.
39
BIBLIOGRAPHY Adams, Marilyn Jager, Barbara R. Foorman, Ingvar Lundberg, and Terri Beeler. Phonemic Awareness in Young Children: A Classroom Curriculum, Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Company, 1998. Bear, Donald R., Marcia Ivernizzi, Shane Templeton and Francine R. Johnston. Words Their Way: Word Study for Phonics, Vocabulary, and Spelling Instruction (5th Edition) (Words Their Way Series) Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2011. Bear, Donald R., Marcia Ivernizzi, Shane Templeton and Francine R. Johnston. Words Their Way Letter and Picture Sorts for Emergent Spellers (2nd Edition), Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2009. Bear, Donald R., Marcia Ivernizzi, and Francine R. Johnston. Words Their Way: Word Sorts for Within Word Pattern Spellers (2nd Edition) [Paperback], Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2010. Beck, Isabel L., Margaret G. McKeown, and Linda Kucan. Bringing Words to Life, New York: The Gilford Press, 2002. Boushey, Gail and Joan Moser. The Daily Five. Portland, MA: Stenhouse Publishers, 2005. Boushey, Gail and Joan Moser. The CAFE Book: Engaging All Students in Daily Literary Assessment and Instruction, Portland, MA: Stenhouse Publishers, 2009. Brummer, Trisha and Stephanie Macceca Writing Strategies for Mathematics (Reading and Writing Strategies), Huntington Beach, CA: Shell Education, 2008. Clark, Sarah Kartchner Writing Strategies for Social Studies (Reading and Writing Strategies), Huntington Beach, CA: Shell Education, 2007. Conkin, Wendy, and Shelly Frei. Differentiating the Curriculum for Gifted Learners (Practical Strategies for Successful Classrooms), Huntington Beach, CA: Shell Education, 2007. Diller, Debbie. Literacy Work Stations: Making Centers Work, Portland, MA: Stenhouse Publishers, 2003. Diller, Debbie. Spaces & Places: Designing Classrooms for Literacy, Portland, MA: Stenhouse Publishers, 2008. Diller, Debbie. Making the Most of Small Groups: Differentiation for All , Portland, MA: Stenhouse Publishers, 2007. Diller, Debbie. Practice with Purpose: Literacy Work Stations for Grades 3-6, Portland, MA: Stenhouse Publishers, 2005. Diller, Debbie. Reading With Meaning, Portland, MA: Stenhouse Publishers, 2002. Diller, Debbie. Teaching With Intention, Portland, MA: Stenhouse Publishers, 2008. Flanigan, Kevin, Latisha Hayes, Shane Templeton and Donald R. Bear. Words Their Way with Struggling Readers: Word Study for Reading, Vocabulary, and Spelling Instruction, Grades 4 - 12 (Words Their Way Series), Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2010. Fletcher, Ralph, and JoAnn Portalupi. Writing Workshop: The Essential Guide, Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 2001.
40
Fountas, Irene C., and Gay Su Pinnell. The Continuum of Literacy Learning: Grades PreK-8. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 2011. Fountas, Irene C., and Gay Su Pinnell. Guided Reading, Good Teaching for All Children. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 1996. Fountas, Irene C., and Gay Su Pinnell. Guiding Readers and Writers, Grades 3-6: Teaching Comprehension, Genre, and Content Literacy. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 2001. Fountas, Irene C., and Gay Su Pinnell. Teaching for Comprehending and Fluency: Thinking, Talking, and Writing About Reading, K-8. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 2006. Ganske, Kathy. Mindful of Words: Spelling and Vocabulary Explorations 4-8 (Solving Problems in the Teaching of Literacy), New York: The Gilford Press, 2008. Ganske, Kathy. Word Sorts and More: Sound, Pattern, and Meaning Explorations K-3 (Solving Problems in the Teaching of Literacy), New York: The Gilford Press, 2006. Harvey, Stephanie and Anne Goudvis. Strategies That Work: Teaching Comprehension for Understanding and Engagement (2nd Edition), Portland, MA: Stenhouse Publishers, 2007. Helman, Lori, Donald R. Bear, Shane Templeton and Marcia R. Invernizzi. Words Their Way with English Learners: Word Study for Phonics, Vocabulary, and Spelling (2nd Edition) (Words Their Way Series), Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2011. Hoyte, Linda. Interactive Read-Alouds, Grades K-1 (Linking Standards, Fluency, and Comprehension) Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 2006. Hoyte, Linda. Interactive Read-Alouds, Grades 2-3 (Linking Standards, Fluency, and Comprehension) Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 2008. Hoyte, Linda. Interactive Read-Alouds, Grades 4-5 (Linking Standards, Fluency, and Comprehension) Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 2007. Johnston, Francine R., Marcia R. Invernizzi, Donald R. Bear and Shane Templeton. Words Their Way Word Sorts for Syllables and Affixes Spellers (2nd Edition), Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2008. Johnston, Francine R., Marcia R. Invernizzi, Donald R. Bear and Shane Templeton. Words Their Way: Word Sorts for Letter Name - Alphabetic Spellers (2nd Edition), Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2008. Kopp, Kathleen. Strategies for Writing in the Science Classroom, Gainesville, FL: Maupin House, 2011. Macceca, Stephanie. Reading Strategies for Social Studies: Grades 1-8, Huntington Beach, CA: Shell Education, 2007. Macceca, Stephanie. Reading Strategies for Science: Grades 1-8, Huntington Beach, CA: Shell Education, 2008. Mc Gregor, Tammy. Comprehension Connections: Bridges to Strategic Reading, Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 2007. Parkes, Brenda. Read It Again!: Revisiting Shared Reading, Portland, MA: Stenhouse Publishers, 2000. Rog, Lori Jamison. Guiding Readers, Markham, Ontario, Canada: Pembroke Publishers, 2012.
41
Rog, Lori Jamison. The Write Genre, Markham, Ontario, Canada: Pembroke Publishers, 2004. Routman, Regie. Reading Essentials: The Specifics You Need to Teach Reading Well. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 2003. Routman, Regie. Writing Essentials: Raising Expectations and Results While Simplifying Teaching. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 2005. Shanker, James L., and Ward A. Cockrum. Locating and Correcting Reading Difficulties (9th Edition), Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2008. Templeton, Shane, Francine R. Johnston, Donald R. Bear and Marcia Invernizzi. Words Their Way Word Sorts for Derivational Relations Spellers (2nd Edition), Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2008.