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241© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2016G. Matias, Citizenship as a Human Right, DOI 10.1057/978-1-137-59384-9
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251© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2016G. Matias, Citizenship as a Human Right, DOI 10.1057/978-1-137-59384-9
INDEX
A Abbe Sieyès , 36 abuse of law , 121, 123, 124, 139 Accursius , 31, 33
naturalization , 30 administrative policies and procedures:
changes to , 201 adverse possession , 2–3, 214–21
applicability , 215–16 and jus nexi , 217 protection of , 216, 239
African Americans , 222 African Charter on Human and
Peoples’ Rights: Article 6 , 94 Article 12 , 94
AG of Hong Kong v Ng Yuen Shui , 198
aging populations , 8 Ahmadou Sadio Diallo case , 93–4 Algeria , 158 aliens:
automatic naturalization of resident , 208
categories of , 21 classifi cation as , 166–7, 172
diplomatic protection , 41 exclusion of , 82 legal treatment of , 41 levels of citizenship , 19–21 permanent , 89 political rights , 97, 181–3 protection of , 182 resident , 183 rights for , 169 and social benefi ts , 172
American Civil War , 117 American Convention on Human
Rights , 63–7 Article 20 , 63
American Law Institute , 42 amnesty , 179 Amnesty International , 98 Ancient Greece , 222 . See also Athens;
Attica citizenship and inclusion , 9–21, 22,
92, 97 and citizenship of foreigners , 19–21 defi nition of a citizen , 10–11 metics , 209
Ancient Rome: awarding citizenship , 24–8
252 INDEX
Antoninus Caracalla, Emperor , 26, 29 aphretor , 12 arbitrary treatment: freedom from ,
203 arcontes , 16 Arendt, Hannah , 80, 97 Argentina , 122 Aristotle , 9–10, 12, 14 Asian nationals , 154 assimilation:
forced , 105–6, 108 full , 106
Asylum and Immigration Tribunal (UK) , 141
asylum requests , 139 Athens , 209 . See also Ancient Greece;
Attica citizenship of , 15–19 development of citizenship , 9–10 social organization of , 9–13
Attica . See also Ancient Greece; Athens characteristics of the citizen , 10 citizenship of , 10–11 community of citizens , 17 unity of peoples , 21
attribution of citizenship , 206–7 attrition through enforcement , 178 Augustus, Emperor , 26 Australia , 158
qualifying time for citizenship , 218 Austria , 125–33, 141, 180, 218, 219
B Baden-Württemberg , 107 Baldus de Ubaldis , 30
naturalization , 30 Banks, Angela , 204 Barbados , 158 barbarians , 19–21, 26 Barcelona Traction Case , 93 Barker, J Craig , 42
Bartolus de Sassoferrato , 30 naturalization , 30
Bauböck, Rainer , 208 Bayerischer Verwaltungsgerichtsh of ,
126 Belgian Nationality Code: Article
10(1) , 134 Belgium , 134, 136, 180, 218, 219
nationality law , 139 belonging and participation , 12 Benhabib, Seyla , 88–90, 105–6, 147,
221–2, 223 birthright citizenship , 121
repealing , 124–5 Black, Charles , 92 black market economy , 165 bloc voting , 183 borders:
abolition of , 81 controls , 82–4, 90 failure to control , 80, 165–6 porosity , 86
Bosico, Violetta , 65 Bosico and Yean children , 64–6 Bosnia and Herzegovina , 73 Bosniak, Linda , 92, 96, 98–9, 100,
175, 187, 222 brain drain , 160 Brennan, Justice William , 172–3 Brownlie, Ian , 54 Bulgaria , 219 Bundesministerium für Inneres
(Austria) , 140, 142
C California: Proposition, 187 , 175–6 Canada , 73, 158 caput , 22 Carens, Joseph , 81, 84, 179–80, 209,
211 border controls , 82–4
INDEX 253
Carthaginian deserters , 25 centre of life , 210–11 Chan Kam Nga , 198 Chang, Howard F. , 85–6 changes to laws: impact on migrants ,
201 Charter of Fundamental Rights of the
EU: in Lisbon Treaty , 118 Chen, Catherine . See Zhu, Catherine Chen, Man Lavette , 121, 139 Chen case , 135–7, 231–2
abuse of law , 139 Chen decision , 121–5, 128, 130, 133
paragraph, 37 , 129 restrictions on scope , 139–40
Chicago: alien voting rights , 181 children:
Convention on the Rights of the Child , 155
and nationality cases , 142 right to education , 171–4 right to nationality , 162
China: second child policy , 121 Cholewinsky, Ryszard , 158–9 citizen-as-rights: theory critique , 96–7 citizen tourism , 232 citizens , 225–6
exclusive rights , 181 mass participation , 20–1 remuneration for participation , 20–1
citizens in waiting , 1, 3 and citizenship , 239 migrants as , 188 rights for , 186–7
citizenship , 228–33 . See also Chen case and adverse possession , 214–15,
216–21 applicable principles for acquisition ,
131–3 attribution of , 54–6, 173, 206–7,
208 benefi ts , 168
birthright , 121, 124–5, 212 and choice , 210 codifi cation , 57 collective granting of , 16 concentric circles , 35 confl icts about , 43 control of , 8, 45–6, 50–1, 58, 83,
84, 89, 125, 133 decline of , 88–91 in a democracy , 147 democratic and moral arguments ,
213 denationalization , 87–8 derivative acquisition , 56, 116–18,
206–7 devaluation of , 89 development in EU , 229 discretionary discrimination , 212 for documented and undocumented
migrants , 197, 202–3, 230 and effective link , 209–10 elements of , 79–81, 229 and equality , 33, 35 and EU law , 140 and exclusion , 92 and family , 23–4 federal , 115 and freedom , 11 as a fundamental right , 212 and human rights , 69–70 as identity/solidarity , 80–1 and inclusion , 9, 25 institutionalized , 16, 18, 24 and integration , 21, 22, 197 international dimension . See
citizenship law issues , 115–16 legal relationships , 139 as legal status , 80–1 legal status in Rome , 24 legalization over time , 216–21 and legitimacy for legal rules , 147
254 INDEX
citizenship (cont.) locus of , 97 loss or deprivation , 58, 143–4 meaning , 22, 33, 86, 96, 97, 98,
99, 116, 146–7, 232–3, 239–40
and migration , 229 monolithic reading of concept , 213 and multiculturalism , 104–9 national legislation , 44 by naturalization , 207–8 nineteen-twenties perspectives , 42–3 path for documented and
undocumented migrants , 226–7
time frame for entitlement , 214–21 and personhood , 153–4 and political activity , 80–1, 98–100,
104 procedures , 211 and proportionality , 206 purpose , 90–1 replacement of , 107 and residence , 30–1, 66–7, 139,
187, 207, 208, 212, 213 restoring , 133 reward for illegality , 202–3 right to , 49, 50–1, 84, 96, 132, 207 rights , 80–1, 89, 91–6, 117, 154,
187, 224 and safety , 30–1 and statelessness , 143–4 strengthening in Ancient Rome ,
21–2 through adverse possession , 217 through legal engineering , 135 time frame for entitlement , 217,
218–20 transnational , 100, 229, 230 and voting rights , 182–3 citizenship law , 54
citizenship goods: access to , 89
reserving , 167 citizenship law , 54
and cross-border migration , 144 harmonization of , 231 international , 41–76, 146, 213
citizenship rules: boundaries , 123 and EU law , 145 freedom to establish , 123
cives , 22 cives iure optimo , 28–9 cives optimo iure , 24 cives sine suffragio , 24, 28–9 Civil Rights: in US , 222 Civil War . See American Civil War civitas , 22 civitas libertasque , 22 civitas (Roman) , 21–4 civitates peregrini , 28–9 civitatis , 23 Cleisthenes , 9–10, 15, 19
reforms , 17–18 collective guilt , 15 collective happiness , 14–15 collective property , 82 collective responsibility , 14–15 collective right to self-determination ,
107 collective virtue , 14 Columbia , 136
civil war , 134 Columbian nationality , 134 Committee of Experts on Multiple
Nationality , 66 common good , 14–15 communitarianism , 14–15 community:
Athenian concept of , 14 maintaining and uniting , 27
concentric citizenship circles , 35 Congo, Democratic Republic of
(DRC) , 93–4 connection criteria (jus nexi) , 209–10
INDEX 255
Conseild’État (Belgium) , 134 Conseild’Etat (France) , 106 consilia , 29 Constitutio Antoniani , 26–9 constitutional democracies: and
protection of expectations , 202 constitutional law:
and full assimilation , 106 and migrants’ rights , 187
constitutionalists , 92 contradictory actions of the
administration , 200–2 Convention against Torture and Other
Cruel Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment , 155
Convention on Migrant Workers, 1975 (No. 143) , 156
Convention on Nationality of Married Women , 61
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women , 60, 155
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination , 155
Convention on the Reduction of Statelessness , 56–9, 57–9, 64
Article 8(2) , 129 contracting states , 57–8
Convention on the Rights of the Child , 155
Convention on the Status of Refugees, 1951 (UNCHR) , 160
cosmopolitan citizens: expectations , 200–2
cosmopolitanism: economics of , 84–5 Costa Rica , 63 Council of Europe Recommendation 1081 , 66 Countries . See nation states Court of Justice of the European
Union (CJEU) , 54, 116, 121, 122, 130–1, 146, 203, 230, 232
Case C-13/08 , 125–33
citizenship case decisions , 143, 145 extension of competence on
citizenship , 128–9 and Janko Rottmann v Freistaat
Bayern , 126–33 judicial activism , 115 Mulder case , 198–9 Murat case , 142 and reserved domain doctrine , 130 review of legality , 198
criminal justice systems: European , 170–1
criminal law: proportionality , 204 Croatia , 219 cross-border migration , 86, 136, 140,
144 cultural integration , 105 cultural invasion , 108 Cyprus , 219 Czech Republic , 219
D Davos World Economic Forum , 98 De Groot, Gerard René , 73, 128, 130,
131, 144, 203–4 decision-makers: community
of , 10–11 dediticii , 26, 28–9 demes , 17 democracies:
paradox of legitimacy , 8–9, 99–100, 221–8
and protection of expectations , 202 democratic participation , 104 democratic principle , 2–3, 3–4, 69–70,
99–100, 104, 182, 227–8 growing importance of , 227 protection of , 239
Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) , 93–4
democratic society , 182–3 legitimacy of the government , 223
256 INDEX
demos , 9, 13, 16, 79, 86, 222, 224–6 constitution of , 14 divergent concepts of , 228 and legal defi nition of the people ,
226–7 setting apart from the polity , 222–3 time necessary to join , 225
demota , 17 denaturalization , 102
consequences , 131–2 Denmark , 158, 180, 218, 219 deportation , 202
and proportionality principle , 204, 206
risk of , 174–5 use of , 205
Dereci, Murat , 141–2 derivative citizenship , 116–18, 139,
206–7 and federal citizenship , 146 right to , 140
deterritorialized citizenship . See post-national citizenship
developing countries: migration within , 154
Diallo, Ahmadou Sadio , 93–4 Diderot, Denis , 33 diplomatic protection , 41
foreign affairs ministers , 93 government offi cers , 93 heads of state , 93
diplomats: and the demos , 225 discriminable rights , 167 disloyalty , 183 documented migrants:
and adverse possession , 217 citizenship path , 226–7 expectations , 201–2 in liberal democracies , 217 naturalization policies , 217 protection of , 163–4 protection of expectations , 201–2
d’Oliveira, Jessurum , 127, 130, 131–2, 137, 145
domestic jurisdiction: defi ning , 44–5 doctrine of , 45 and nationality , 65, 66–7
domestic law: and principle of protection of legitimate expectations , 198
domestic reserved domain , 44–8, 115, 120
and genuine link theory , 54–5 and international law ,
121–2, 124 limits to , 54–5, 122–3 and nationality law , 130 theory of , 50
Domingo, Rafael , 96 Dominican Republic , 64–6 Donner, Ruth , 42, 43 Draft Articles on Nationality of
Natural Persons , 62–3 Article 1 , 62–3 Article 4 , 63
Draft Articles: Report of the International Law Commission , 61–4
dual citizenship , 41, 100–4 concept of , 25 in constitutional law , 103–4 in international law , 103–4 right to , 102 US model , 116–17
Dutch nationality law . See Netherlands
E eastern countries: drafting Migrant
Workers Convention , 158 Economic and Social Council (UN):
study on statelessness , 56–8 economic cosmopolitanism , 84–6
INDEX 257
economic inequality: between areas , 164–5
economic migrants , 154 education: social right to , 171–4 effective link . See genuine link Egypt , 158 11 September 2001 , 175 d’Entreves, Maurizio Passerin , 97 Equal Protection Clause (US law) ,
173 equality , 227
and citizenship , 33, 35 equality principle , 166 essentialist approach , 45 Estonia , 219 ethical territoriality , 187, 188, 222 etnos , 79 EU borders: immigration within , 118 EU citizenship , 99
acquisition and loss , 120–5, 126–33 autonomy of , 121–2 concept of , 143–7 debate about , 115–20 derivative form , 120 developments , 115 and EU law , 137 exclusions , 119–20 federalization of , 140, 142, 144,
146 and national citizenship , 124,
143–7, 144, 145, 146 peculiarity of , 138–9 proportionality principle , 138–9 provisions relating to , 136 purpose of , 116, 147 relationship to national citizenship ,
120–5 and reverse discrimination , 138–9 revolution in laws of , 125–33 rights , 118, 127–8, 137, 143, 181 seeking , 120–5 status of , 145
strength , 117 as transnational citizenship , 181
EU citizenship law: and cross-border disputes , 142–3 developments , 123 revolution in , 130, 133–40 specifi c principles , 203
EU Directive 2004/38 , 142 EU law:
and citizenship , 140 freedom from arbitrary treatment , 203 fundamental rights , 139 and legitimate expectations , 201–2 national applicability , 136 and post-national citizenship , 87 principle of proportionality , 131–2,
144, 146 and protection of expectations , 197,
201–2 EU rights: loss of , 132 Europe , 73
access to citizenship , 3 categories of foreigners , 21 courts , 45 legalization/regularization , 205 qualifying time for citizenship , 218 structure of society , 29
European Charter of Fundamental Rights , 95
Article 8 , 142 European Commission: and nationality
law , 130 European construction , 27–8 European Convention on Human
Rights , 95 European Convention on Nationality
(ECN) , 2, 66–8, 71–4, 87, 220 Article 4(c) , 129 Article 7(1) , 129 Article 7(3) , 129 and EU residence , 73–4 naturalization in EU , 67
258 INDEX
European Court of Justice . See Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU)
European Economic and Social Committee: opinion on International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families , 157
European institutions: crisis of legitimacy , 147
European Ombudsman: right to address , 119–20
European Parliament: right to address , 119–20
European people , 116, 147 designing , 147
European Union (EU) , 27, 67, 229 and citizenship , 73, 230–1 de facto harmonization , 231–2 democratic defi cit , 227 democratic legitimacy , 118–19 evolution , 147 freedoms , 128 institutional basis , 230–1 integration , 231 non-citizen voting rights , 181 principles , 128 undocumented migrants , 176
European Union Observatory on Democracy (EUDO): citizenship , 218–19
European University Institute, Florence , 219
exclusion from benefi ts: fi nancial argument , 172
exclusive domestic jurisdiction . See domestic reserved domain
exclusive rights: of citizens , 181 expats , 186 expectations , 3–4, 203
and CJEU review of legality , 198 legitimacy of , 200–3
protection of legitimate , 197–203, 227
raised by state and its offi cials , 201 expulsion orders , 141–2
F Falk, Richard , 98 familiae , 23 family ties: and migration , 154–5 family unit , 23 federal citizenship , 115, 116–17
and derivative citizenship , 146 female genital mutilation , 106 feudal privileges , 82 feudalistic society , 29 fi nancial arguments:
costs to host countries , 168–9 exclusion from benefi ts , 172
Finland , 158, 218, 219 forced assimilation , 105–6, 108 foreign affairs ministers , 93 foreigners . See aliens France , 48, 108, 158, 180, 218, 219
Conseild’Etat , 106 fraud: and withdrawal of citizenship ,
125–33 free speech , 14 Freistaat Bayern , 126 French citizens , 33–4 French Revolution: and concept of
citizenship , 33–6 fundamental rights and freedoms , 14,
154 evolution of , 107–8
G G-7 , 98 gene (clans) , 10 general interest (non-particularist) , 13 genocide , 94–5 genuine link , 51–6, 124, 209–10
INDEX 259
application of , 54 connection criteria , 209–10 defi ning and establishing , 53 full extent of , 55–6 theory , 213
geographical contiguity , 15–16 German Constitutional Court , 107 German nationality: acquired through
fraud , 199–200 Germany , 51–4, 107, 108, 125–33,
158, 180, 198, 218, 219 and Polish Upper Silesia , 199
global citizenship , 92 global constitutionalism , 3 global law , 96, 116 global order:
legitimacy , 87 new , 86
Global State , 80 globalization , 88, 186
and national citizenship , 185 and national identity , 106
Gomez, Monica , 214, 215 good faith , 203 Good Friday Agreement , 231 Goodman, Sarah Wallace , 219 Graham v Richardson ,
166–7, 172 Grant, John P , 42 Graz (Austria) , 125–33 Great Britain . See United Kingdom Greece , 158, 180, 218, 219 Greece v Commission , 199 Greek citizens , 26 Greek heritage , 80 Greenpeace , 98 group of 77: drafting Migrant Workers
Convention , 158–9 Grundschule , 107 Guatemala , 51–4, 124, 175 Guatemalan nationals , 175 guest workers , 209 Guinea, Republic of , 93–4
H Habermas, Jürgen , 200, 223, 227,
232 Hague Conference , 47 Hague Convention (1930) , 44–9, 52,
60 Article 1 , 45–6 and citizenship law , 54
Hailbronner, Kay , 72 Haiti , 64–6 Handoll, J. , 232 Harvard Draft Convention , 42–3 Harvard project , 42–3 Hauptschule , 107 heads of state: status , 93 heightened liberty interest , 204 Heiml, Mrs. , 141–2 Hoang, Minh , 214, 215–16 Hong Kong Court , 198 honorary citizenship , 20 hospitality: right to , 81 hostis , 28–9 Hudson, Manley , 42 human dignity , 92
international protection of , 163 universalization of , 153–4
human rights , 90, 92 and citizenship , 69–70 core universal , 230 and EU charter , 118 and individual attachments , 100–1 international , 49, 90 international protection of , 80, 88,
94–5, 96, 155–6, 163 and personhood , 164, 167 regulatory framework , 156–7 right to citizenship , 102 to specifi c citizenships , 104 universal protection , 91–7 universalization of , 153–4
Human Rights Watch , 98 human virtue , 14 Hungary , 219
260 INDEX
I Iceland , 219 illegal aliens: required notifi cation ,
176–7 Illegal Immigration Reform and
Immigrant Responsibility Act , 176
illegal migration , 153 networks , 160, 165 control of , 166
immigrant rights: United States of America , 185
immigrants: and adverse possession , 214–15 integration of , 165 and taxation , 168–9 voting rights , 88–9
immigration , 8, 83 and adverse possession , 214–15 as citizenship path , 186–7 as contract , 84, 184–5 control of , 89 and host culture , 82 illegal networks , 153, 160, 165, 166 legal relationships , 139 magnets for , 169 reporting status , 175 right to control , 82 as transition , 184, 185, 187–8
immigration and citizenship discourses: and proportionality , 205–6
Immigration as a Democratic Challenge (Rubio-Marin, 2000) , 210
immigration law: criminalization of , 177, 204 and path to citizenship , 184 and proportionality , 206
imperialism: and citizenship , 24 inclusion:
and citizenship , 17 constitutional , 108
India , 158 individual removal orders , 141–2 individualism , 14–15 individuals:
and citizenship , 87 and collective virtue , 14–15 detachment from national polity ,
88–9 and international law , 79, 93–6 international relevance , 93 international rights , 94–5 law of , 42 rights and freedoms , 87, 107 and socio-political community , 22
industrialized countries: concerns about migrants’ rights , 158–9
information fl ow , 164–5 Institut de Droit International , 42 institutional transnational citizenship ,
115–47 integration: testing degree of , 211 integration policies , 104–5 Inter-American Commission on
Human Rights , 64–6 Inter-American Court of Human
Rights , 64, 65 Inter-American Instruments on
Human Rights , 63–7 International American Specialized
Conference on Human Rights , 63–6
international citizenship: developments in , 230
international citizenship law , 52 codifi cation , 73–4 early , 69 and national law , 56–9 non-discrimination of spouses , 66 reduction of statelessness , 66 regional , 63–7
International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All
INDEX 261
Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families , 153, 155, 156–63, 174–5
aims , 157 applicability , 159–61 Article 1 , 162 Article 3 , 161 Article 4 , 161 Article 5 , 163 Article 29 , 162 Article 37 , 162 Article 38 , 162 Article 40 , 162 Article 41 , 162 Article 42 , 162 Article 43 , 162 Article 44 , 162 Article 46 , 162 Article 47 , 162 Article 49 , 162 Article 52 , 162 Article 54 , 162 Article 56 , 162 Article 79 , 162–3 Article 88 , 161 Articles 36–56 , 162 exclusively documented rights , 162 and family reunifi cation , 162 negotiating groups , 158–9 ratifi cation , 157, 159 rights protected by , 161–2 and undocumented migrants , 163–4 working group , 157–9
International Conventions on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination , 59–61
Article 1(3) , 60 Article 5 , 60
International Conventions on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families , 101
International Court of Justice , 51, 52, 53, 93, 95, 124, 209–10
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights , 59, 62, 95, 155
Article 9 , 94 Article 13 , 94 Article 24/3 , 59
International Criminal Court , 93–4 Statute of Rome , 95 international institutions: democratic
defi cit within , 227 International Labor Organization
(ILO) , 156 Convention on Migrant Workers,
1975 (No. 143) , 156 Migration for Employment
Convention, 1949 (No. 97) , 156 international law , 96, 116
admitting foreigners , 174 application of , 234 and citizenship , 210–11, 229 citizenship background to , 41–4 customary , 228 and the democratic principle , 227 and demos , 225 and domestic reserved domain ,
121–2, 124 equality principle , 166 and full assimilation , 106 human rights , 208 and legitimate expectations , 198,
201–2 and migrants’ admission criteria ,
164 and migrants’ rights , 187 obligations to refugees , 225–6 and principle of proportionality , 146 and rights of undocumented
migrants , 178–9 and withdrawal of citizenship , 129
International Law Commission (UN) , 57, 61–3, 158
262 INDEX
international law of citizenship , 41–76
compliance with , 44–5 customary , 46–7 and democratic principle , 69–70 effective nationality , 66 principles , 47
international legal community , 27 international legislative bodies:
democratic defi cit within , 227 international migrants: geographical
distribution of , 154–5 international organizations , 79 international practice , 229 international refugee law , 175 international law: trend in views on
citizenship , 218 international Conference of
Plenipotentiaries , 57–9 investors , 160–1 Ireland (Eire), Republic of , 219 Islamic terrorism , 84 Israel: qualifying time for citizenship ,
218 Italian peninsula: political unifi cation ,
22 Italy , 122, 158, 180, 218, 219 ius cogens , 227–8 ius conubium , 28–9, 167
attribution of , 206–7 ius domicilii , 2–3, 183, 188, 206–13,
212–13 automatic attribution , 213 protection of , 239
ius gentium , 28–9, 29, 95 ius hospitium , 28–9 ius sanguinis , 7, 16, 23, 25, 34, 47,
55–6, 100, 220 attribution of , 206–7
ius soli , 7, 25, 34, 47, 55–6, 64–6, 67, 100, 121, 220
ius testamenti factio , 28–9
J Jacobsen, David , 90, 180 Janko Rottmann v Freistaat Bayern ,
125–33 Japan , 158 jus domicilii , 232 jus nexi (connection criteria) , 204,
209–10, 232 and adverse possession , 217 criteria to fulfi ll , 212
justice: and virtue , 14
K Kant, Immanuel , 81 Karst, Kenneth , 92 Kaur decision: paragraph 19 , 129 Kennedy, John F. , 18 Kochenov, Dimitry , 130 Kokollari, Mr. , 141–2 Kokott, Advocate-General , 142 Kunz, Joseph , 53 Kymlicka, Will , 104–5 Kyrgyzstan , 73
L l’affaire du foulard/ scarf affair , 104,
106–7 Latvia , 219 law: Romanization , 28–9 laws: legitimacy of , 228 Lazio , 22 League of Nations , 42, 199
codifi cation Conference (1930) , 42–3
Lebanon , 48 legal certainty , 203, 227 legal engineering , 134 legal knowledge: in Middle Ages ,
29–30 legal order: person-centre , 96
INDEX 263
legal permanent residents , 215 legal persons , 62 legal pluralism , 3–4 legalization: adverse possession of ,
216–21 legitimate expectations , 2–3
formation of , 200–3 protection of , 239
Legomsky, Stephen , 100, 102, 168–9, 173, 177–8, 202–3, 211, 214
and proportionality principle , 204–5 Lex Julia (90BC) , 25 Lex Plautia Papiris (89 BC) , 25 liberal democracies , 182–3, 234
access to citizenship , 225–6 documented migrants in , 217 freedom from arbitrary treatment ,
203 legal mechanisms for naturalization ,
205–6 naturalization policies and processes ,
206–7, 217 and protection of expectations , 202
Libya: international intervention , 94 Lichtenstein , 51–4, 124 Lipman, Francine J , 168–9 Lisbon Treaty: Charter of Fundamental
Rights of the EU in , 118 Lithuania , 219 Lönnroth, Juhani , 160–1 Ludin, Freshta , 107 Lukes, Timothy , 214, 215–16 Luxembourg , 154, 218, 219
M Maastricht Treaty (1992) , 27, 116 Maduike, Mr , 141–2 Maduro, AG Miguel Poiares , 126–8,
132, 138, 203 opinion on Rottman , 144, 199–200
Malta , 219
Marshall, T H , 80, 92 Marsilius de Padua , 31 Maryland: alien voting rights , 181 McCarthy case: AG opinion , 142–3 McDonalds , 98 medieval cities: citizenship , 30 Mediterranean and Scandinavian
group (MESCA): drafting Migrant Workers Convention , 158–9
Meier, Christian , 12–13 members of the polity:
heightened liberty interest , 204 political participation , 182–3 as rulers , 182–3
Merkel, Angela , 104 Mesbah decision: paragraph 29 , 129 metics , 19–21, 209, 222
and citizenship , 89 Mexicans , 171–2 Mexico , 158
qualifying time for citizenship , 218 Micheletti, Mário Vicente , 122 Micheletti decision , 122, 125, 128,
130, 133, 144, 146 paragraph 10 , 129
Middle Ages: citizenship during , 29–33
migrants: admission of , 83–4, 162, 163–4 and adverse possession , 215–16 assimilating , 106 as citizens in waiting , 88–9, 184–8,
188 contribution to society at large , 201 defi nition , 159–60 and deportation , 206 exercise of rights , 208 expectations of resident , 201 and human rights , 186 integrating , 104–5, 182 naturalization of , 207, 208
264 INDEX
migrants (cont.) protections of , 89–90, 155–6, 161 relationship with police , 176–7 right to family reunifi cation , 155 rights protection , 153–6 and social contract , 84
migrants’ expectations , 197–203 migrants’ rights , 187–8
global protection , 153–6 legal framework for protection of ,
156 need for a specifi c convention ,
155–6 migration:
and citizenship , 232–3 within developing countries , 154 disadvantages of undocumented ,
165 economic effects , 84–6 effects on citizenship , 229 mass movements , 100 positive impacts , 84–5 reasons for , 154 regulating , 89, 163–4 and social benefi ts , 169
Migration for Employment Convention, 1949 (No. 97) , 156
migratory movements , 43, 100 development of legal protections ,
92–3 frequent , 186 geographical distribution of , 154–5 impact of , 82–3 and national sovereignty , 79–80, 83 reasons for , 154–5
military interventions , 228 military service , 101 minority rights , 107 Moldova , 219 moral cosmopolitanism , 81–6 Morjé-Howard, Marc , 218, 219,
231–2
Morocco , 158 Motomura, Hiroshi , 1, 84, 184–8 Mulder case , 198–9 multi-taxation , 101–2 multiculturalism:
and citizenship , 104–9 confl icts , 105–6
multiple citizenship , 43, 100–4 municipal citizenship law , 52 municipes , 25 municipia , 24, 29 Murat Dereci and Others v
BundesministeriumfürInneres , 140
N NATAC project , 218–19
recommendations , 218–20 nation-states:
challenging attributions of citizenship by , 213
and citizenship rights , 92, 97 disputes between , 96 interventions beyond , 94–5 and law enforcement , 5 layers of decision , 108–9 legitimacy , 87 raising undocumented migrants
expectations , 202 transforming , 90 waning of , 88 without a citizenship path , 222–3
national citizenship , 87–8 accepted interference in granting ,
124 concept of , 147 defi nition of people , 44 and EU citizenship , 115, 144, 145,
146 expectations , 200–2 in a globalized world , 186
INDEX 265
limitations on , 130, 228–30 and social cooperation , 186 supremacy in law , 120–5
national citizenship laws: and EU law , 203 harmonization , 120
national identity: and multiculturalism , 106
national law: and asylum requests , 139 on citizenship , 200 and international citizenship law ,
56–9 national self-determination , 90 nationality:
and children , 142 discrimination based on , 138 and domestic jurisdiction , 65, 66–7 effective , 66 general principles , 72–6 of natural persons , 61–3 obtained by deception , 125–33 recovering original , 126, 132 right to , 62–3 right to change , 50–1 withdrawal of , 132
Nationality Decrees: Morocco , 45 Tunis , 45
nationality laws: confl icts amongst , 44–8, 45–7 human rights approach , 68–9
nationhood , 86, 87 natural persons: nationality of , 61–3 naturalization , 34, 56, 102
Ancient Greece , 16 applicable principles , 131–3 barriers to , 211 based on residence , 220 and cultural integration , 105 ideological qualifi cations , 211 illegitimate obstacles to , 211
obstructive policies , 218–19 paths to , 89 policies and procedures , 2, 89, 108,
228 qualifying criteria , 30, 31, 73–4,
211–12, 218–20 qualifying times , 218–20 recommendations of the NATAC
project , 218–20 requirements , 30 residence criteria , 73–4, 211–12 surveys of , 219–20 undocumented migrants , 75–6 withdrawal of , 125–33
Nazi regime , 51, 52 offi cials , 95
Nazism , 84 Netherlands , 158, 180, 218, 219 nationality law , 144, 203–4 Netherlands Citizenship Act:
Article 15 (1) (d) , 203–4 Articles 14 , 203–4 nationality law , 144
Neuman, Gerald , 167, 170, 211 New Global Law, The , 96 New York City , 154
alien voting rights , 181 Ng Ka Ling , 198 Ng Yuen Shiu , 198 NGOs , 79 Nigeria , 141, 232 Nigerian national , 141 9/11 , 175 nine-eleven , 175 1951 Convention on the Status of
Refugees (UNCHR) , 90, 160 Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals (US) ,
176 NngSiu Tung , 198 Nobility: losing strength , 18 non-citizens: right to vote , 180–4 non-discrimination of spouses , 66
266 INDEX
non-Nordic countries , 218 non-refoulement , 81, 87, 134, 225–6 Nordic countries , 218 Northern Ireland , 121, 122, 125, 136,
232 . See also Ireland (Eire), Republic of; Northern Ireland
citizenship law , 124–5 and de facto naturalization , 231–2 law , 123
nationality law , 139 Norway , 158, 219 Nottebohm decision , 43, 51–6, 74,
122–4, 209, 230–2 and genuine link theory , 71 historical importance , 213
Nozick, Robert , 82 Nuremburg , 95 Nuremburg laws , 108–9 Nussbaum, Martha , 81, 84
O oikos (private) , 10
and women , 11–12 ‘Onassis’ , 161 Opel Austria v Council , 199 open borders ,
81–3, 174 and right to citizenship , 83
optimoiure , 25 Orentlicher, Diane , 69
P Pacta sunt servanda , 74 Pakistan , 158 pariahs: creating , 205 participative citizenship , 15 passive citizens , 34 pater familias , 22, 23 Peloponnesian war , 17, 19
role of citizenship , 18
people: concept of , 224–5 legal defi nition , 44
peregrini , 28–9 peregrini alicuius , 28–9 Pereira da Silva, Jorge , 27–8 Pericles , 9–10, 15, 18–19, 20 Permanent Court of International
Justice , 45, 199 permanent residency: and voting
rights , 183 personhood , 92, 107, 188
and citizenship , 153–4, 167 and human rights , 162, 164 rights relating to , 155, 166 universal , 86 and nationhood , 87
phratriai , 10, 12, 16 admission to , 12–13
phylai (tribes) , 10 Pickus, Noah , 83, 84, 209 Plato , 20 plural citizenship . See multiple
citizenship Plyler v Doe , 167, 171–4, 176, 188 Pnyx , 16 Poland , 219 police: relationship with migrants ,
176–7 polis , 9, 10, 12, 15, 17
aim , 14 Polish Upper Silesia: and Germany , 199 political activism: transnational ,
97–100 political community:
and integration , 70 legitimacy , 7
political participation: citizenship as , 13–15 elevation to , 11
political rights , 118–19, 181, 230 and citizenship , 104
INDEX 267
as human rights , 97 reserved for , 224
political structure: legitimating , 147 polity:
detachment from national , 88–9 identifying members of , 204 members of , 204 setting apart from , 122 tools of , 44
population: concept of , 224–5 Portugal , 158, 180, 218, 219 Portuguese nationals , 154 Portuguese-speaking world , 21 post-national citizenship , 81, 86–8, 92
and democracy , 99 movement supporting , 87 theories , 88
praetor peregrinus , 28–9 presence: and enjoyment of rights , 187 principle of effective connection , 25 principle of good faith , 199 principle of prohibition , 225–6 principle of proportionality , 2–3, 3–4,
130, 131, 138–9, 146, 203–6, 227
assessment of , 212 and citizenship cases , 131–2 in EU law , 144 and international law , 146 protection of , 239 and sovereignty over citizenship ,
128–9 test for , 131–3 and wrongdoing , 170–1
principle of protection of legitimate expectations , 132
case law , 198 Hong Kong , 198
principles and freedoms: and national citizenship rules , 131
private property , 82 private virtue , 10
proportionality . See principle of proportionality
Proposition 187 (California) , 175–6 protection of legitimate expectations ,
132 protection of trust , 198 public activities: payment for , 12 public life: participation in , 12 public transnational law , 228 public virtue , 10
R Rabio-Mario, Ruth , 208 racial discrimination , 222 ratione materiae , 138–9 Rawls, John , 82, 84 reduction of statelessness , 66 refugees , 160
claims , 142, 225–6 and international law , 175, 2255 legal relationships , 139 protections of , 89–90
regional international citizenship law , 63–7
regional organizations , 79 religious freedom , 14 Report of the International Law
Commission: Draft Articles , 61–4 Republic of Guinea , 93–4 required notifi cation: illegal aliens ,
176–7 residence:
and citizenship , 66–7, 173, 187
establishing , 74–5 and naturalization , 220 right of , 138 and rights , 188 and voting rights , 182–3
responsa , 29 reverse discrimination , 138–9
268 INDEX
review of legality: European Court of Justice (ECJ) , 198
Reynolds, Paul , 198 Riesenberg, Pieter , 30 rights:
to diplomatic protection , 119 to enter and remain , 181 to family reunifi cation , 118, 120,
155 for foreigners , 169 to free movement and
establishment , 118, 120, 121 to join movements , 89 to organize unions , 89 to remain , 204 residence , 138 to stand for elections , 119 to vote , 119
Robert Schuman Centre (European University Institute, Florence) , 218–19
Rodriguez, Cristina , 185–6 Roman Empire , 27
citizenship in , 21–9, 24 and integration , 22 treatment of foreigners , 28–9
Roman heritage , 80 Roman law , 216 Romania , 219 Romanization of Empire , 27, 29 Rosberg, Gerald , 182, 183 Rosenau, James , 86 Rottmann, Janko , 125–33
statelessness , 132–3 Rottmann case , 125–33, 130, 133,
137, 139 opinion , 144 reaquiring old nationality , 204
Rottmann decision , 142–3 impact on citizenship laws , 143–4 paragraph 42 , 136
Rubio-Marin, Ruth , 210, 212–13
Rushdie, Salman , 106 Russia: qualifying time for citizenship ,
218 Rwanda , 95
S Salvador , 175 Salvadorian nationals , 175 sanctuary:
challenges to cities , 176 cities , 175 laws , 175, 176 policy , 176–7
scarf affair/ l’affaire du foulard , 104, 106–7
Schaerbeek (Belgium) , 134 Schönberger, Christoph , 146 second-level citizenship . See derivative
citizenship Second World War , 52, 56, 95 self-control , 10 self-deportation , 179 self-determination , 107 Seling, Anja , 130, 144, 203–4 Serbia , 141 Serbian nationality , 141 Shachar, Ayelet , 207, 209–10, 211,
213, 214–15, 232 Shaffi r, Gershon , 13 Sharpston, AG: opinion on Zambrano ,
136–9 Shirley McCarthy v Secretary of State
for the Home Department , 140–1 sine suffragio , 25 Singer, Joseph , 216 Slaughter, Anne-Marie , 234 Slaves: in Ancient Greece , 11 Sloane, Robert , 213 Slovakia , 219 Slovenia , 219 Smith County (Texas) , 171–2
INDEX 269
social benefi ts: costs , 168–9 and fl oods of aliens , 172 and migration , 169
social contract , 83, 84, 168, 182–3 social rights , 118, 167–71
access to , 8 children , 171–4 education , 171–4
social security system: burdens on , 139–40
society: politicization of , 15 Socrates , 20 Solon , 9–10, 19
reforms of , 12, 15–17 Solon’s Constitution , 16–17 sovereignty:
argument , 82 and citizenship , 44, 45–6, 50–1, 58,
120, 125 and control of migration , 2, 83,
162, 163–4, 165–6, 174 election fever , 206–7 instruments of , 90 over naturalization , 207 and principle of proportionality , 128–9 and state legitimacy , 90
Soysal, Yasmin , 86, 87–8 Spain , 158, 180, 218, 219
law , 123 Spheres of Justice (Walzer, 1983) , 89,
209, 222–3 Spiro, Peter , 43, 68–9, 71, 100,
102–4, 211–12 Sri Lanka , 141 Sri Lankan national , 141 state legitimacy , 90 statelessness , 2, 12, 41, 43, 50–1,
52–3, 132–3, 142, 143–4 codifi cation , 57 as consequence of legal proceedings ,
126–33
creating , 205 defi nition , 57 in international law , 139 persons , 160 study on , 56–8
states . See nation states status:
and citizenship , 12 rights and duties , 22–3
status libertatis , 23 Statute of International Court of
Justice: Article 38 , 53–4 Statute of Rome: International
Criminal Court , 95 Stevic, Mrs. , 141–2 Strangers: duties and obligations
toward , 90 Students: and the demos , 225 Stuttgart: Higher School Authority ,
107 subditus , 31 subjects: and citizenship , 31–2 substantial and genuine connection ,
209–10 Succession of States , 62–3 supranational jurisdiction , 88 suspect categories: eliminating , 182 Sweden , 158, 180, 218, 219 Switzerland , 146, 219
federal model , 144
T taxes , 101–2 temporary workers , 8 territorial integrity: challenges to ,
79–80 territorial expansion: and integration ,
22 Texas, State of , 171–4 Texas Education Code , 171–3 thiasoi ( cult communities) , 10
270 INDEX
third country nationals , 118 time-passage theory: and acquisition of
citizenship , 214 Tokyo , 95 total integration , 105 tourists: and the demos , 225 transnational associations , 79 transnational citizenship , 4, 79–109,
146 developments in , 230 and elements of citizenship , 80 institutional , 99, 115–47 from institutional standpoint , 80 justifi cation for , 81–91 law , 2–3, 3–4, 116, 146 principles of , 239
transnationalism and fl uidity , 186 transparency of states , 4 travaux preparatoires , 48, 57, 58, 60,
68, 69 Treaty on the Functioning of the
European Union (TFEU) , 121, 122
Article 17 EC , 128 Article 18 EC , 128, 139 Article 19 , 181 Article 20 , 116, 136, 138 Article 21 , 139, 142 Articles 20–24 , 117–20 freedoms provided for , 127–8
Troper, Michel , 35 Turkey , 141, 158, 219 Turkish national , 141 Tyler Independent School , 172
U UN Charter: Article 2(7) , 44 UN core human rights protection
instruments , 155, 167, 174–5, 178 UN Resolution 34/172 , 157 UN Resolution 45/158 , 157, 159
UN Security Council , 228 underclass , 173–4 undocumented migrants , 141, 164–6,
168–71, 183, 206–7, 214, 226–7, 230
access to benefi ts , 169 access to rights , 164 and adverse possession , 215–17 amnesty , 179 attrition through enforcement , 178 and criminal activity , 169–71, 177 and deportation , 205–7 European Union (EU) , 176 exclusion from citizenship , 202 exercise of rights , 166, 174–5,
178–9 human rights , 239 legalization/regularization , 179, 205–6 legitimacy of expectations , 202 in liberal democracies , 174 naturalization policies , 75–6, 217 path to citizenship , 205–6 and proportionality principle , 204–5 protection of , 163–80 resident status , 173 rights , 166–80 rights over , 206–7 self-deportation , 179 social protections , 169 stripping of social rights , 171 threat of , 163 with ties to host country , 206 tolerance of in work force , 165
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics , 48, 154, 158
United Kingdom , 106, 108, 122, 139, 140, 141, 180, 218, 219
and Chen decision , 124–5 United Nations , 56–8
peace and human rights policies , 200–2 United States of America , 27, 49,
52–3, 73, 146, 158, 229
INDEX 271
access to citizenship , 3 alien voting rights , 181 equality under law , 173–4 federalist model of citizenship , 116–17 immigrant rights , 185 legitimacy of Constitution , 223 naturalization criteria , 211 non-citizen voting rights , 181 qualifying time for citizenship , 218 racial discrimination in , 222 resident aliens , 183 and right to remain , 204
Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) , 2, 52, 59, 64, 87, 92, 95
Article 15 , 48–51, 60, 62, 70–1 Article 15 (2) , 129 convention on statelessness , 56–9
universal human rights , 36 protection of , 86–7
unrealistic law: changing , 204–5 and heavier enforcement , 205
Uruguay , 48 US Constitution: 14th amendment ,
116–17 US District Court for the Eastern
District of Texas , 171–2 US Supreme Court , 171–4, 176, 188 usucapio , 216
V Van Panhuys, H F , 46–7 Vertrauensschutz , 198 Vienna Convention on Consular
Relations: Article 36, paragraph 1(b) , 94
Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (with annex). Concluded at Vienna on 23 May 1969: Article 18 , 199
Virtue: and freedom , 12 vita activa , 32 vita contemplativa , 32, 34 voluntary assimilation , 108 voting:
fraud , 183 lack of knowledge needed for
intelligent , 183 voting rights , 92
and citizenship , 182–4 and residency , 182–3
W Walzer, Michael , 2, 8, 9, 82, 88–90,
209, 222–3 war crimes , 95 Weiler, J.H.H. , 120 Weiler, Joseph , 7 Weiss, Paul , 220 Western and industrialized countries:
and drafting Migrant Workers Convention , 158–9
Westphalia , 5, 240 Wheatley, Steven , 227 women:
in Ancient Greece , 11–12 and citizenship , 11–12, 34 right to vote , 222
World State , 98 wrongdoing: and proportionality
principle , 170–1
X xenos , 20
Y Yean and Bosico children , 64–6 Yugoslavia , 95, 141, 158 Yugoslavian nationality , 141