,aw;gpay; universe formation composition of galache gas...

,aw;gpay;

Compiled By Rex Christopher 1

Nguz;lk; - Universe mz;lk; - (includes) tpz;kPd;> #hpad;> re;jpud;> Nfhs;fs;> vhpkPd;fs; cs;slf;fpait.

kpy;ypad; mz;lntspfs; cUkz;lyk; (Galaxies) cs;sd.

xU gpugQ;r tUlk; (cosmic year) - mz;lntspiar; (galaxy) Rw;wptu #hpad; vLj;Jf;nfhs;Sk; fhyk; (25 Nfhb Mz;Lfs; )

Geocentric concept – Ptolemy – (g+kpNa Nguz;lj;jpd; ikak;)

Heliocentric concept – coperniccus Keplar - #hpad; Nguz;lj;jpd; ikay;y #hpa

FLk;gj;jpd; ikak;. Hershell - #hpaf;FLk;gj;ijj; jhz;b gy

cUkz;lyq;fs; cz;L. E. Hubble – first demonstrated existence & galaxies

beyond milkyway. our galaxy name (cLkz;lyk;) – ghy; tPjp (Akash

Ganga -Mfha fq;if)

o Spiral (RUs; tbt cLkz;lyk;) o our nearest Galaxy – Andromeda

mz;l ntspapy; cs;s midj;Jk; <h;g;G tpirapdhy; ,ize;J cs;sd.

Big Bang theory: everything in the universe emerged

from a point - singularity ngUntbg;Gf; nfhs;ifg;gb (Big Bang theory) take

place 13.7 bn years ago. sun origin → 5 bn years ago. earth origin → 4.6 bn years ago. moon origin → 11 bn years ago. pulsating (oscillating) theory – after explosition from

primordial body, then contracts back & explodes

again over immensely long cycles ad infinitum. measurement units of space (thdpay; njhiytpw;fhd myF) 1. Light year (xsp Mz;L) – xU Mz;L fhyj;jpy; xspf;fjph; ntw;wplj;jpy; Vwf;Fiwa 3 x 108 kPl;lh; tpdhb Ntfj;jpy; nry;yf;$ba njhiyT xU xsp Mz;L 1 LY = 9.46 x 10

12 km

2. Astronomical Unit (thdpay; myF) = g+kpapypUe;J #hpadpd; njhiyT. 1 AU = 1.496 x 10

8 km.

- #hpadpypUe;J g+kpia te;jila vLj;Jf;nfhs;Sk; fhyk; 8mm 20 sec.

- #hpaDf;F mLj;J mUfhikapy; cs;s star.

- #hpaDf;F mLj;J mUfhikapy; cs;s Brightest

star – sirivs (Dog star)

- <h;g;G tpirapdhy; gpizf;fg;gl;l xspUk; thapf;fisf; nfhz;l xU kpfg;nghpa te;J Nghd;wJ

- pronima centauri (4.2 LY)

- Alpha Centauri (4.3 LY)

- Barnard’s star (5.9 LY)

- xU star-y; 98% gq;F – self luminars bodies

2% gq;F – Interstellar / gallaztic gas & dust henuated

term

- star forming clouds – 1000 times denser than the

normal intersteller gas. - star forming matter in richer than hydrogen & helium - star’s colour based on the temp of the surface - Blue color – max. temp they comes yellow & Red etc.

Formation composition of galache gas & dust

- generates heat (Hydrogen converted into helium by

nuclear fusion) emitting large amount of heat & light.

Black hole: stars having mass > 3 times that of bun. b’coz of

their great gravitational power.

- contract & develop – super density of 1016 grams /

cm3

- It dense that nothing not even light can escape from its

gravity.

- #hpaf; FLk;gk; - Muk; 5.6 x 109 km

Nfhs;fs; (Planets): - jhNk xspuhJ> #hpa xspiag; ngw;W gpujpgypf;ff;

$bait. Jizf;Nfhs;fs; (Moons)

- Nfhspd; fhh;g;G tpirahy; mf;Nfhisr; Rw;wptUk; tpz;nghUs;.

FWq;Nfhs;fs; (Asteroids)

- nrt;tha; & tpahod; ,ilapy; ePs;tl;lg;ghijapy; gy Mapuf;fzf;fhd tpz;fw;fs; (They r different

size) vhpel;rj;jpuq;fs; tpz;tPo;foy; - tpz;ntspapypUe;J g+kpapd; Nkw;gug;ig tspkz;lyj;jpy; topahf milAk; nghUs;. vhpel;rj;jpuk; / vhpfw;fs; (meteors) – tpz;fw;fs; g+kpapd; tspkz;lyj;jpw;F cs;Ns mjpNtfj;jpy; EioAk; NfhL Nghd;w xspald; tho;fpd;wd. ,tw;wpy; rpy vhpe;J fhw;wpy; fye;JtpLfpd;wd. (Meteoroids) – tpOfw;fs; - rpy ghjp vhpe;j epiyapy; g+kpapy; tpOfpd;wd. Meteorites: Asteroids %yk; Asteroids → Inner planets

Comets → from outer planets (Altu Jupiter)

Pluto – Fs;sf;Nfhs; (Dwarf Planets – pluto, Charon, ceres,

eris, make make, haumia) - 2006 Mk; Mz;L - Nfhs;fs; Rw;Wtl;lg;ghijapy; kw;nwhU Nfhs;

gq;Fngw;wikahy;

#hpad; Mas; - 10 bn. yrs - 5bn yrs. over

gbg;G – Heliology

core – (ikag;gLj;j/cs;sfk;)

ntg;gepiy / 15 mm. kelvin/ 1, 50, 00, 000 C

Photosphere (xspf;Nfhyk;) - ntg;gepiy – 5760 k - #hpadpd; fhzg;gLk; fUik thpfs;> fUk;Gs;spfs; - #hpad; - cyfpd; Mw;wy;%yk; - ntg;gepiyia Stephenson ehd;kbtpjp %yk;

fzf;fplyhk;. - #hpadpd; <h;g;G tpir g+kpapdij tpl 28 klq;F

mjpfk; - g+kpia tpl 109 klq;F nghpaJ. - g+kp - #hpad; distance – 150 mm km - gpuhd;N`hh; thpfs; (Fraunhoter) - #hpa Gs;spfs; → ntg;gepiy #hpaidtpl FiwT

Sunspots (fUk;Gs;spfs;) – cooler – temp - 1500 c

- periodically of 11 yrs. Nfhs;fs; (planets)

,aw;gpay;


ghdwh;Nfhs;fs;/cgNfhs;fs; → ,Uk;G kw;Wk; ghiwfshy; MdJ. ngUq;Nfhs;fs; / ntspNfhs;fs; (gaseous planets)- Hydrogen,

He & CH4. thAf;fshy; MdJ. Gjd; (mercury)

- kpfr;rpwpa Nfhs; - kpf Ntfkhf (#hpaidr; Rw;wptUk;) tyk; tUk;

Nfhs; (revolution 88 days) - tspkz;lyKk; Jizf;Nfhs;fs; → ,y;iy.

nts;sp (venus) – (g+kpapd; ,ul;il)

- xspkpf;f Nfhs; / hottest & brightest planet - NtW ngah;fs; - fhiy el;rj;jpuk; / khiy

el;rj;jpuk; /Ml;biladpd; tpsf;F - xU ehs; > xU tUlk;

(Rotation period > Revolution period) - atmosphere contains → Co2 → 90 – 95% - like Uranus rotates E → W

Mars (rptg;Gf; Nfhs;) nrt;tha;

- Nitrogen + axgon, Nyrhd tspkz;lyk; - satellites phobos, deimos - highest Mt. Nix Olympia

tpahod; (Jupiter) (Lord of the heavens)

- kpfg;nghpaJ - Ntfkhf RoYk; Nfhs; (9.8 hrs) - Atmosphere contains Hydrogen, He, CH4, Ammonia - fdpkpl; (Gannymede) – largest satellite

rdp (saturn)

- ePhpy; kpjf;Fk; (b’coz ePiu tpl Fiwe;j mlh;j;jp) - kpf NyrhdJ - satellite Titan – has nitrogen in its atmosphere. - system of rings – well defined. - There are separate particles that move indep. in

circular orbits. - space probe cassini.

Uranus (gr;irf;Nfhs;)

- identical by William Herchel. - Rotation – rolling – b’coz 98 inclined at an angle. - satellites – Ariel, Miranda.

Neptune:

- Satellite Triton - Coldest

All planets rotates W → E except Venus & Uranus

Comet shoemaker Levy – 9 – Jupiter (1994)

re;jpud; (Moon) - epyitg;gw;wpa gbg;G (selenology) - Rw;wsT circm – 11,000 km. - tpl;lk; diameter – 3475 km - <h;g;G tpir 1/6

th of the earth elliptical

- avg. distance 3, 82, 800 km - moon in 1/4

th size of this earth

- one revolution → 27 days 7 hrs. 43 min - one rotation → 27.3 - so we see only one side of the moon (59% of its

surface) - moon has no atmosphere

- light takes 1.3 sec to reach earth. - gpujpgypg;G – low

(albedo) only 7% but earth has 30% venus 70%

- July 2, 1969 → Apollo XI – foot on moon

(mikjpf;fly;) spot – sea of tranquillity. - shackleton crate (Moon impact probe) - M3 – epytpy; %yf;$W cs;sJ. - moon’s size – 1/3 of the earth - Mass – 1/8 th - Gravitation – 1/6

th

- density – ½ nd - mineral (fzpkk;) → Titanium – move - highest mts → 35,000 ft

(Lielonitz mts) yPg;pspl;]; kiyfhh;. Asteroids – very small planets / fragments

- not only b/w mars & Jup. (Asteroid belt) - occur in everywhere but Jupiter tiuf;Fk; - no atmosphere b’coz small size

- alter Jupiter comets thy; el;rj;jpuk; - Icy gas – My; MdJ

- thy; #hpaDf;F vjph;jpirapy; mikAk; - Asteroids – Meteorites

- Meteors – remains & comets

1. Hailey’s comet → 76 tUlj;jpw;F xUKiw tUk; filrpahf 1986-y;

2. comet smith tuttle – 2116-y; g+kpf;F tUk; damage 1.6

Mn times of hydrogen bails.

Nfhs;fSf;F- GJ tpsf;fk; (in 2006) (Inter Astronomical Union) #hpar; FLk;gj;jpy; Nfhs; vd;gJ 1. #hpaid tyk; tUtjhfTk; 2. NghJkhd epiw & cUz;ilahd mikg;GilajhfTk; (hydrostatis equilibrium) 3. mjd; tyk; tUk; ghijapy; NtW cwtpdh; ,Uf;ff;$lhjjhfTk;. i) kl;Lk; epiwNtw;wpdhy; small solar System body.

i) & ii) kl;Lk; epiwNtw;wpdhy; Dwarf planet (Fs;sf;Nfhs;/ Fwisf;Nfhs;) Nfhs; #hpaDf;F

Ks;s njhiyT

tpl;lk;

Jizf; Nfhs;

RoYjy;

tyk; tUjy;

Gjd; 5.79 4878 0 58.65 days

88 days

nts;sp 10.82 12102 0 257 days

225 days

Earth(Gtp)

14.96 12755 1 23 hrs

56 min

41 sec

365 d

5hr 48

min nrt;tha; 22.79 6787 2 Almost

24 hrs 687 d

tpahod; 77.83 142800 63 9.8 hrs 12 yrs rdp 142.70 120500 61 10.3 hrs 29 yrs ANud]; 287.96 51400 27 10.8

days 84 yrs

neptune 497.06 48600 13 15.7 days

165 yrs

g+kp Rw;wsT – 40> 232 km Area – 510 mm km

distance from sun – 149 mm km

Perihelion(Fiwe;j gl;r J}uk; - 147 mm km)

Aphelim (mjpfgl;r J}uk;) – 152 mm km

,aw;gpay;


g+kpapd; Roy; mr;R g+kp #hpaidr; Rw;wp tUk; jsj;jpd; Neh;$j;jpw;F 23 1/2 rha;e;Js;sJ. epyeLf;Nfhl;L Rw;wsT – 40> 067 km

fUtg;gFjp Rw;wsT – 40>000 km

g+kpapd; efh;Tfs; RoYjy; (daily movt.) W → E 23 hrs 56 mm 41 sec

velocity 1667 km/hr @ equator @ poles - zero tpisTfs; - gfy; ,uT

- 1 hr - 15 mg;ghy; - fhw;wpd; jpiria khw;Wk; ePNuhl;lj;jpd; - Nguiyfspd; cah;T/jho;T - Equator day & nights – almost equal - longest day (NH) – June 21 - Shortest day (NH) – Dec 22 - Vice versa m SH

rkepiyehs; (Equators)

- day & night equal - sun directly over equ. - mar 21 – vernal equinox - sep 21 – Autumnal equinox

Solstice – xU tUlj;jpy; gfYf;fhd Neuj;jpw;Fk; ,uTf;fhd Neuj;jpw;Fk; cs;s tpj;jpahrk; mjpfkhf ,Uf;Fk; Neuk;. #hpad; - Tropics – y; ,Uf;Fk;NghJ epfOk; Jun 21 – summer solstice

Dec 22 – winter solstice

Annual movt. (tyk; tUjy;) 365 days 5hr 48 mm

29 km/sec

tpisTfs;

- gUtfhy khw;wk; - gfy; ,uT Neu khw;wk; - fhw;Wg;gl;ilfis efh;j;Jk;

gUtfhyq;fs; spring – march 21

- sun - @ equ - spring in NH

summer – Jun 21

- sun @ cancer - NH – summer

Autumn – sep 23

- sun return to equator - NH – autumn

Winter – Dec 22

- sun @ T.O. Capricorn - NH – winter

Mh;bf; tl;lk;> mz;lhh;bf; tl;lk;

(es;spuT #hpad;) gfy; 6 khjk; ,uT 6 khjk; due to

tilted angle 231/2° North pole – 21st March to 23

rd Sep.

South pole – 23rd

sep to 21st march

,UNfhLfs; - g+kpapd; Nfhs; msT 360°

jpiugl;lkhf tiuag;gLtJ – Latitudes ml;rf;NfhLfs; nrq;Fj;jhf tiuag;gLtJ - Longitudes jPh;f;ff;NfhLfs;

0° latitude – g+kj;jpa Nuif – epyQ;NfhL g+kpia tl & njd; miuf;Nfhlhf 231/2°N - flf Nuif(cancer)

231/2 S – kfu Nuif 631/2 ° N – Mh;bf; tisak; 631/2 ° S – mz;lhh;bf; tisak; Ptolemy – first person drew the latitudes and longitudes ml;rf;NfhLfs; 1° - 11.1 km

jPh;f;fNfhLfs; 1° - 4 min

0° longitude – Kjd;ik jPh;f;fNuif (GMT) (Greenwich fhrhpNeuk;) 13T – 82 ½° - myfhghj; topNa 5.30 hrs difference

90° N & S – point not a line

181 Latitudes – including equator vy;yhk; tl;lkhf ,Uf;F Mdhy; xU mstpy; ,y;iy. ,U lati fpilg;gJ. J}uk; rkk;

- longitude semicircles. - distance between 2 meridian not equal. - 180° jPh;f;ff;NfhL rh;tNjr ehs;NfhL - Earth divided into 24° longitudinal zones – each being

15° / 1 hr apart. - longitude & time Russia – 11 time zones

USA & Canada – 5 time zones

rh;tNjr ehs;NfhL 4 ,lj;jpy; tpisT – Aleutian jPTfs;> inji, samba,

gilbert Islands

#hpa fpufzk; (xspkiwT) ghjpahfTk;/ KOikahfTk; ,Uf;Fk; only in

mkhthir(New Moon day) Moons inclination dhy; mkhthir md;Wk; fpufzk; tUtjpy;iy. re;jpu fpufzk;

- occurs only in full moon (ngsh;zkp) - 1 hr 40 min tiu epfOk; - g+kpapd; cs;sikg;G – crust – SIAL mantle (ftrk;) - core (fUtk;/ikag;gFjp) - Normal gain rate – every 32 m/ic

Endogenic – cs; ,af;f rf;jp

- Tectonic movt/ fz;l ehh;Tfs; - nkJthfTk;> jpNjudTk; Vw;gLk; - ,J ,UNtW rf;jpfshy; Vw;gLk;.

Epienogenic

- fz;lMf;f efh;T> kiyahf;f efh;T Orogenic movt – kbg;G kiyfs; (fold mts) focus – epyeLf;f iklk; epicentre – Gs;sp ntspikak;

,aw;gpay;


msÅLfS«, Ïa¡fK«

Û£l®, »nyh»uh«, édho ngh‹wit Â£l myFfŸ.

FPS Kiw – mo, gÎ©L, édho (Foot, Pound, Second)

CGS Kiw –br‹oÛ£l®, »uh«, édho (Centimetre,

Gram, Second)

MKS Kiw –Û£l®, »nyh»uh«, édho (Metre,

Kilogram, Second)

1971-M« M©L g‹dh£L myF Kiw

V‰gL¤j¥g£lJ. Ïjid SI myF Kiw v‹g®.

msÎ SI myF F¿pL

Ús« Û£l® Û (M)

ãiw »nyh»uh« »» (Kg)

fhy« édho é (V (s))

»nyhÛ£l® v‹gJ Ús¤Â‹ g‹kl§F.

br‹oÛ£l® k‰W« äšèÛ£l® v‹gJ Ús¤Â‹ Jiz¥

g‹kl§F.

xU Û£l® = 1000 äšèÛ£l®

xU Û£l® = 100 br‹oÛ£l®

xU »nyhÛ£l® = 1000 Û£l®

ãiwæ‹ SI myF »nyh»uh«.

Fé©lhš, bk£ç¡l‹ v‹gJ ãiwæ‹ g‹kl§FfŸ.

äšè»uh«, »uh« v‹gJ ãiwæ‹

Jiz¥g‹kl§FfŸ.

xU »uh« = 1000 äšè»uh«.

xU »nyh»uh« = 1000 »uh«.

xU Fé©lhš = 100 »nyh»uh«.

xU bk£ç¡l‹ = 1000 »nyh»uh«.

fhy¤Â‹ SI myF édho.

ãäl«, kâ, ehŸ, thu«, khj«, M©L v‹gJ

fhy¤Â‹ g‹kl§FfŸ MF«.

äšèédho, ik¡nuh édho M»ait fhy¤Â‹

Jiz¥ g‹kl§FfŸ MF«.

xU édho = 1000 äšèédho.

xU édho = 1000000 ik¡nuhédho.

neu¤ij¥ bghW¤J xU bghUë‹ ãiw khwhkš

ÏUªjhš mJ XŒÎ ãiyæš cŸsJ.

neu¤Â‰F neu« xU bghUŸ jdJ ãiyia kh‰¿¡

bfh©nl ÏUªjhš m¥bghUŸ Ïa¡f¤Âš cŸsJ.

xU bghUŸ ne®¡nfh£L¥ ghijæš Ïa§»dhš

m¤jifa Ïa¡f« ne®¡nfh£L Ïa¡f«. v.fh. jhnd

éG« bghUë‹ Ïa¡f«, ä‹ö¡»æ‹ Ïa¡f«.

xU bghUŸ xU òŸëia ikakhf it¤J

t£l¥ghijæš Ïa§»dhš m¤jifa Ïa¡f« t£l

Ïa¡f«. v.fh. Fil uh£od«, fofhu¤Â‹ KŸ.

äÂt©o r¡fu¤Â‹ Ïa¡f« t£l Ïa¡f«. Mdhš

äÂt©oæ‹ KGghfK« Ïa§FtJ ne®¡nfh£L

Ïa¡f«.

cUS«gªJ, Jis¥nghL« ÏaªÂu« ngh‹wit

x‹W¡F nk‰¥g£l Ïa¡f¤Â‰F cjhuz§fŸ.

nuhnghé‹ jªij vd¥gLgt® #r¡ mÁnkh.

nuhnghé‹ _is v‹gJ xU ä‹dQ ÁšY (Á¥ò).

msÅ£oaš

bghUŸ x‹¿‹ nk‰gu¥Ã‹ msÎ mj‹ gu¥gsÎ

vd¥gL«.

gu¥gsé‹ myF Û£l® X Û£l® = Û£l®2

.

mo¥gil msÎfŸ Ús«, ãiw, fhy« MF«

fdmsÎ k‰W« ml®¤Â v‹git xU Áy tê

msÎfshF«.

1 Û£l® = 3.28 mo

1 rJuÛ£l® = 10.76 rJu mo

bghUŸ x‹W mil¤J¡bfhŸS« Ïl¤Â‹

msÎ gUk‹ vd¥gL«.

gUkid ms¡F« myF fdÛ£l® vd¥gL«. (m3).

1 è£l® = 1000 brÛ3

Ã¥bg£, F¿¥Ã£l fdmsÎŸs Âut¤ij msªJ

vL¡f¥ ga‹gL»‹wJ.

msÅ£L rho, Âut¤Â‹ fdmsit msél¥

ga‹gL»‹wJ.

miz¡f£Lfëš mšyJ Ú®¤nj¡f§fëš

nj¡» it¡f¥ gL« Úç‹ fdmsit Mæu«

äšèa‹ fdmo ( t M c ) v‹W

F¿¥ÃL»‹wh®fŸ.

xuyF gUk‹ bfh©l bghUë‹ ãiw mj‹

ml®¤Â vd¥gL«. ml®¤Â = ãiw / gUk‹

ml®¤Âia »»/Û3

(kg/m3) v‹w myfhš

F¿¥ÃL»‹nwh«.

ghjur¤Â‹ ml®¤Â Úç‹ ml®¤Âia¥ nghy 13.6

kl§F.

fèènah v‹w Ãugy éŠPhå Ï¤jhèæ‹

igrh efu¤Âš cŸs Ï¤jhè »¿¤Jt¡

nfhæY¡F br‹wnghJ, Úskhd r§»èahš f£o

bjh§fél¥g£l és¡F Óuhf miyÎWtij¡

f©lh®. mt® jdJ eho¤Jo¥ig¡ bfh©L

és¡»‹ miyÎfis¡ fz¡»£lh®. és¡»‹

miyÅ¢R FiwªjnghJ« neu« khwhkš

ÏU¥gij¡ f©lh®. és¡»‹ miyéid¡

T®ªJ neh¡»aj‹ _y« miyÎfhy¤Â‹

khwhj j‹ikæ‹ K¡»a¤Jt¤ij cz®ªjh®.

mt® 1642M« M©L Ïw¥gj‰F K‹ Crš

fofhu« x‹¿id totik¡f Â£lä£lh®.

ÏUªjnghÂY« bt‰¿fukhf KjyhtJ Crš

fofhu« l¢R eh£L m¿P® »¿°oa‹ iA#‹°

v‹gtuhš 1657M« M©L totik¡f¥g£lJ.

ÏªÂa é©btë MuhŒ¢Á fHf« - (ISRO)

thåaš myF v‹gJ òé¡F« NçaD¡F«

Ïil¥g£l ruhrç¤ bjhiyÎ MF«.

1 thåaš myF = 150 äšèa‹ »nyhÛ£l®

(15nfho »Û)

xë M©L v‹gJ bt‰¿l¤Âš xëahdJ xU

tUl¤Âš fl¡F« bjhiyÎ MF«.

1 xë M©L = 9.46 X 1012

»Û (9,46,000 nfho »Û)

xUt‹ xëæ‹ Âirntf¤Âš brštjhf¡

bfhŸnth«. mt‹ xU édhoæš cyf¤ij 7½

Kiw R‰¿ tªJéLth‹. mt‹ NçaåèUªJ

òéia tªjila 8 ãäl« 20 édho (500 édho)

fhy« MF«.

,aw;gpay;


Ïa¡féaš

2008M« M©L Õí§»š eilbg‰w xè«Ã¡

ngh£oæš cir‹ nghš£ 100 Û. bjhiyit 9.6

édhofëY«, 200 Û. bjhiyit 19.19

édhofëY« Xo rhjid gil¤jh®. Ït® 4 X

100 Û bjhl® X£l¤ÂY« FGédUl‹ bt‰¿

bg‰WŸsh®. ÏtuJ mÂntfkhdJ mtiu

"ä‹dš nghš£" v‹wiH¡f¡ fhuzkhdJ.

Âirntf« = flªj bjhiyÎ / vL¤J¡ bfh©l

neu«. Ïjid m/s vd¡ F¿¥Ãlyh«.

flªj bjhiyÎ = ntf« x fhy«.

ntfkhå (speedometer) thfd¤Â‹ ntf¤ij

mséL«. k‰bwhU gFÂæš thfd« flªj

bkh¤j bjhiyit mséLkhW fUé XnlhÛ£l®

(Odometer) vd¥gL« mikªÂU¡F«.

månkhÛ£l® (Anemometer) v‹gJ fh‰¿‹

ntf¤ij msél¥ga‹gL« fUéahF«.

Âirntf« vd¥gLtJ bghUŸ xU édhoæš

milÍ« Ïl¥bga®¢Á MF«.

Âirntf« = Ïl¥bga®¢Á / vL¤J¡bfh©l

fhy«.

Âirntf¤Â‹ myF Û/é (m/s)

xU édhoæš Âirntf¤Âš V‰gL« kh‰w«

KL¡fkhF«.

KL¡f« = ÂirntfkhWghL / vL¤J¡bfh©l

neu«

KL¡f¤Â‹ myF Û/é2

(m/s2)

òép®¥ò KL¡f¤Â‹ ruhrç kÂ¥ò 9.8 Û/é2

. ÏJ

‘g’ v‹w vG¤jhš F¿¡f¥gL»‹wJ.

g = 9.8 Û/é2

jäœeh£o‹ ntÿ® kht£l¤Âš cŸs Vy»ç

kiy nyrhd rçÎfis¡ bfh©LŸsJ. vdnt,

ÏJ gw¤jš éisah£o‰F V‰wjhf

mikªJŸsJ.

jäœehL R‰Wyh¤JiwahdJ x›bthU tUlK«

Mf°£-br¥l«g® khj§fëš, Vy»çæš

bjh§»¥ gw¤jš éisah£L éHhit

el¤J»‹wd®.

mséaš

1971 M« M©oš midtU« xnu Óuhf

ga‹gL¤jj¡f myF Kiwahf SI myF Kiw

m¿é¡f¥g£lJ.

SI myF Kiw VG mo¥gil msÎfisÍ«, 22

tê msÎfisÍ« cŸsl¡»aJ.

msÎ SI myF F¿pL

Ús« Û£l® m

ãiw »nyh »uh« kg

fhy« édho S

bt¥gãiy bfšé‹ K

ä‹ndh£l« M«Ãa® A

bghUë‹ msÎ nkhš mol

xë¢br¿Î nf©oyh cd

SI Kiwæš bfšé‹ v‹gJ bt¥gãiyæ‹

myfhF«.

M«Ãa® v‹gJ SI myF Kiwæš

ä‹ndh£l¤Â‰fhd myfhF«.

SI myF Kiwæš bghUë‹ msÎ nkhš v‹w

myfhš ms¡f¥gL»wJ.

SI Kiwæš xëæ‹ br¿it ms¡f¥ ga‹gL«

myF nf©oyh MF«.

SI Kiwæš js¡nfhz¤Â‹ myF nuoa‹.

SI Kiwæš Â©k nfhz¤Â‹ myF °onuoa‹.

xèæ‹ mséid ms¥gj‰F yh¡ujä¡

myfhd blÁgš v‹w myF ga‹gL«.

ãyeL¡f¤Â‹ mséid ç¡l® msÎnfhyhš

ms¡fyh«.

äf Ú©l (nfhŸfŸ k‰W« é©Û‹fS¡F

Ïilna cŸs bjhiyÎ) bjhiyéid ms¡f¥

ga‹gL« myF thåaš myF MF«.

mséL« fUéfŸ

Û£l® msÎnfhiy¡ bfh©L msél¡ Toa

äf¡Fiwªj Ús« 1 ä.Û. MF«. ÏJ Û£l® msÎnfhè‹

Û¢Á‰wsit vd¥gL«.

Ãuh‹R eh£L m¿P® Ãaç bt®åa® mt®fŸ

totik¤j bt®åa® msÎnfhš v‹w Jiz

msÎnfhiy¥ ga‹gL¤Â 0.1 ä.Û. mšyJ 0.01 br.Û.

msé‰F rçahf ms¡fKoÍ«.

xU fUéia¡ bfh©L msél¡ Toa äf¡

Fiwªj msÎ mj‹ Û¢Á‰wsit vd¥gL«.

Û¢Á‰wsit (LC) = 1 K.nfh.Ã – 1 bt.nfh.Ã

bt®åa® msé bt®åa® j¤Jt¤ij

mo¥gilahf¡ bfh©lJ.

bt®åa® msÎnfhYl‹ Ïiz¡f¥g£l

bkšèa g£il cŸÇl‰w bghUŸfë‹ MH¤ij

msél¥ ga‹gL»‹wJ.

ãiwæ‹ S.I. myF »nyh»uh«.

bghU£fë‹ ãiwia äšè»uh« msé‰F

Jšèakhf ms¡f Ïa‰Ãaš juhR ga‹gL»wJ.

1984M« M©L xè«Ã¡ ngh£oæš P.T.cõh 400

Û£l® jil X£l¤Â‰fhd bt©fy¥ gj¡f¤ij xU

édhoæš ü¿š xU g§F fhy mséš ( 1 / 100 édho)

jtw é£lh®.

j‰fhy¤Âš v©ây¡f fofhu§fŸ (oí£lš),

mQ¡fofhu§fŸ k‰W« Fth®£° fofhu§fŸ bfh©L

Á¿a fhy ÏilbtëfŸ Jšèakhf ms¡f¥gL»‹wd.

Ï§»yhªÂ‹ Â£l neukhdJ, »ç‹Å¢ ruhrç

neu« (GMT) vdmiH¡f¥gL»wJ.

IST kÂ¥ò GMT kÂ¥ig él 5½ kâneu« KªÂ

mik»wJ.

éirÍ« mG¤jK«

g‹dh£L myF Kiwæš (SI myF Kiw)

éiræ‹ myF ãô£l‹ MF«.

r® Ir¡ ãô£l‹ (1642-1727) m¿éaš cy»‹

äf¢Áwªj m¿éayhs®fSŸ xUt®. Ït® Ï§»yhªJ

eh£il¢ rh®ªj fâjéayhs®, Ïa‰Ãayh® k‰W«

thåayh®. éiræ‹ SI myF Ït® bgaç£nl

tH§f¥gL»wJ.

éir¡F ntW Áy myFfS« c©L. il‹,

»nyh»u« éir k‰W« gÎ©£ éir M»aitÍ«

éiræ‹ myFfns.

,aw;gpay;


cuhŒÎ éirÍ« xU bjhL éirna

fhªj éir, òép®¥ò éir, ãiy ä‹ éir

v‹gJ xU bjhlh éir MF«

òé bghU£fë‹ ÛJ brY¤J« Ñœneh¡»a

ÏGéirna òé<®¥ò éir vd¥gL«.

òé<®¥ò éir v‹gJ ekJ òé¡F k£Lnk cila

g©ò mšy. c©ikæš ekJ m©l¤Âš cŸs mid¤J

bghU£fSnk (Á¿aitnah, bgçaitnah) k‰w

bghU£fë‹ ÛJ xU <®¥ò éiria brY¤J»‹wd.

Ï›éirna <®¥ò éir vd¥gL«.

XuyF gu¥Ãš brašgL« éirna mG¤j«

vd¥gL«.

mG¤j« = éir / brašgL« gu¥ò.

g‹dh£L myF Kiwæš (SI myF Kiw)

mG¤jÂ‹ myF ã.Û-2

MF«. ‘gh°fš‘ (Pa) v‹w

myfhY« ms¡f¥gL«

Âut§fë‹ mG¤j« òé <®¥ò éiria¢ (g)

rh®ªjJ

flè‹ MHkhd gFÂfëš mG¤j« äf mÂf«.

Ïjdhš flèš FÂ¥gt®fŸ (Sea divers) j§fis¥

ghJfh¤J¡ bfhŸs, Ïj‰bfd jahç¡f¥g£l Áw¥ghd

cilfisna ga‹gL¤Jt®.

miz¡f£Lfë‹ mo¥gFÂ nkš gFÂiaél

äf¤ jokdhfÎ«, cWÂahfÎ« f£l¥gL»‹wd.

Vbdåš mo¥gFÂæš Úç‹ mG¤j« äf mÂf«.

flš k£l mséš tëk©ly mG¤j¤Â‹ kÂ¥ò

1,00,000 ã/Û2

(105

ã/Û2

) MF«. òéæèUªJ eh« nkny

bršy bršy tëk©ly mG¤j¤Â‹ msÎ Fiw»wJ.

tëk©ly mG¤j¤ij ms¡f¥ ga‹gL« fUé

‘ghukhå’ (Barometer) MF«.

».Ã 1643-š lhçbršè v‹w Ï¤jhèa m¿éaš

m¿P® Kjš ghjur ghukhåia cUth¡»dh®. måuhŒL

ghukhå k‰W« gh®o‹ ghukhå M»a ghukhåfS«

tëk©ly mG¤j¤ij ms¡f¥ ga‹gL»‹wd.

_l¥g£l ãiyæš xU Âut¤Â‹ xU gFÂæš

bfhL¡f¥gL« mG¤jkhdJ mj‹ mid¤J¥

gFÂfëY« rkkhf¡ fl¤j¥gL»wJ. ÏJnt gh°fš éÂ

v‹W miH¡f¥gL»wJ.

jFªj cuhŒÎ¥ bghU£fis¥ ga‹ gL¤Jtj‹

_y« cuhŒit¡ Fiw¡fyh« (v.fh. v©bzŒ (Á¿a

vªÂu§fS¡F) »ç° (bgça vªÂu§fS¡F).

cuhŒit xU nghJ« K‰¿Y« xê¡f KoahJ.

mid¤J gu¥òfS« nkL gŸs§fis Á¿njD«

cilaitna. nkLgŸs§fs‰w gu¥òfns Ïšiy vdyh«.

mséL« fUéfŸ

äf¢Á¿a bghUŸfë‹ gçkhz§fis 0.001

br.Û. msÎ¡F¤ Jšèakhf ms¡f¥ ga‹gL« fUé

ÂUF msé MF«.

ÂUF msé ÂUF¤ j¤Jt¤Â‹ mo¥gilæš

ntiy brŒ»wJ.

ÂUF mséæ‹ Rê¥ÃiH : ne®¥ÃiH Z.E. = +(n

x L.C.), Rê¤ÂU¤j« Z.C. = -(n x L.C.)

ÂUF mséæ‹ Rê¥ÃiH : vÂ®¥ÃiH Z.E. = -

(100 – n) x L.C.,

Rê¤ÂU¤j« Z.C. = +(100 – n) x L.C.

f«Ãæ‹ é£l« = P.S.R. + (H.S.C. x L.C.) ± Z.C.

1 thåaš myF (AU) = 1.496 x 1011m

1 xë M©L = 3 x 108ms-1

x1 M©L (behofëš)

= 9.467 x 1015

m

1. 0.01 mm tiu gçkhzKŸs bghUŸfë‹

gçkhz§fis ms¡f ÂUF msé ga‹gL¤j¥gL»wJ.

2. ÂUF mséæš jiy¡nfhš Rê¥ÃçÎ

òç¡nfhè‹ tiu nfh£o‰F Ñoe mik»wJ. våš

Rê¥ÃiH - ne®¡F¿

3. ÂUF msé bkšèa f«Ã-‹ é£l¤ij ms¡f¥

ga‹gL»wJ.

xU xë M©L v‹gJ 365.25 x 24 x 60 x 60 x 3

x 108 m

thåaš myF v‹gJ òéæ‹ ika¤Â‰F«

Nça‹ ika¤Â‰F« Ïil¥g£l ruhrç¤ bjhiyÎ. (ãyh,

, br›thŒ)

éirÍ« Ïa¡f éÂfS«

xU bghUë‹ XŒÎãiyianah mšyJ Ïa¡f

ãiyianah kh‰W»‹w mšyJ kh‰w Ka‰Á¡»‹w

braš éir vd¥gL«.

éir xU bt¡l® msÎ.

mj‹ S.I myF ãô£l‹.

xU bghUë‹ ãiyk¥gg©ò mj‹ ãiwia¢

rh®ªjJ.

xU bghUë‹ ãiw(m) k‰W« mj‹

Âirntf«(v)M»at‰¿‹ bgU¡f‰gy‹ cªj«

vd¥gL«. (p = mv)

ãô£lå‹ Ïu©lh« Ïa¡f éÂæ‹go cªj¤Â‰F v© kÂ¥ò«, ÂirÍ« c©L. ÏJ xU bt¡l®

msÎ. cªj¤Â‹ Âir, Âir ntf¤Â‹ Âirænyna

mikÍ«. mj‹ myF kg m s-1.

cªj khWgh£LÅj« rkk‰w éir¡F ne®¤jféš

miktnjhL m›éiræ‹ Âirænyna mikÍ«. (F = ma)

éiræ‹ myF = 1 kg x 1 ms-2 = 1 ãô£l‹

éiræ‹ myF kg m s-2 mšyJ ãô£l‹. mj‹

F¿pL ‘N’ .

éir v‹gJ bghUë‹ ãiw k‰W« KL¡f«

Ït‰¿‹ bgU¡f‰gy‹ MF«.

ãô£lå‹ _‹whtJ éÂ¥go x›bthU

éid¡F« mj‰F¢ rkkhd Mdhš vÂ®Âiræš

brašgLtJkhd X® vÂ®éid c©L.

J¥gh¡» RL« nghJ F©L mÂf éirÍl‹

K‹ndh¡»¥ ghOEtJ éidahF«. Ïj‰F¢ rkkhd

vÂ®éirÍl‹ F©L J¥gh¡»ia¥ Ã‹ndh¡»¤

jŸStJ vÂ® éidahF«.

rkk‰w òwéirfŸ brašglhj tiu xU

mik¥Ã‹ bkh¤j cªj« kh¿è v‹gJ cªj« khwh¡

nfh£ghL MF«. (m1u1+m2u2 = m1v1+ m2v2)

nkhjY¡F K‹ mik¥Ã‹ bkh¤j cªj«

nkhjY¡F¥ Ã‹ bkh¤j cªj¤Â‰F¢ rk«.

ãô£lå‹ <®¥òéÂ G =Fd2 / m1 m2

SI myFfis¥ ÃuÂæ£lhš G ‹ myF N m2 kg-2

G‹ v© kÂ¥ò 6.673 X 10 -11

N m2 kg

-2

ãiw, vil Ït‰¿‰F ÏilnaÍŸs ntWghL

,aw;gpay;


ãiw vil

mo¥gil msÎ tê msÎ

bghUëš cŸs

gU¥bghUŸ msÎ

bghUë‹ ÛJ brašgL«

<®¥Ãaš éir msÎ

myF »nyh»uh« myF ãô£l‹

Ïl¤Â‰F Ïl« khwhJ Ïl¤Â‰F Ïl« khW«

Ïa‰Ãaš juhÁdhš

ms¡f¥gL»wJ.

éš juhÁdhš

ms¡f¥gL»wJ.

xU bghUëYŸs gU¥bghUë‹ msÎ

m¥gU¥bghUë‹ ãiw vd¥gL«.

xU bghUë‹ vil v‹gJ mªj Ïl¤Âš mJ

czU« <®¥Ãaš éir mšyJ m¥bghUis v›tsÎ

tèikahf <®¥Ãaš éir <®¡»wJ v‹gij¡ fh£L«

msÅlhF«.

òé<®¥ò KL¡f« g = 9.8 ms-2

1958 #&‹ 2-« ehŸ kæšrhä m©zh¤Jiu

Ãwªjh®.

j‰nghJ kæšrhä m©zh¤Jiu rªÂuha‹ I

k‰W« rªÂuha‹ II Ït‰¿‹ Â£l Ïa¡Fe® Mth®.

rªÂuha‹ I ãyÎ¥gaz¤Â‰fhd xU fy‹.

2008M« M©L m¡nlhg® khj« MªÂukhãy¤ÂYŸs

$Açnfh£lhéèUªJ ISRO-Mš é©âš Vt¥g£lJ.

ÏJ ISRO-é‹ IªJ ga‹ Rikfis

vL¤J¢br‹wJ. nkY«, ÏJ mbkç¡fhé‹ NASA

é©btëika«, Inuh¥Ãa é©btëika« (ESA),

gšnfça é©btëika« Ït‰¿‹ 6 ga‹RikfisÍ«

Ïytrkhf vL¤J¢br‹wJ.

rªÂuha‹ 312 eh£fŸ é©âš brašg£lJ.

m¥nghJ Â£läl¥g£l Ïy¡Ffëš 95 rjÅj¤ij ãiwÎ

brŒjJ.

ve;jputpay; ke;jpuq;fs; ,lg; ngah;r;rp (Displacement): xU nghUs; xU Gs;spapy;

,Ue;J kw;nwhU Gs;spf;F xU Fwpg;gpl;l jpirapy; efh;e;j njhiyT@ myF-kPl;lh;

jpir Ntfk; (Velocity): xU nghUspd; ,lg;ngah;r;rp fhyj;ijg; nghUj;J khWk; tPjk;. myF – m/s

KLf;fk; (Accleration): xU nghUspd; jpir Ntfk;> fhyj;ijg; nghUj;J khWk; tPjk;. myF – m/s²

ce;jk; (momentum): xU nghUspd; epiwiaj; jpir Ntfj;jhy; ngUf;f fpilg;gNj ce;jk;. myF – Kg m/s

tpir (Force): xU Fwpg;gpl;l epiwAs;s nghUs; kPJ nray;gLk; KLf;fj;jpd; tpisT. myF – epa+l;ld;

Ntiy (Work): xU nghUspd; kPJ nray;gLk; tpirahy; me;jg; nghUs; efh;e;j njhiyitg; ngUf;f fpilg;gJ. tpir x njhiyT. ,jd; myF – [_y;

Mw;wy; (Energy): Ntiy nra;aj; Njitg;gLk; rf;jpNa Mw;wy;. myF – [_y;

jpwd; (Power): xU Ntiy vt;tsT Neuj;jpy; nra;ag;gLfpwJ vd;gNj jpwd;. myF – [_y;

xU nghUs;> khwhj jpir Ntfj;jpy; nrd;why; mjd; KLf;fk; g+[;[pakhf ,Uf;Fk;

thfdq;fspy; jpir Ntfj;ij khw;wk; fUtp KLf;fp (accelerator) vdg;gLfpwJ.

xU nghUs; efh;e;jhy; kl;LNk ,aw;gpaypy;> Ntiy nra;ag;gl;ljhFk;.

,aw;gpaypy;> Ntiyf;fhd tiuaiwg;gb xU efuhj Rtiuj; js;spf;nfhz;L epw;gNjh> xU thsp jz;zPiuj; J}f;fpg; gpbj;jgb epw;gNjh Ntiy my;y.

Mw;wy;> Ntiy ,uz;Lf;Fkhd rh;tNjr myF [_y;. nkl;hpf; myF fNyhhp

xU Ntiyiar; nra;Ak; ,U egh;fspy; vth; me;j Ntiyia tpiuthfr; nra;thNuh (Fiwe;j Neuj;jpy;) mtNu jpwd; kpf;fth;.

,lg; ngah;r;rp vd;gJ ntf;lh; msT

njhiyT (Distance) vd;gJ ];Nfyh; msT

jpir Ntfk; vd;gJ ntf;lh; msT Ntfk; (Speed) vd;gJ ];Nfyh; msT nek;GNfhy;fs;(Levers) gSTf;Fk; jpwDf;Fk; ,ilNa ikag; Gs;sp ,Ug;gJ

Kjy; tif nek;GNfhy; fj;jhpf;Nfhy;> flg;ghiu> rPrh Nghd;wit Kjy; tif

nek;GNfhy;fs;. ikag; Gs;spf;Fk; jpwDf;Fk; ,ilNa gS miktJ

,uz;lhk; tif nek;GNfhy; ghf;F ntl;b> ghl;by; jpwg;ghd; Nghd;wit ,uz;lhk;

tif nek;G Nfhy;fs; ikag; Gs;spf;Fk; gSTf;Fk; ,ilNa jpwDs;sJ

%d;whk; tif nek;G Nfhy; ,Lf;fp> Jilg;gk; Nghd;wit %d;whk; tif

nek;GNfhy;fs;

Ïa¡fK« Âut§fS«

ntf« v‹gJ bjhiyé‹ fhy khWghL Åj«

mšyJ xU édhoæš fl¡F« bjhiyÎ MF«.

ntf« = flªj bjhiyÎ / vL¤J¡ bfh©l fhy«

ntf« Û / é (m/s) ms-1

v‹w myfhš

F¿¥Ãl¥gL»wJ.

xU édhoæš bghUŸ milÍ« Ïl¥bga®¢Á

mšyJ Ïl¥bga®¢Áæ‹ khWghLÅj« bghUë‹

Âirntf« vd¥gL«.

Âirntf« = Ïl¥bga®¢Á khWghL / fhy«

Âirntf« Û/é v‹w myfhš

F¿¥Ãl¥gL»‹wJ.

KL¡f« = Âirntf khWghL / fhy«

KL¡f« Û / é2 ( ms

-2) v‹w myfhš

F¿¥Ãl¥gL»‹wJ.

a = ÏWÂ¤ Âirntf« - bjhl¡f¤ Âirntf« /

fhy« (a = v – u / t)

bghUë‹ Âirntf« go¥goahf¡ FiwªJ

bfh©nl tªJ bgUk cau¤Âš Rê MF«.

g -‹ ruhrç kÂ¥ò = 9.8 Û/é2

nfhz Ïl¥bga®¢Á, nuoa‹ v‹w myfhš

msél¥gL»wJ.

nfhz¤ Âirntf« = nfhz Ïl¥bga®¢Á /

vL¤J¡ bfhŸS« fhy«

nuoa‹ / édho v‹gJ nfhz¤Âirntf¤Â‹

myfhF«.

ne®nfh£L Âirntf« = t£l¥ghijæ‹ Mu« x

nfhz Âirntf«

k»GªJ x‹W tiséš ÂU«ò«nghJ laU¡F«,

jiu¡F« Ïil¥g£l cuhŒÎ éir njitahd

ikaneh¡F éiria¤ jU»‹wJ.

nfhŸfŸ Nçaid¢ R‰¿ Ïa§F«nghJ

nfhŸfS¡F«, NçaD¡F« Ïil¥g£l <®¥Ãaš éir

ikaneh¡F éirahf¢ bra‰gL»‹wJ.

,aw;gpay;


c£fUit¢ R‰¿tU« vy¡£uhD¡F¤ njitahd

ikaneh¡F éir, vy¡£uhD¡F« c£fUé‰F«

Ïil¥g£l ãiy ä‹åaš <®¥ò éirahš

bgw¥gL»‹wJ.

jæ® filÍ«nghJ ikaéy¡F éiræ‹

fhuzkhf bt©bzŒ gh¤Âu¤Â‹ Xu¤Â‰F¢

brš»‹wJ.

äÂt©o X£Lgt® tisthd ghijæš

bršY«nghJ jdJ cliy cŸneh¡» rhŒ¡»wh®. Ï§F

brašgL« cuhŒÎ éir (ikaneh¡F éir) ikaéy¡F

éir (mv2/r) ahš rk‹ brŒa¥gL»wJ.

Âut¤ÂDŸ VnjD« xU òŸëæš mG¤j« p =

hdg

M®¡»äo° »nu¡f eh£il¢ nr®ªj m¿éaš

m¿P®(287-212 B.C). ãiyæaš k‰W« Ú®k ãiyæaèš

Ït® f©LÃo¤j gy K¡»a¤ j¤Jt§fŸ

eilKiw¥gL¤j¥g£LŸsd. Ïtç‹ jªij xU

thåayhs®. iruhf° eh£L k‹d‹ bAŒnuh ÏtuJ

e©gD« cwédU« Mth®. Ït® j‹Dila fšé k‰W«

gæ‰Áfis, m¡fhy¤Âš f‰gj‰F Áw¥ò¥bg‰w

mby¡[h‹oçahéš f‰W¡bfh©lh®. be«ònfhè‹

j¤Jt¤ij¡ f©LÃo¤jtU« Ïtnu.

ml®¤Âæ‹ myF Kgm-3

x¥gl®¤Â¡F myF Ïšiy.

xU ÏU«ò¤J©L ghjur¤Âš äj¡F«. Mdhš

Úçš _œF«. Ïj‰F¡ fhuz« ghjur¤Â‹ ml®¤Â (13600

»»Û-3), Úç‹ ml®¤Âia (1000 »»Û-3) él mÂf«.

ÏU«ò¤ J©L _œFtjhš btëna‰w¥gL« ghjur«

k‰W« Úç‹ fdmsÎfŸ ÏU«ò¤J©o‹ fdmsé‰F¢

rkkhf ÏUªjnghÂY«, ÏU«ò¤J©odhš

btëna‰w¥g£l, ghjur¤Â‹ vil ÏU«ò¤J©o‹

viliaél mÂfkhf ÏU¡F«. Mdhš, btëna‰w¥gL«

Úç‹ vil ÏU«ò¤J©o‹ vilia él¡ Fiwthf

ÏU¡F«.

ÏU«Ãdhš brŒa¥g£l f¥gš Úçš äj¡»wJ.

fhuz« f¥gè‹ totik¥Ãš mÂfmséš

fhèælkhdJ fh‰whš ãu¥g¥g£LŸsJ. Ïj‹

éisthf¡ f¥gš Úçš äj¡F« nghJ btëna‰W« Úç‹

fdmsÎ, f¥gè‹ f£Lkhd¥ gâfS¡F¥

ga‹gL¤j¥g£l ÏU«Ã‹ fdmsitél mÂfkhf

ÏU¡F«. vdnt, f¥gš äj¥gÂdhš btëna‰w¥gL«

Úç‹ vilahdJ f¥gè‹ viliaél mÂf«.

äj¡F« bghUë‹ vilahdJ, mjdhš

btëna‰w¥gL« Âut¤Â‹ vil¡F¢ rk«.

äj¡F« bghUë‹ <®¥òikaK«,

btëna‰w¥gL« Âut¤Â‹ <®¥ò ikaK« (äjit ika«)

xnu br§F¤J¡nfh£oš mikant©L«.

Âl¥bghUŸfŸ k‰W« Âut§fë‹

x¥gl®¤Âia¡ fhz¥ ga‹gL« ÂutkhåfŸ, äj¥ò

éÂfis mo¥gilahf¡ bfh©L,

totik¡f¥gL»‹wd.

ghè‹ ml®¤Âia, mj‹ x¥gl®¤Â _y«

msél ga‹gL¤j¥gL« ghškhå, bghJ¤ Âutkhå

tifia¢ nr®ªjJ.

ntiy, Âw‹, M‰wš k‰W« bt¥g«

brŒa¥gL« ntiy = éir x Ïl¥bga®¢Á (W =

Fs)

ntiyæ‹ myF #&š (J) MF«.

»nyh #&š (1000#&š)

bkfh #&š (10 Ïy£r« #&š)

n#«° Ãç°nfh£ #&š , Ãç£lid nr®ªj

äf¢Áwªj m¿éaš m¿P® Mth®. bt¥g Ïa¡féaš

k‰W« ä‹åaèš Ït® brŒj MŒÎfŸ Ïtiu¥g‰¿

gyU« m¿a¢ brŒjd. ä‹ndh£l¤Â‹ bt¥géisÎ

rh®ªj éÂfis¤ jUé¤jt®. nkY«, M‰wš mêé‹ik

éÂia¢ nrhjid _y« rçgh®¤jt®. bt¥g ÏaªÂuéaš

Ïizkh‰¿‹ kÂ¥Ãid¡ f©l¿ªjt®. ntiy k‰W«

M‰wè‹ myFfŸ ÏtUila bgauhd #&š v‹w

myfhš miH¡f¥g£L tU»wJ.

M‰wè‹ myF« #&š MF«.

jhnd jilæ‹¿ éG« bghUë‹ ãiyah‰wš

k‰W« Ïa¡f M‰wè‹ TLjš khwhkš cŸsJ. <®¥Ãaš

éir brašgLtÂdhš bghUë‹ vªÂu M‰wš

kh‰wkiltÂšiy.

Âw‹ = brŒa¥g£l ntiy / vL¤J¡bfh©l

fhy«

Âwå‹ myF #&š / édho. ÏJ th£ vd¥gL«.

Ïj‹ F¿pL W

tâf Kiwæyhd Âwå‹ myF »nyh th£

kâahF«.

eh« ga‹gL¤J« ä‹dh‰wY¡fhd f£lz«

ôå£ mšyJ »nyhth£kâ v‹w myfhš

fz¡»l¥gL»wJ. (1000 th£ kâ = 1 »nyh th£ kâ)

M‰wš kh‰w§fŸ

mizæèUªJ

btënaW« Ú®

ãiyah‰wš, Ïa¡f M‰wyhf

khWjš

xèth§»

xè M‰wš , ä‹dh‰wyhf

khWjš

bjhiy¡fh£Á

ãH‰gl¡ fUé

xë M‰wš, ä‹dh‰wyhf

khWjš

xë ä‹fy‹

xë M‰wš, ä‹dh‰wyhf

khWjš

ä‹ ryit¥ bg£o

ä‹dh‰wš, bt¥g M‰wyhf

khWjš

xè¥gh‹

ä‹dh‰wš, xè M‰wyhf

khWjš

ä‹éÁ¿

ä‹dh‰wš, Ïa¡f M‰wyhf

khWjš

ä‹és¡F

ä‹dh‰wš, xë M‰wyhf

khWjš

bt¥g V‰ò¤Âwid #]š / bfšé‹ (JK-1) v‹w

myfhš F¿¥Ãlyh«.

j‹bt¥g V‰ò¤ Âwå‹ myF

#]š/».»/bfšé‹ (JKg-1

k-1

).

Úç‹ j‹bt¥g V‰ò¤Âw‹ 4180 JKg-1

K-1

MF«.

mjhtJ 1 ».». Úç‹ bt¥gãiyia 1K ca®¤j

njit¥gL« bt¥g M‰wè‹ msÎ 4180 #]š vd

m¿ayh«.

bkG»‹ cUF ãiy 570C.

jå¢Rê bt¥gãiyæš _y¡TWfë‹ Ïa¡f«

KGtJkhf ã‹WéL«. ÏJ 0 K (m) -2730

C vd¡

F¿¥Ãl¥gL«.

,aw;gpay;


bfšé‹ xU Ïa‰Ãayhs® k‰W« bgh¿ahs®.

bt¥g Ïa¡féaiy¥ g‰¿ všnyhU¡F« bjçait¤jJ

ÏtuJ K¡»akhd g§fë¥ò k‰W« rhjidahF«.

bt¥gãiyia ms¥gj‰fhd msit¡ f©LÃo¤jt®.

bt¥gãiy¥ g‰¿a ms¥gça rhjid¡fhf ÏtuJ bganu

bt¥gãiyæ‹ myfhf bfšé‹ v‹W bgaçl¥g£lJ.

bfšé‹ msÎ(K) = bršÁa° msÎ + 273

bršÁa° msÎ(0C) = bfšé‹ msÎ (K) – 273

ghæš éÂ : pv = kh¿è

rh®y° éÂ : V / T = kh¿è

#h¡Fæ° rh®y° (1746-1823), Ït® xU ÃbuŠR

eh£il¢ nr®ªj f©LÃo¥ghs®. Balloonist v‹w Áw¥ò¥

bg‰wt®. Kjš iA£u#‹ gÿid totik¤jj‹ _y«

bgU« òfêidÍ«, nguhjuitÍ« bg‰wh®. Âutkhåia¡

f©LÃo¤jtU« Ïtnu.

M‰wè‹ tiffŸ

m‹whl brašgh£o‰F M‰wš mtÁa«.

M‰wiy eh« c©Q« czéèUªJ bgW»nwh«.

ntiy brŒa njitahd Âwikna M‰wš MF«.

ãiyahf cŸs bghUŸ bg‰WŸs M‰wš ãiyah‰wš

Ïa¡f¤Âš cŸs bghUŸ bg‰WŸs M‰wš Ïa¡f

M‰wš

ãiyah‰wY« Ïa¡f M‰wY« nr®ªjnj ÏaªÂu

M‰wš vd¥gL«.

fh‰¿‹ Ïa¡f M‰wiy¡ bfh©L, fh‰whiyfë‹

_y« ä‹dh‰wiy¤ jahç¡fyh«.

eh« c©Q« czéY« ntÂ M‰wš ÏU¥gjhšjh‹,

e«khš gšntW ntiyfis brŒa Ko»wJ.

nk£^®, gthå rhf® ngh‹w Áy miz¡f£Lfëš Ú®

M‰wš _y« ä‹rhu« jahç¡f¥gL»wJ.

bt¥g« xU tif M‰wš v‹gij¡ f©LÃo¤jt®

n#«° #&š. Ïjdhšjh‹ M‰wè‹ myif #&š

v‹»nwh«.

ä‹fy§fëš cŸs ntÂ M‰wèèUªJ ä‹ M‰wš

»il¡»wJ.

vçbghUŸfëš cŸs ntÂ M‰wš bt¥g

M‰wyhfÎ«, xë M‰wyhfÎ« kh‰w¥gL»‹wJ.

ä‹és¡»š ä‹ M‰wš xëah‰wyhfÎ«, ä‹

éÁ¿æš ä‹dh‰wš Ïa¡f M‰wyhfÎ« kh¿

»il¡»wJ.

mdšä‹ ãiya§fëš ãy¡fçia vç¥gjhš

»il¡f¥bgW« bt¥g M‰wš ä‹dh‰wyhf

kh‰w¥gL»wJ. fh‰whiyfëš fh‰¿‹ Ïa¡f M‰wš

_y« ä‹dh‰wš bgw¥gL»wJ.

NçaåläUªJ ÏUªJ »il¡F« M‰wny Nça

M‰wš MF«.

ãy¡fçæ‹ ntÂah‰wš, bt¥g M‰wyhf

kh‰wkilªJ mÂèUªJ ä‹dh‰wš »il¡»wJ.

xè¥bgU¡»æš ä‹ M‰wš xè M‰wyhf

kh‰w¥gL»wJ.

».K. 212š M®¡»äo° v‹w »nu¡f eh£L m¿P®

Nça M‰wiy¥ ga‹gL¤Â cU¥bgU¡» _y«

nuhkhåa ngh®¡f¥gšfis vç¤jh®.

cau¤Âš nj¡» it¡f¥g£LŸs Úç‹ ãiy

M‰wyhdJ ÑnH éG«bghGJ Ïa¡f M‰wyhf kh¿,

ä‹dh¡»æ‹ _y« r¡fu¤ij¢ RHy¢ brŒtjhš ä‹

M‰wš jahç¡f¥gL»wJ.

ku«, ãy¡fç, bg£nuhš, Orš, vçthÍ ngh‹wt‰iw

vça it¡F« nghJ ntÂ M‰wš bt¥g M‰wyhf

btë¥gL»wJ.

xë¢nr®¡ifæ‹ nghJ, jhtu§fŸ, NçaåläUªJ

bgW« xë M‰wiy ntÂ M‰wyhf¢ nrä¤J

it¡»‹wd.

ä‹rhu miH¥ò kâ, fh®fëš cŸs xèvG¥Ãfëš

ä‹ M‰wš xè M‰wyhf kh‰w¥gL»wJ.

lh®¢ és¡»š cŸs ä‹fy¤bjhF¥Ã‹ ntÂ M‰wš

ä‹dh‰wyhf kh¿ mÂèUªJ xë M‰wš

bgw¥gL»wJ.

Mw;wy; khw;wk; ,af;f Mw;wy; - kpd; Mw;wy;> ildNkh kpd; Mw;wy; - ,af;f Mw;wy;> Nkhl;lhh; kpd; Mw;wy; - xsp Mw;wy;> kpd; tpsf;F xsp Mw;wy; - kpd; Mw;wy;> xspkpd;fhyk; fhe;j Mw;wy; - xyp Mw;wy;> Nlg; hpf;fhh;lh; kpd; Mw;wy; - ntg;g Mw;wy> ,];jphpg; ngl;b Ntjp Mw;wy; - ntg;g Mw;wy;> #hpad; Ntjp Mw;wy; - kpd; Mw;wy;> kpd;fyk; ,jpy; ,e;j Mw;wy; Njf;fpa mizf;fl;L ePh;: epiy Mw;wy; jpwf;fg;gl;l mizf;fl;L ePh;: ,af;f Mw;wy; mbf;fg;gl;l ge;jpy; Vw;gLtJ: ,af;f Mw;wy; gpbf;fg;gl;l ge;jpy; ,Ug;gJ: epiy Mw;wy; Mw;wy; fzf;fPL epiy Mw;wy; fzf;fpl tha;g;ghL (PE)=mgh ,af;f Mw;wy; fzf;fpl tha;g;ghL (KE)=1/2mv² Mw;wy; moptpd;ik tpjp Mw;wiy Mf;fNth mopf;fNth KbahJ. xUtif Mw;wiy kw;nwhU tifahf khw;wyhk; Mw;wy; khw;wk; epfOk;NghJ rpwpJ ntg;g Mw;wy;

ntspg;gLk;

fhªjéaš

fhe;jk;> nkf;dPrpah vd;w ,lj;jpy; fz;Lgpbf;fg;gl;lJ. Gtpapd; fhe;j mr;R 17° rha;e;Js;sJ. ,Uk;G> epf;fy;> Nfhghy;l; Mfpait /ngh;Nuh fhe;jq;fs;. Mf;rp[d;> ghuh fhe;jj;jd;ik nfhz;lJ. kpd;rhu miog;G kzpapy; kpd;fhe;jk; gad;gLfpwJ. fhe;jg;nghUs; jd; fhe;jj;jd;ikia ,of;Fk;

ntg;gepiy fpa+hpg; Gs;sp vdg;gLk;. ,Uk;gpd; fpa+hpg; Gs;sp 780°C epf;fy;> Nfhghy;l; ,tw;wpd; fpa+hpg; Gs;spfs; KiwNa

360°C, 1,090°C kpd;fhe;jj; J}z;liyf; fz;lwpe;jth;: /ghuNl kpd;Ndhl;lj;jpd; fhe;j tpisitf; fz;lwpe;jth;:

xah;];ll; fhªj¤jhš <®¡f¥gL« bghUŸfŸ fhªj j‹ikÍŸs

bghUŸfŸ.

fhªj¤jhš <®¡f¥glhj bghUŸfŸ fhªj j‹ika‰w

bghUŸfŸ.

xU r£l fhªj¤ij üèš f£o bjh§fé£lhš

tl¡nf neh¡F« Kid tlJUt«, bj‰nf neh¡F«

Kid bj‹JUt« MF«.

fhªj¤Â‹ vÂ®vÂ® JUt§fŸ x‹iwbah‹W

<®¡»‹wd.

x¤j JUt§fŸ x‹iwbah‹W éy¡F»‹wd.

,aw;gpay;


ä‹fhªj bjhl®t©o¡F äj¡F« bjhl®t©o

v‹w¥ bgaU« c©L. Ãuh‹° eh£oš gw¡F«

bjhl®t©o v‹W« TW»wh®fŸ.

ä‹fhªj bjhl®t©o fhªj éy¡F k‰W« <®¥ò

éirfis¡ bfh©l bjhêšE£g¤Â‹ _y«

Ïa§F»wJ. Ïªj äj¡F« bjhl®t©o bršY« nghJ

r¤jnk nf£fhJ.

kh¡dil£ v‹gJ X® Ïa‰if fhªj«.

fhªj¤Â‹ ÏU KidfëY« <®¥ò r¡Â mÂf«

ÏU¡F«.

khYäfS¡F Âir¡fh£L« fUéia më¤jt®fŸ

Ód®fŸ.

1853-M« M©L ÏªÂahé‹ Kjš bjhl®t©o

K«igæèUªJ jhnd v‹w CU¡F¢ br‹wJ.

b#a©£Åš vd¥gL« äf¥bgça Ïuh£od§fis

Ïa¡f ä‹fhªj§fŸ njit.

miy miyfspd; ,U tiffs;-FWf;fiy kw;Wk;

nel;liy FWf;fiyfs; mfL> KfLfshf guTfpd;wd. nel;liyfs; ,Wf;fk;> jsh;r;rpahfg; guTfpd;wd. xU nghUspy; FWf;fiy cUthFk;NghJ

mjpYs;s Jfs;fs; miy guTk; jpirapNyNa mjpUk;.

xU nghUspy; nel;liy guTk;NghJ mjpYs;s Jfs;fs; miy guTk; jpirf;F nrq;Fj;jhf mjpUk;.

xsp miyfSk;> xU J}zpy; xU Kid kl;Lk; fl;lg;gl;l fapw;wpy; Vw;gLk; miyfSk; FWf;fiyfs; (Transverse Waves)

xyp miyfSk; ];gphpq;fpy; Vw;gLk; miyfSk; nel;liyfs; (Longitudinal Waves).

xyp miyfs; ,ae;jpu miyfs; vd;gjhy; mit gut Clfk; Njit.

xsp miyfs; kpd; fhe;j miyfshf ,Ug;gjhy; mit gut Clfk; Njitapy;iy

xyp miyfs; nel;liyfs; vd;gjhy; mit js tpisTf;F cl;gLtjpy;iy.

xsp miyfs; FWf;fiyfs; vd;gjhy; mit js tpisTf;F cl;gLfpd;wd.

,ir

fk;gp fUtp> fhw;W fUtp> jhsf; fUtp - ,itNa %tif ,irf; fUtpfs;.

tPiz> fplhh;> Nfhl;L thj;jpak;> Nkz;lypd;> taypd; Mfpait Kf;fpa fk;gp fUtpfs;

ehf];tuk;> n\dha;> `hh;Nkhdpak;> rhf;]Nghd;> Gy;yhq;Foy; Mfpait Kf;fpa fhw;Wf; fUtpfs;.

ehf];tuk;> n\dha;> `hh;Nkhdpak;> rhf;]Nghd; Nghd;wit CJFoy; cs;s fhw;Wf; fUtpfs;

ehf];tuk;> n\dha; Mfpait ,ul;il CJFoy; nfhz;lit

rhf;]Nghd; xw;iw CJFoy; cilaJ. Gy;yhq;Foy; CJFoyw;w fhw;Wf; fUtp CJFoy; (Read) nky;ypa gpypk; Nghd;wpUf;Fk;. ,uz;L ,irf; fUtpfis (xU tPiz> xU

fplhh;) xNu mjph;T vz;> xNu xypr; nrwpT> xNu xypr; Ruj;jpy; xypf;fr; nra;jhYk; mtw;wpd; ,iria ehk; NtWgLj;jp czuyhk;. mjw;Ff; fhuzk; me;jf; fUtpfspd; xypj; juk;.

,irf; fit xj;jpirT jj;Jtj;jpd; mbg;gilapy; nray;gLfpwJ.

lhy;gp xyp vd;gJ ,iur;ry; ePf;fg;gl;l> tbfl;lg;gl;l xyp.

NubNah xypgug;G gfiytpl ,utpy; njspthff; Nfl;gjw;F> ,utpy; NubNah miyfs; gazpf;Fk; maNdh];gpah;> #hpa xspahy; ghjpf;fg;glhky; ,Ug;gNj.

xëæaš

fèènah 1609M« M©L bjhiyneh¡»ia¡

f©LÃo¤jh®.

bjhiyneh¡» f©LÃo¤J 400 M©LfŸ

ãiwtilªjij x£o 2009M« M©L, cyf

é©btë M©lhf¡ bfh©lhl¥g£lJ.

fèènah ga‹gL¤Âa bjhiyneh¡»¡ fUé j‰nghJ

Ï¤jhè eh£oš cŸs ~Ãshu‹° efçš cŸsJ.

bghUŸfis gh®¡f ek¡F xë njit

jhkhf xëia¤ jU« bghUŸfŸ xëU« bghUŸfŸ

jhkhf xëia¤ juhj bghUŸfŸ xëuh¥ bghUŸfŸ

rªÂu‹ bghèÎl‹ ÏUªjhY« mJ xëuh¥ bghUŸ.

mJ NçaåläUªJ xëia¥ bg‰nw xë®»‹wJ.

Nça xë òéia tªJ miltj‰F 8 ãäl§fŸ 20

édhofŸ M»‹wd.

Nça xëia btW« f©fshš neçilahf Ú©l

neu« gh®¡f¢ TlhJ.

nfkuhéš Jisæ‹ msit mÂfç¤jhš bjëthd

Ã«g« »il¡fhJ. Ã«g« k§fyhf¤jh‹ bjçÍ«.

f©zho, öaÚ® ngh‹wit xëòF« bghUŸfŸ.

fš, gªJ ngh‹wit xëòfh¥ bghUŸfŸ.

v©bzŒ¤ jléa¤jhŸ Áy¤Jë ghš fyªj Ú®

ngh‹wit xë¡fÁÍ« bghUŸfŸ.

j‹ têna xëia bršy mDkÂ¡F« bghUŸfŸ

xëòF« bghUŸfŸ.

j‹ têna xëia bršy mDkÂ¡fhj bghUŸfŸ

xëòfh¥ bghUŸfŸ.

j‹ têna gFÂahf xëia bršy mDkÂ¡F«

bghUŸfŸ xëfÁÍ« bghUŸfŸ.

xëahdJ ne®¡nfh£oš brštjhšjh‹ ãHš

V‰gL»wJ.

xëæ‹ ne®¡nfh£L Ïa¡f¤jhšjh‹ Nça k‰W«

rªÂu »ufz§fŸ V‰gL»‹wd.

Nça‹, óä, rªÂu‹ Ïit _‹W« xnu ne®¡nfh£oš

mikÍ« nghJ »ufz§fŸ c©lh»‹wd.

óäæ‹ ãHš rªÂuåš éGtjhš rªÂu‹

kiw¡f¥gL»wJ. ÏJ rªÂu »ufz«. ÏÂš Nça‹

xë _ykhfÎ«, óä xë¥òfh¥ bghUshfÎ«, rªÂu‹

ÂiuahfÎ« mik»‹wd.

rªÂuå‹ ãHš óäæš éGtjhš Nça‹

kiw¡f¥gL»wJ. ÏJ Nça »ufz«. ÏÂš Nça‹

xë _ykhfÎ«, rªÂu‹ xë¥òfh¥ bghUshfÎ«, óä

ÂiuahfÎ« mik»‹wd.

fhiy neu§fëš ãHèš msÎ ÚskhfÎ«, e©gfèš

äf¢ÁwajhfÎ«, Û©L« khiy neu¤Âš ãHè‹ Ús«

äf¥bgçajhf ÏU¥gj‰F fhuz«, neu¤ij¥

bghW¤J, xë_ykhd NçaD¡F« ãHiy

cUth¡F« bghUS¡F« Ïilna cŸs nfhz«

khWtnj MF«.

xspapd; jpir Ntfk;> ntw;wplj;jpy; tpehbf;F 3X108 kPl;lh;.

xspapd; jpir Ntfk;> fz;zhbapy; tpehbf;F 2X108 kPl;lh;.

xypapd; jpir Ntfk;> fhw;wpy; tpehbf;F 330 kPl;lh;.

,aw;gpay;


xyp Ntfk; ePhpy; tpehbf;F 1>450 kPl;lh;

xyp Ntfk; ,Uk;gpy; tpehbf;F 5000 kPl;lh;

xsp gut Clfk; Njitapy;iy@ xyp gut Clfk; Njit.

Clfj;jpd; mlh;j;jp mjpfhpj;jhy; xypapd; jpir Ntfk; mjpfhpf;Fk;.

Clfj;jpd; mlh;j;jp mjpfhpj;jhy; xspapd; jpir Ntfk; FiwAk;.

xsp miyfs; FWf;fiyfs; (Transverse Waves).

xyp miyfs; nel;liyfs; (Longitudinal Waves)

njhiyf;fhl;rpia Md; nra;jTld; glk; tUtjw;FKd; xyp te;JtpLtjw;Ff; fhuzk;> glj;ij cUthf;Fk; Picture Tube #lhf rpwpJ Neuk; vLj;Jf;nfhs;tJ.

xëæaš k‰W« xèæaš

xë vÂbuhë¥ò¤ js¤Âš gL»‹w xë¡fÂ®

‘gLfÂ®’ MF«.

xë¡fÂ® vÂbuhë¥Ã‰F¥ ÃwF vÂbuhë¥ò

js¤ÂèUªJ mnj Clf¤Âš bršY« fÂ®

‘vÂbuhë¥ò¡fÂ®’ MF«.

gLfÂU¡F« vÂbuhë¥ò¤js¤Âš gLòŸëæš

tiua¥g£l F¤J¡nfh£o‰F« Ïilna cŸs nfhz«

‘gLnfhz«’ i MF«.

vÂbuhë¥ò¡ fÂU¡F« gLòŸëæš tiua¥g£l

F¤J¡nfh£o‰F« Ïilna cŸs nfhz« ‘vÂbuhë¥ò¡

nfhz«’ r MF«.

Ã«g§fë‹ 360

v©â¡if = --------------------- –1

nfhz«

bgç°nfh¥ : ÏU rkjs Mofshš bjhl®ªJ

vÂbuhë¥ò miltnj Ïj‹ j¤JtkhF«.

bkšèa Nça xë¡f‰iw x‹iw K¥g£lf¤Â‹

têna brY¤J«nghJ, kWg¡f« bt©Âiuæš Cjh,

fUÚy«, Úy«, g¢ir, kŠrŸ, MuŠR k‰W« Át¥ò

(VIBGYOR) M»a VG ãw§fë‹ bjhFÂfshf

fhzyh« v‹gij m¿éaš m¿P® r®. Ir¡ ãô£l‹

f©l¿ªjh®.

itu§fŸ äDäD¡f K¡»a fhuz« KGmf

vÂbuhë¥ò MF«.

kåjå‹ f© bt›ntW bghU£fë‹

bt›ntW bjhiyé‰F V‰g éêby‹Á‹

Féa¤öu¤ij kh‰¿ Ã«g¤ij éH¢ brŒ»wJ.

Óèaç¤jirfŸ RU§FtjhY« éçtjhY« éêby‹Á‹

Féaöu« kh‰wkil»wJ. Ï¢brany ‘f©jf mikjš’

MF«.

Fiwghl‰w f©gh®it bfh©l xUtU¡F xU

bghUis¤ bjëthf¡ fhz¡Toa äf¡ Fiwªj msÎ

25brÛ MF«. ÏJ bjëÎ¡fh£Áæ‹ Û¢ÁW bjhiyÎ

MF«.

xè fh‰W k‰W« Âut§fis él Âl¥bghUëš

ntfkhf guÎ«.

xè guÎtj‰F Clf« njit. xè bt‰¿l¤Âš

guthJ.

M©fë‹ Fuš eh©fë‹ Ús« 20äÛ

bg©fS¡F mJ Rkh® 15äÛ. Mdhš FHªijfS¡F

äf¢Á¿a Fušeh©fŸ cŸsd.

kåjå‹ bré _‹W K¡»a¥ ghf§fis¡

bfh©lJ. 1) btë¥òw bré 2) bré¥giw 3) eL¢bré

mÂ®bt©â‹ myF bA®£° (Hz) MF«.

miyÎ¡fhy¤Â‹ myF beho MF«.

Å¢Á‹ myF Û£l® (m) MF«.

kåjå‹ bréahš 20 bA®£° Kjš 20000

bA®£° tiu mÂ®bt©fis cila xè miyfis

nf£Lzu Ko»wJ.

20 bA®£[]¡F ÑœcŸs mÂ®bt© bfh©l

xè k‰W« 20000 bA®£° mÂ®bt©Q¡F« mÂfkhd

mÂ®bt© bfh©l xèia bréahš nf£Lzu KoahJ.

Ïjid bréÍzuh mÂ®bt©fŸ vd¥gL«.

xëæaš

xë bghUŸfë‹ ÛJ g£L ÂU¥Ã mD¥g¥gL«

braš vÂbuhë¥ò vd¥gL«.

Mo rkjskhf mikªjhš mJ rkjs Mo

vd¥gL«.

Âiuæš Ão¡f Koahj Ã«g« kha Ã«g«

vd¥gL«.

kha Ã«g« v¥nghJ« neuhfnt mikÍ«.

rkjs Moæš njh‹W« Ã«g« v¥nghJ« neuhd

khaÃ«gkhF«.

rkjs Moæš njh‹W« Ã«g« v¥nghJ« Ïlty

kh‰w« milªJ fhz¥gL«.

Moæš KG cUt¤ij¡ fhz Moæ‹ cau«

FiwªjJ bghUë‹ cau¤Âš ghÂasÎ ÏU¡f

nt©L«.

Mo¡F K‹ bghUŸ v›tsÎ bjhiyéš

cŸsnjh mnj bjhiyéš Mo¡F¥Ã‹ bghUë‹ Ã«g«

njh‹W«.

nkšneh¡» tisªj gu¥òila Mo, Fé Mo

vdÎ« cŸneh¡» tisªj Mo, Fê Mo vdÎ«

miH¡f¥gL«. Ïit tisªj MofŸ vd¥gL«.

jhë‹ ÛJ mšyJ Âiuæ‹ ÛJ éG« Ã«g«

bkŒÃ«g« vd¥gL«.

kha Ã«g¤ij¤ Âiuæš cUth¡f ÏayhJ.

bghUŸ Fê Mo¡F äf mUfhikæš cŸsnghJ

MoæDŸ bgça neuhd khaÃ«g« cUthF«.

Fê Moæ‹ ga‹fŸ

k»GªÂ‹ Kf¥ò és¡FfëY«, bjhiy

neh¡»fëY« vÂbuhë¥ò Moahf¥ ga‹gL»‹wd.

Kf« rtu« brŒÍ« Moahf¥ ga‹gL»wJ.

gš k‰W« fhJ, _¡F¤ bjh©il kU¤Jt®fŸ

mt®fŸ gh®¡f nt©oa gFÂfë‹ ÛJ xëia¡

Fé¡f¥ga‹gL»‹wd.

Nça mL¥òfëš rik¡f nt©oa

czÎ¥bghUŸfë‹ ÛJ Nça xëia¡ Fé¡f¥

ga‹gL»‹wd.

Fé Moæ‹ ga‹fŸ

thfd§fëš Ã‹òw¤Âš cŸst‰iw¥ gh®¡f¥

ga‹gL»‹wd.

mÂfkhd Ïl¤ij¡ f©fhâ¡F« Mofshf¥

ga‹gL»‹wd.

MÁahényna bgça vÂbuhë¥ò

bjhiyneh¡»fëš, x‹W jäœeh£oš cŸs #›thJ

kiyæš (ntÿ® kht£l«) mikªJŸs fhtÿ® MuhŒ¢Á

ika¤Âš cŸsJ.

,aw;gpay;


fz;zhb NgUe;J Xl;LeUf;F mUfpypUg;gJ Ftp Mb

(Convex mirror) gy; lhf;lh;fs; gad;gLj;JtJ Fop Mb (Concave

mirror) NgUe;J n`l;iyl;Lfspy; vjpnuhspg;ghdhfg;

gad;gLtJ gutisaf; Fop Mb. rtuf; fz;zhbahfg; gad;gLtJ Fop Mb. fhkpuh nyd;]hfg; gad;gLtJ Ftp nyd;]; nly];Nfhg;gpd; fz;zUF nyd;]; Fiwe;j

Ftpa J}uKs;s Ftp nyd;]; nly];Nfhg;gpd; nghUsUF nyd;]; mjpf Ftpa

J}uKs;s Ftp nyd;]; $l;L Ez;Nzhf;fpapd; fz;zUF nyd;]; mjpf

Ftpa J}uKs;s Ftp nyd;]; $l;L Ez;Nzhf;fpapd; nghUsUF nyd;];

Fiwe;j Ftpa J}uKs;s Ftp nyd;]; vspa Ez;Nzhf;fpapy; Fiwe;j Ftpa J}uKs;s

Ftp nyd;]; gad;gLfpwJ. fpl;lg; ghh;itia rhpnra;a Fop nyd;];@ J}ug;

ghh;itia rhpnra;a Ftp nyd;]; Fop nyd;]pd; Ftpa J}uk; ‘ikd]py;’

Fwpg;gplg;gLk;. Ftp nyd;]pd; Ftpa J}uk; ‘g;s];]py;’

Fwpg;gplg;gLk; nyd;]pd; jpwd; (Power) ‘lahg;lh;’ myfhy;

Fwpg;gplg;gLk;. nyd;]pd; jpwd; mjd; Ftpa J}uj;jpd; jiyfPo;

tpfpjk;.

xèæaš

mÂ®ÎW« bghUŸfë‹ K‹, Ã‹ Ïa¡f¤Â‹

fhuzkhf xè miy guÎ»wJ.

Clf¤ÂYŸs JfŸfŸ miy guÎ« Âir¡F

Ïizahfnth mšyJ mt‰¿‹ Âirænynah

mÂ®ÎWtjhš c©lhF« miyfŸ be£liyfŸ

vd¥gL«. v.fh. xè miyfŸ

Clf¤JfŸfŸ, miyguÎ« Âir¡F,

br§F¤jhd Âiræš mÂ®ÎWtjhš cUthF« miyfŸ

FW¡fiyfŸ vd¥gL«. v.fh ÚuiyfŸ,

ÏG¤J¡f£l¥g£l f«Ãæ‹ mÂ®ÎfŸ

FW¡fiyfŸ Clf¤Â‹ têna KfL,

mfLfshf¥ guÎ»‹wd.

Å¢R (a): myF Û£l®.

miyÎ fhy« (T) : myF édho.

mÂ®bt© (n): myF bA®£° (hertz).

miyÚs« (λ): myF Û£l®.

xèahdJ fh‰¿š bršY« ntf¤ijél, Úçš

IªJ kl§F ntfkhfÎ«, ÏU«Ãš ÏUgJ kl§F

ntfkhfÎ« brš»wJ.

xëæ‹ Âirntf« (3x108

Û/é) MdJ xèæ‹

Âirntf¤ijél (340 Û/é) äf, äf mÂf«. xëahdJ

xèiaél äšèa‹ kl§F ntfkhf¢ brš»wJ. Ïj‹

fhuzkhf¤jh‹ Ïo ä‹dè‹ nghJ, ä‹dš Ñ‰W

Kjèš òy¥gL»wJ. Ã‹d® Ïonahir nf£»wJ.

vªj xU xèÍ« 1/10 édhoæš 34 Û bjhiyÎ

gaz« brŒÂU¡F«. vdnt vÂbuhè

nf£f¥glnt©Lbkåš xèia vÂbuhè¥ò mila¢

brŒÍ« jilbghUshdJ FiwªjJ

17 Û bjhiyéš mika nt©L«.

fiy mu§f«, bgça miw, Âiu mu§f« k‰W«

xè¥gÂÎ Tl§fŸ ngh‹wt‰¿š vÂ® KH¡f neukhdJ

ng¢Á‰F 0.5 éehoÍ«, Ïir¡F 1 Kjš 1.5 éehoÍ«

ÏU¤jš nt©L«. vÂ® KH¡f neu¤ij¡ Fiw¥gj‰F,

fiymu§f¤Â‹ nk‰Tiu, Rt®fŸ ngh‹wit xè

c£ftU« j‹ik bfh©l bghUŸfshyhd mK¡f¥g£l

eh® m£il, Âiu¢ÓiyfŸ k‰W« Ãsh°l® ngh‹w

bghUŸfshš nk‰ó¢R brŒa¥g£oU¡F«.

gh®itahs®fŸ mkU« ÏU¡iffŸ xèia c£ftU«

g©Ã‹ mo¥gilæš bjçÎ brŒa¥ gL»‹wd.

20 Hz Kjš 20,000 Hz tiu mÂ®bt© beL¡f«

bfh©l xèia kåj®fë‹ bréÍz® beL¡f«

v‹»nwh«. (1 Hz = 1 R‰W / édho )

20,000 Hz ¡F« mÂfkhd mÂ®bt© bfh©l

xè Ûbahè vd¥gL«.

20 Hz ¡F« Fiwthd mÂ®bt© bfh©l xè

F‰bwhè vd¥gL«.

b#®k‹ eh£il¢ nr®ªj m¿éaš m¿P®

bA®£°, Kj‹ Kjyhf nuonah miyfŸ ÏU¥gij

MŒé‹ _y« ã%Ã¤jh®. mÂ®bt©â‹ myfh»a

R‰WfŸ / éeho ÏtuJ bgauhnyna bA®£° v‹w

myfhf kh‰w¥g£lJ.

Ûbahè tç¡f©nzh£l« v‹gJ j‰nghJ

eilKiwæš cŸs fUéš cŸs ÁRéid MŒÎ

brŒÍ« ghJfh¥ghd, Ô§F éisé¡fhj Jšèakhd,

k‰W« kèthd KiwahF«.

kåj‹ k‰W« bt›ntW äUf§fë‹ bréÍz®

beL¡f« (Hz)

kåj‹ 20 - 20,000

ahid 16 - 12,000

gR 16- 40,000

óid 100 - 32,000

ehŒ 40 - 46,000

Kaš 1000 - 1,00,000

btsthš 1000 - 1,50,000

lhšÃ‹fŸ 70 -1,50,000

flšehŒ 900 – 2,00,000

nrhdh® v‹gJ Ûbahèfis¥ ga‹gL¤Â,

flè‹ MH«, ÚU¡foæš cŸs bghU£fë‹ bjhiyÎ,

Âir, k‰W« ntf« M»at‰iw ms¡f¡ Toa

fUéahF«.

xèæaš lh¥s® éisÎ : xè _ynkh mšyJ

nf£Fenuh (mšyJ) Ïu©L« Ïa¡f¤Âš cŸsnghnjh

nf£FeU¡F xèæ‹ mÂ®bt©âš xU kh‰w« ÏU¥gJ

nghy njh‹W«.

»¿°oa‹ n#hA‹ lh¥s® (1803 - 53) : Ït®

M°Âça eh£il¢ nr®ªj fâj k‰W« Ïa‰Ãaš m¿P®

Mth®. 1842M« M©L Ïu£il é©Û‹fëèUªJ tU«

t©z xëia¥g‰¿a MŒé‹ _y« lh¥s® éisit¡

f©l¿ªjh®. xè_y« Ïa¡f¤Âš cŸsnghJ, mJ

cUth¡F« xèæ‹ RUÂæš njh‰w kh‰w« V‰gL« v‹w

fU¤Âid btëæ£lh®. ÏtuJ Ï¡fU¤J Âirntf«

k‰W« bghU£fë‹ bjhiyÎ f©l¿Í« KiwfS¡F

äfÎ« gaDŸsjhŒ mikªJŸsJ.

nulh® (Radio Detection and Ranging) - lh¥s®

éisÎ j¤Jt¤Â‹ mo¥gilæš brašgL« nulh®

,aw;gpay;


fUéia¡ bfh©L Ú®_œ»¡f¥gš k‰W« th}®Âfë‹

Ïa¡f« k‰W« Âirntf« f©l¿a¥gL»wJ.

ngh¡Ftu¤J f£L¥gh£L thfd¤ÂèUªJ,

ntfkhf bršY« thfd¤ij neh¡» ik¡nuh miyfŸ

mD¥g¥gL»‹wd. Ïa§F« thfd¤ÂèUªJ vÂbuhè¥ò

bgW« miyfŸ, f£L¥gh£L thfd¤ÂYŸs gF¥gh‹

cjéædhš czu¥gL»‹wJ. mÂ®bt©âš V‰gL«

lh¥s® Ïl¥bga®¢Áæ‹ _y« thfd¤Â‹ ntf«

fz¡»l¥gL»wJ.

th}®Â ãiya¤Âš cŸs nulhç‹ _y«

bgw¥gL« lh¥s® Ïl¥bga®¢Áæ‹ cjéÍl‹ th}®Â

cŸs cau«, ntf«, beU§F« th}®Âæ‹ bjhiyÎ

ngh‹wit¡ fz¡»l¥gL»‹wd.

btsthšfŸ Ûbahèfis cUth¡F« k‰W«

czU« g©òfŸbfh©lit.

xypapd; gz;Gk; gaDk; xyp miyfs; mjph;ntz; (Frequency)> nrwpT

(Intensity)> Ruk;(Pitch)> juk; (Quality) Mfpa gz;Gfis cilait

mjph;T vz; vd;gJ xU nehbapy; Vw;gLk; xyp miyfspd; vz;zpf;if

xyp mjph;T vz; myF: n`h;l;]; ek; fhJfs; Nfl;fty;y xyp mjph;T vz;: 20-

20>000 n`h;l;]; ntsthy;fSf;F kP xypiaf; Nfl;Fk; rf;jp

cz;L. ntsthy;fspd; mjpfgl;r kP xyp miy mjph;T

vz;: 1>00>000 n`h;l;]; 20 n`h;l;]{f;Ff; fPo; mjph;T vz; nfhz;lit

Fw;nwhyp miyfs; (Infrasonic waves). Fw;nwhyp miyfisf; Nfl;Fk; jpwd; nfhz;l

tpyq;F ahid xypr; nrwptpd; (Intensity of sound) myF: nlrpgy; xypr; nrwpT vd;gJ xypapd; rg;jj;ij (loudness)

Fwpf;fpwJ. nlrpgy; myF klf;if msTNfhiy (Log scale)

mbg;gilahff; nfhz;lJ. 10 nlrpgiy tpl 20 nlrpgy; E}W klq;F

rg;jkhdJ. KZKZj;jy; vd;gJ 20 nlrpgy; xU rhjhuz ciuahlypd; xypr;nrwpT: 65

nlrpgy; gugug;ghd xU rhiyapy; Nghf;Ftuj;J ,iur;ry;:

75 nlrpgy; n[l; tpkhdk; fpsk;Gk;NghJ Vw;gLk; ,iur;ry;:

140 nlrpgy; 80 nlrpgYf;F Nkw;gl;l xyp> xyp khR

vdg;gLfpwJ. Mz; Fuiy tpl ngz; FuYf;F xypr; Ruk;(Pitch)

mjpfk;. Mz; Fuiy ngz; FuypypUe;J NtWgLj;JtJ

xypr; Ruk;. xU eghpd; FuypypUe;J kw;nwhU eghpd; Fuiy

NtWgLj;JtJk; xypj; juNk. Xh; miwapy; vjpnuhyp Nfl;f Ntz;Lkhdhy;

miwapd; ePsk; Fiwe;jgl;rk; 17 kPl;lh; ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.

kio fhyj;jpy; fhw;wpy; <ug;gjk; mjpfk; ,Ug;gjhy; ePz;l njhiyTf;F xypiaf; Nfl;fyhk;.

#lhd jfty;fs; ntg;gj;ij mstpl nrd;bfpNuL> /ghud;`Pl;>

nfy;tpd; vd;w %d;Wtpj myFfs; gad;gLfpd;wd.

kdpj clypy; ruhrhp ntg;gepiy 98.4°F my;yJ 37°C my;yJ 310K

ePhpd; nfhjp epiy 100°C my;yJ 212°F my;yJ 373K

ePhpd; ciw epiy 0°C my;yJ 32°F my;yJ 273K njh;khkPl;lh;fpsy; ghjurk; gad;gLfpwJ. kpff; Fiwe;j ntg;gj;ij msf;Fk; fUtp

My;f`hy; njh;khkPl;lh; kUj;Jt njh;khkPl;lhpy; 35°C Kjy; 42°C

tiuapyhd msTfs; ,Uf;Fk; #lhd ePiutpl Fsph;e;j ePh; mjpf ntg;gj;ij

cl;ftUk; ‘Mtpahjy; Fsph;r;rpia Vw;gLj;Jk;’ vd;w

jj;Jtj;jpd; mbg;gilapy; ,aq;FfpwJ /g;hp[; Fsph;rhjd miwapy; ntg;g epiy 23-25°C-Yk;

<ug; gjk; 60-65% vd;w mstpYk; fl;Lg;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.

ntg;g ,d;[pd;fs; ntg;g ,d;[pd;fs; (Heat Engine) vd;gJ ntg;g

Mw;wiy ,af;f Mw;wyhf khw;Wk; mikg;G ntg;g ,d;[pd;fs; ntsp vhp ,d;[pd;fs;> cs; vhp

,d;[pd;fs; vd ,U tifg;gLk; ePuhtp ,d;[pd; xU ntsp vhp ,d;[pd; ngl;Nuhy; ,d;[pd;> Bry; ,d;[pd;> n[l; ,d;[pd;

Nghd;wit cs; vhp ,d;[pd;fs; ntsp vhp ,d;[pdpy; vhp nghUs; ,d;[pDf;F

ntspNa vhpf;fg;gLfpwJ. cs; vhp ,d;[pdpy; vhp nghUs; ,d;[pDf;F

cs;Ns vhpf;fg;gLfpwJ. ePuhtp ,d;[pd;> jhk]; epa+ Nfhkd; vd;gtuhy;

1705-y; fz;Lgpbf;fg;gl;L N[k;]; thl;lhy; 1769-y; khw;wpaikf;fg;gl;lJ.

ngl;Nuhy; ,d;[pd;> Bry; ,d;[pd; Nghd;wit ehd;F tPr;R (Four Stroke) ,d;[pd;fs;

Bry; ,d;[pdpd; nray; jpwd; (Efficiency) ngl;Nuhy; ,d;[pdpd; nray; jpwid tpl mjpfk;

Bry; ,d;[pdpd; nray; jpwd; 40% Mdhy; ngl;Nuhy; ,d;[pdpd; nray; jpwd; 15%.

Bry; ,d;[pdpy; fhh;GNul;lNuh> kpd; nghwpNah fpilahJ.

Bry; ,d;[pdpy; fhw;wpd; gUkd; mjd; 1/16 msTf;F mOj;jg;gLtjhy; Vw;gLk; ntg;gj;jhy; vhpnghUs; vhpfpwJ.

ePuhtp ,d;[pd;> n[l; ,d;[pd; Mfpatw;wpd; nray; jpwDk; 15% kl;LNk.

kpd;rhuk;

vyf;l;uhdpd; Xl;lj;ij kpd;Ndhl;lk; vd;fpNwhk;. kpd;Ndhl;lj;jpd; myF: Mk;gpah; kpd;Ndhl;lj;ij mstpLk; fUtp: mk;kPl;lh; kpd; mOj;jj;jpd; myF: Nthy;l; kpd; mOj;jj;ij mstpLk; fUtp: Nthy;l; kPl;lh; kpd; jilapd; myF: Xk; kpd; jilia mstpLk; fUtp: Xk;kPl;lh; kpd; jpUj;jp (Rectifier) vd;w fUtp khW jpir

kpd;Ndhl;lj;ij Neh; jpir kpd;Ndhl;lkhf khw;WfpwJ.

kpd; khw;wp (Transformer) vd;gJ kpd; mOj;jj;ijj; $l;lNth> Fiwf;fNth gad;gLfpwJ.

xU kpd; Rw;wpy; kpd;Ndhl;lk; cs;sjh> ,y;iyah vd mwpa cjTtJ-fhy;tdh kPl;lh;.

,aw;gpay;


xU kpd; Rw;wpy; kpd;Ndhl;lj;ij mstpl cjTtJ > mk;kPl;lh;.

xU fhy;tdh kPl;liu mk;kPl;luhf khw;w Fiwe;j kpd; jilia gf;f ,izg;gpy; ,izf;f Ntz;Lk;.

xU fhy;tdh kPl;liu Nthy;l; kPl;luhf khw;w mjpf kpd; jilia njhlh; ,izg;gpy; ,izf;f Ntz;Lk;.

ä‹åaš k‰W« bt¥géaš

ÏªÂahéš fh‰W M‰wš _y« ä‹c‰g¤Â

brŒÍ« khãy§fëš jäœehL Kjèl« t»¡»‹wJ. ÏJ

5000 bkfh th£ ä‹dh‰wiy c‰g¤Â brŒÍ« Âw‹

bfh©lJ.

jäœeh£oYŸs ö¤J¡Fo, f‹åah¡Fkhç

k‰W« ÂUbešntè kht£l§fëš bgU«ghyhd

fh‰whiyfŸ mikªJŸsd.

Kj‹ Kjyhf ÿæ fhšthå v‹w Ï¤jhèa

éŠPhåahš ä‹fy« cUth¡f¥g£lJ. myrh©nuh

nthšlh v‹gtuhš nk«gL¤j¥g£lJ.

ä‹fy« mšyJ ä‹fy mL¡F. -

ä‹ndh£l¤ij¤ jU« _y«.

Ïiz¥ò¡f«ÃfŸ - ä‹ndh£l¤ij vL¤J¢

bršy.

ä‹és¡F ngh‹w ä‹dh‰wiy ga‹gL¤J«

mik¥ò.

rhé - ä‹ndh£l¤ij¤ njitahd nghJ

brY¤jnth mšyJ ãW¤jnth ga‹gL« mik¥ò. ÏJ

ä‹R‰¿‹ v¥gFÂæY« Ïiz¡f¥glyh«.

ä‹és¡»DŸ l§°ldhš brŒa¥g£l

RUŸtot¡ f«Ã cŸsJ. ÏJ ä‹åiH vd¥gL«.

ä‹ndh£l« Ïj‹ têna brY¤j¥gL«nghJ Nlh»

xë®»‹wJ. Ï§F ä‹dh‰wš xë

M‰wyhfkh‰w¥gL»‹wJ.

ä‹ éyh§F Û‹ v‹gJ ä‹rhu¤ij

cUth¡ftšy ÛdhF«. Ï›tif Û‹fŸ mnkrh‹

eÂæ‹ öa ÚçY« k‰W« bj‹ mbkç¡fhéš cŸs

Xçndh¡ bfh eÂ gLifæY« thœ»‹wd.

ä‹ndh£l¤Â‹ fhªjéisÎ g‰¿ l¢R eh£il¢

rh®ªj m¿P® »¿°oa‹ xa®°bl£ 1820M« M©L

f©l¿ªjh®.

fhªj CÁahdJ v¥nghJ« tl¡F-bj‰F

Âiræš ã‰F«.

Åzhd bghUŸfë‹ Féaèš ÏUªJ ÏU«ò

Ãç¤bjL¡f ä‹fhªj§fŸ ga‹gL»‹wd.

#&š v‹gJ M‰wiy msél¥ga‹gL« myF

MF«

bt¥gãiyia¡ F¿¥Ãl bršÁa° k‰W«

~ghu‹Ë£ v‹w ÏU myFfisÍ« ga‹gL¤jyh«.

SI msÅ£L Kiwæš bt¥gãiy bfšé‹ v‹w

myfhš msél¥gL»‹wJ.

bršÁa° msÅ£oèUªJ ~ghu‹Ë£

msÅ£o‰F kh‰w ga‹gL« bjhl®ò C / 100 = (F-

32)/180

kU¤Jt bt¥gãiykhå 35ºC Kjš 42ºC tiu

msél¥g£oU¡F«.

kåjå‹ ruhrç clš bt¥gãiy 36.9º C (m)

98.4º F MF«.

j‰nghJ oí£lš bt¥gãiykhåfis¡ bfh©L

bt¥gãiy msél¥gL»‹wJ. ÏJ f©zho k‰W«

ghjur« Ïšyhj xU ä‹dQ mik¥ò MF«. ÏJ vëÂš

cilahJ k‰W« ga‹gL¤JtJ ghJfh¥ghdJ.

nehahëæ‹ ifæ‹ moænyh mšyJ thænyh it¤j

xU ãäl¤Â‰F¥ ÃwF ÁW r¥j¤ij V‰gL¤J«. mJ

bt¥gãiyæ‹ msit neuoahf v©fëš fh£L«.

ä‹rhuéaš k‰W« bt¥géaš

ä‹ndh£l¤ij¡ fl¤J« xU fiurš mšyJ

cU»a ãiyæš cŸs xU bghUisna ä‹gFë

v‹»nwh«.

J¤jehf Kyh« ór¥g£l ÏU«ò fhštidRL

ÏU«ò (GI) vd¥gL«. ÏJ JU¥Ão¡fh ÏU«ò¡ FHhŒfŸ

brŒa¥ga‹gL»wJ. Vbdåš, J¤jehf¥ ó¢R

JU¥Ão¤jiy¤ jL¡»wJ.

ä‹}£l§fis¡ f©l¿tj‰F« mt‰iw

ms¥gj‰F« ga‹gL« fUéna ä‹}£l§fh£o

vd¥gL«.

ä‹}£l« bg‰w bghUŸ x‹W ä‹}£l« m‰w

bghUnshL bjhl®ò bfhŸS« nghJ, ä‹}£l§fŸ

gçkhW»‹wd. Ïu©oY« ä‹}£l msÎ rkkhF«

tiuæš gçkh‰w« ãfœ»‹wJ. Ïjidna ä‹åw¡f«

v‹»nwh«.

ä‹}£l« bg‰w bghUŸ x‹iw fl¤J f«ÃfŸ

_ykhfnth mšyJ bjhLjš _ykhfnth òénahL

Ïiz¥gijna òé¥Ãiz¥ò v‹»nwh«.

òé Vuhskhd ä‹}£l§fis¥ bg‰w xU

miz¡f£L ngh‹wJ. mjndhL bjhl®ò bfhŸS«

bghUS¡F V‰g vy¡£uh‹fis më¡fnth mšyJ

V‰fnth brŒÍ« ÏašòilaJ.

ekJ ÅLfëš ga‹gL« bgU«ghyhd

ä‹rhjd§fŸ (Fë®rhjd¥ bg£o, khtiu¡F«

ÏaªÂu«, JâJit¡F« ÏaªÂu« ngh‹wit)

òé¥Ãiz¥ò brŒa¥g£oU¡F«. Vbdåš ÏJ

kåj®fisÍ«, ä‹rhjd§fisÍ« ghJfh¡F«.

Ïo jh§»ia¡ f©LÃo¤jt® bgŠrä‹

~Ãuh§¡ë‹ v‹w m¿éayhs® Mth®.

bt¥g« v‹gJ xU tifahd M‰wš

ä‹ndh£léaY« M‰wY«

ä‹}£l¤Â‹ SI myF TY«. 1 TY« v‹gJ 6

x 1018

vy¡£uh‹fë‹ ä‹}£l¤Â‰F¢ rk«.

ä‹ndh£l¤Â‹ myF M«Ãa® (A) MF«.

M«¥Ãa® v‹gJ ÃbuŠ¢ eh£L m¿éaš m¿P®

bgauhF«.

ä‹ndh£l¤ij ms¡f m«Û£l® v‹»w rhjd«

ga‹gL»wJ.

ä‹dG¤j ntWgh£o‹ SI myF nthš£ (V)

1 nthš£ = 1 #&š / 1 TY«

ä‹dG¤j ntWgh£il nthš£ Û£liu¡

bfh©L ms¡»nwh«.

1827 M« M©L b#®k‹ eh£L Ïa‰Ãaš m¿P®

#h®{ irk‹ X« xU fl¤Âæš ghÍ« ä‹ndh£l« I¡F«

,aw;gpay;


fl¤Âæ‹ KidfS¡»ilnaahd ä‹dG¤jntWghL

V¡Fkhd bjhl®ig ¡ f©l¿ªjh®.

X« éÂ¥go V α I V = IR

ä‹jilæ‹ SI myF X«. Ïj‹ F¿pL Ω .

ä‹jilah¡»fis ÏUKiwfëš

Ïiz¡fyh«. mit m) bjhlçiz¥ò, M) g¡f Ïiz¥ò

xU ä‹jilæš cUth¡f¥gL« bt¥gkhdJ (1)

F¿¥Ã£l ä‹jil¡F mj‹ têna ghÍ«

ä‹ndh£l¤Â‹ ÏUko¡F (I²) ne® é»j¤ÂY« (2)

F¿¥Ã£l ä‹ndh£l¤Â‰F ä‹jilah¡»æ‹ ä‹

jil¡F (R) ne®é»j¤ÂY« (3) ä‹jilah¡»æ‹ têna

ä‹ndh£l« ghÍ« neu¤Â‰F (t) ne® é»j¤ÂY«

ÏU¡F«. ÏJ #&š bt¥g éÂ vd¥gL»wJ.

#&š bt¥g éisé‹ bghJthd ga‹ghL ä‹

R‰¿š ga‹gL« ä‹ cU»ahF«. (fuse). ÏJ xU

cnyhf¡ fyitahš (37% fhça«, 63% <a« ) Md f«Ã

MF«.

ekJ eh£oš Ï›éU f«ÃfS¡Fäilna

ä‹dG¤j ntWghL 220 V ÏU¡F«.

ntiy brŒa¥gL« Åj« Âw‹ vd¥gL«.

ä‹dh‰wš vL¤J¡ bfhŸs¥gL« Åj« ä‹Âw‹

vd¥gL«.

ä‹Âwå‹ SI myF th£ (W).

xU th£ kâ v‹gJ 1 th£ Âw‹ xU kâ neu«

ga‹gL¤j¥g£oU¥gij¡ F¿¡»wJ. thâg ßÂæš

ä‹dh‰wiy »nyh th£ kâ v‹w myfhš (kwh)

ms¡»nwh«. mJ bghJthf ôå£ vd¥gL»wJ.

1 kwh = 1000 th£ x 3600 édho = 3.6 x 106 Éš ( J

)

ä‹dG¤j ntWghL 1.08 V MF«.

by¡yhŠÁ ä‹fyå‹ ä‹ Ïa¡F éir 1.5. V

fhßa mäy nrk¡fy‹ bghJthf¥ga‹gL«

Jiz ä‹fydhF«.

éirahê¡F¤ njitahd ntf¤ij ãiyãW¤j

fh‰¿‹ ntf« 15 ».ä / kâiaél äf mÂfkhf ÏU¡f

nt©L«.

xU mQ¡fU mšyJ Ínuåa¤Â‹ ÃsÎ

ãy¡fçæ‹ xU fh®g‹ mQ vç»‹wnghJ c‰g¤ÂahF«

M‰wiyél 10 äšèa‹ kl§F mÂf M‰wiy c‰g¤Â

brŒ»wJ.

nkl« nkç »ôçÍ« mt® fzt® Ãaç »ôçÍ«

äFªj fÂ®Å¢R bfh©l jåk§fshd nuoa« k‰W«

bghnyhåa¤ij¡ f©l¿ªjd®.

mQ v© 82I él mÂfkhd fdkhd jåk§fŸ

α (Alpha) , β (Beta) k‰W« γ (Gama) ngh‹w mÂf

CLUÎ« fÂ®fis j‹å¢irahf btëéL« m‰òj

ãfœÎ fÂça¡f« vd¥gL»wJ.

b#®k‹ m¿éayhs®fŸ M£nlh Ah‹ k‰W«

°£uh°nk‹ 1939š Ínuåa« mQ¡fU ãô£uh‹

bfh©L jh¡f¥gL«nghJ M‰wš btëp£Ll‹,

x¥Ãl¡Toa ãiwfSila ÏU J©L fshf¥

ÃsÎgLtij f©LÃo¤jd®.

fÂ®Å¢Á‹ msÎ uh©£#‹ v‹w myfhš

msél¥gL»wJ (R).

xU »uh« fh‰¿š 1.6 x 1012

n#ho maåfis

cUth¡F« fÂ®Å¢Á‹ msÎ xU uh©£#‹ vd¥gL«.

Mg¤J gFÂfëš gâ òçÍ« bghGJ, fhßa

nky§»Í«, fhßa ifÍiwÍ« ga‹ gL¤j¥glnt©L«.

kÂ¥ÕL

gFÂ - m

1. 20 X« ä‹jilÍŸs f«Ãæš 0.2 A ä‹ndh£l«

cUth¡f¤ njit¥gL« ä‹dG¤j ntWghL -----

(100 V, 4 V, 0.01 V, 40 V)

2. ÏU ä‹és¡Ffë‹ ä‹jilfë‹ é»j« 1 :

2. mit bjhluhf xU R‰¿š Ïiz¡f¥gL»‹wd våš

mit vL¤J¡ bfhŸS« M‰wšfë‹ é»j« -----

(1 : 2, 2 : 1, 4 : 1, 1 : 1)

3. »nyhth£ kâ v‹gJ ------‹ myF MF«.

(ä‹dG¤j ntWghL, ä‹Âw‹, ä‹dh‰wš, ä‹}£l«)

4. x¤j ãgªjidfëš ------ gu¥ò k‰w gu¥òfis

él mÂf bt¥g¤ij c£ft®»wJ.

(bt©ik, brhubrhu¥ghd, fUik, kŠrŸ)

5. Ïa‰if¡ fÂça¡f¤jåk¤Â‹ mQ v© ----

--

(82I él mÂf«, 82I él¡ FiwÍ,

tiuaW¡f¥gléšiy, FiwªjJ 92)

ä‹ndh£l¤Â‹fhªj éisÎ« xëæaY«

fhªj¤ij¢ R‰¿Y« mj‹ éir czu¥gL«

gFÂ fhªjòy« vd¥gL«.

ÏU«ò¤JfŸfshš xU§fik¡f¥g£L cUthF«

nfhLfŸ fhªj éir¡ nfhLfŸ vd¥gL«.

fhªj¤Â‹ cŸns òy¡nfhLfŸ bj‹Kidæš

bjhl§» tlKidæš KoÍ«. fhªj¥òy¡ nfhLfŸ _oa

tisnfhLfshF«. Ïit xUnghJ« x‹iwbah‹W

bt£o¡bfhŸshJ.

R£Léuš fhªj¥òy¤Â‹ ÂiriaÍ«, eLéuš

ä‹ndh£l¤Â‹ ÂiriaÍ« F¿¤jhš f£iléuš fl¤Â

Ïa§F« Âiria¡ F¿¡F«. ÏJnt ~Ãsä§ Ïl¡if

éÂ vd¥gL«.

ä‹nkh£lh® v‹gJ ä‹dh‰wiy vªÂu

M‰wyhf kh‰w¡Toa RHY« fUéahF«.

~ghunl 1831š, ä‹fhªj¤ ö©lš v‹w ãfœit

f©l¿ªjh®.

ty¡ifæ‹ R£Léuš, eLéuš, bgUéuš

_‹iwÍ« x‹W¡bfh‹W ne®¡F¤jhf it¡fÎ«.

R£Léuš fhªj¥òy¤Â‹ ÂiriaÍ«, bgUéuš fl¤Â

Ïa§F« ÂiriaÍ« F¿¤jhš, eLéuš ö©L

ä‹ndh£l¤Â‹ Âiria¡ F¿¡F«. ÏJ~Ãsä§

ty¡if éÂ vd¥gL«.

ä‹fhªj¤ ö©lš j¤Jt¤ij¥ ga‹gL¤Â

ÅLfŸ k‰W« bjhê‰ rhiyfë‹ ga‹gh£o‰fhd

ä‹rhu« jahç¡f¥gL»wJ. ä‹åa‰¿æš vªÂu M‰wš

ä‹dh‰wyhf kh‰w¥gL»wJ.

ne®¤Âir ä‹ndh£l¤ij (DC) cUth¡f ÏÂš

eGÎ tisa§fS¡F¥ gÂyhf ÃsÎg£l tisa¤ Âir

kh‰¿ ga‹gL¤j¥gL»wJ.

Âw‹ ÏH¥ò Ïšyhkš Xçl¤ÂèUªJ k‰nwh®

Ïl¤Â‰F ä‹ Âwid mD¥òtÂš ne®¤Âir

ä‹ndh£l¤ij él khW Âir ä‹ndh£l« cfªjjhF«.

cŸ neh¡»a vÂbuhë¡F« tisgu¥ò bfh©l

MofŸ Fê MofŸ vd¥gL«. btëneh¡»a

vÂbuhë¡F« tisgu¥ig¡ bfh©l MofŸ FéahofŸ

vd¥gL«.

,aw;gpay;


nfhsf Moæ‹ vÂbuhë¡F« gu¥Ã‹

ika¥òŸë Mo ika« vd¥gL«.

Mo vªj¡ nfhs¤Â‹ gFÂnah, mªj¡

nfhs¤Â‹ ika« Moæ‹ tisÎ ika« vd¥gL«. mJ

‘C’ v‹w vG¤jhš F¿¡f¥gL«.

nfhsf Mo vªj¡ nfhs¤Â‹ gFÂnah mj‹

Mu« Moæ‹ tisÎ Mu« vd¥gL«. mJ R v‹w

vG¤jhš F¿¡f¥gL«.

nfhsf Moæ‹, Mo ika« k‰W« tisÎ ika«

M»at‰¿‹ têna bršY« f‰gidahd ne®nfhL

Moæ‹ Kj‹ik m¢R vd¥gL«.

nfhsf MofS¡F tisÎ Mu« Féa¤öu¤Â‹

ÏU kl§fhF«. R = 2f

FêahofŸ bghJthf if és¡FfŸ, bjU

és¡FfŸ, thfd§fë‹ Kf¥ò és¡FfŸ M»at‰¿š

br¿Î ä¡f Ïiz¡fÂ®fis¥ bgWtj‰F«, Kf¤Â‹

bgçjh¡f¥g£l njh‰w¤ij¡ fh£L« rtu¡

f©zhoahfÎ«, gš kU¤Jt®fŸ nehahëfë‹

g‰fë‹ cU¥bgU¡f¥g£l njh‰w¤ij¡ fhzÎ«, Nça

mL¥òfëš xëia¡ Fé¤J, bt¥g¤ij c©lh¡fÎ«

ga‹gL»‹wd.

Féaho, thfd§fë‹ g¡fth£oš bghU¤j¥

g£L, Ã‹dhš tU« thfd§fis¥ gh®¥gj‰fhd

f©zhoahf¥ ga‹gL»wJ. ghJfh¥ghd gaz¤ij

cWÂ brŒ»wJ. bghUë‹ neuhd Ã«g¤ij cUth¡F«.

bghUë‹ KG cUt¤ijÍ« gh®¡fyh«.

xë CLUÎ« xU Clf¤ÂèUªJ k‰bwhU

Clf¤ÂDŸ bršY«nghJ mj‹ Âir khW« ãfœÎ

xëéyfš vd¥gL«.

xë bt‰¿l¤Âš 3 x 108 ms

-1 v‹w

bgUk¤Âirntf¤Âš bršY«.

Ã«g¤Â‹ msÎ¡F« bghUë‹ msÎ¡F« cŸs

jfÎ by‹Á‹ cUbgU¡f« vd¥gL«.

by‹Á‹ Féa¤bjhiyé‹ jiyÑê mj‹

Âw‹ vd tiuaW¡f¥gL«.

by‹Á‹ Âw‹ 1 ilah¥l® MF«.

Át¥ò t©z xë äf¡Fiwªj msÎ«, Cjh

t©z xë äf mÂf msÎ« éyfyilÍ«.

é©Û‹fŸ ä‹Djš bgça mséyhd

tëk©ly xëéyfyhš njh‹WtjhF«.

éê¡nfhs« Vw¤jhH 2.3 brÛ é£lKila

nfhstot mik¥ig¡ bfh©lJ.

iknahÃah v‹gJ »£l¥gh®it vd¥gL«.

Ï¡FiwghLŸs xUt® mU»š cŸs bghUŸfis¤

bjëthf¥ gh®¡f KoÍ«. bjhiyéš cŸs

bghUŸfis¤ bjëthf¥gh®¡f KoahJ.

»£l¥gh®it cilatç‹ f©âš bjhiy

bghUë‹ Ã«g« éê¤Âiu¡F K‹ghfnt

njh‹Wé¡f¥gL»wJ. éê¤Âiuæš

njh‰Wé¡f¥gLtÂšiy

éêby‹Á‹ mÂf¥goahd tisÎ, éê¡nfhs«

ÚŸtJ ngh‹wit »£l¥gh®it FiwghL

njh‹Wtj‰fhd fhuz§fŸ

»£l¥gh®itia jFªj ÂwDila Fêby‹ir

cgnah»¤J¢ rçbrOEayh«.

iAg®bk£nuhÃah v‹gJ öu¥gh®it vd¥gL«.

öu¥gh®itÍila xUt® bjhiyéš cŸs

bghUŸffs¤ bjëthf¡ fhz ÏaY«. m©ikæYŸs

bghUŸfis¤ bjëthf¡ fhzKoahJ.

v£l¥gh®it cilatç‹ f©âš mU»YŸs

bghUëèUªJ tU« xë¡fÂ®fŸ

éê¤Âiu¡F¥Ã‹dhš Féa¥gL¤j¥gL»wJ.

éêby‹Á‹ Féa¤bjhiyÎ Ú©oU¤jš,

éê¡nfhs« Á¿ajhtJ ngh‹wit v£l¥gh®it

FiwghL njh‹Wtj‰fhd fhuz§fŸ

v£l¥gh®itia jFªj ÂwDila Féby‹ir¥

ga‹gL¤Â Ï¡Fiwia¢ rç brOEayh«.

Áy neu§fëš xUt® »£l¥gh®it, öu¥gh®it

Ïu©lhY« ghÂ¡f¥glyh«. m¤jifat®fS¡F

ÏUFéa¡ f©zhofŸ njit¥gL»wJ.

A¥òŸ bjhiyneh¡» xU th‹ bjhiy

neh¡»ahF«. v£é‹ A¥òŸ v‹w mbkç¡f

thdhŒths® bga® Ïj‰F¢ N£l¥g£lJ.

1990M« M©L V¥uš khj« mj‹

R‰W¥ghijæš brY¤j¥g£lJ.

1993M« M©L Kjš 2002M« M©Ltiu

eh‹F Kiw guhkç¥ò¥gâfŸ nk‰bfhŸs¥g£lJ.

Ï¤bjhiy neh¡» 2014M« M©Ltiu

brašgL« vd vÂ®gh®¡f¥gL»wJ.

rªÂuha‹ I-‹ rhjidfëš Áy

ãyé‹ k©âš Ú® _Y¡TWfŸ mÂf gu¥Ãš

guéæU¥gij¡ f©l¿ªjJ.

rªÂuhaå‹ fåk tiu fUé(Moon minerology

Mapper), ãyÎ K‰fhy¤Âš K‰¿Y« cU»a

ãiyæèUªjij cWÂ brŒ»wJ.

Inuh¥Ãa é©btë ika¤Â‹ ga‹Rik -

rªÂuha‹ I glkh¡F« X-fÂ® (CXIS) ãwkhiykhå,

24¡F« nk‰g£l tèik F‹¿a Nça xë¥òašfis¥

gÂÎ brŒjJ.

75 eh£fëš rªÂuha‹ òif¥gl¡ fUé

40,000¡F« nk‰g£l gl§fis¥ òé¡F mD¥ÃaJ.

Âut ie£u#‹, Âut Ëèa« ngh‹wit gy Fëç

ga‹ghLfëš K¡»akhdjhF«. éÂfë‹go

ehLfëilna bgw ÏaYtJ«, Fëç¤ bjhêš E£g¤Âš

mÂf« ga‹gLtJ« Âut ie£u#‹ MF«. Âut Ëèa«

äf¡ Fiwªj bt¥gãiyia¥ bgw¥ bghJthf¥

ga‹gL¤j¥gL»wJ. 6 mo cauK« 3 mo é£lK«

bfh©l Âth® FLitfëš Ï¤Âut§fŸ

it¡f¥gL»‹wd.

Ïu©lh« cyf¥nghç‹ nghJ Fëçaš Jiw

ts®¢ÁailªjJ. m¿éayhs®fŸ äfÎ« Fë%£l¥g£l

cnyhf§fë‹ cWÂ¤j‹ik mÂfç¥gij¡

f©l¿ªjd®. ÏJ Fëç tY¥gL¤Jjš vd¥gL«. v£ò°

v‹gtuhš 1966M« M©L thâg ßÂæš brašgL«

Fëç¤ bjhê‰rhiy cUth¡f¥g£L cy»‹ gHikahd

Fëç ãWtdkhf kh¿aJ.

Âut ie£u#‹ ngh‹w FëçfŸ, Fë®é¡F«

k‰W« ciwa¢ brŒÍ« ga‹ghLfëš ga‹gL»‹wd.

tèikahd fhªj¥òy« Âut Ëèa¤ÂDŸ

it¡f¥g£l Û¡fl¤J f«Ã¢RUŸfis¥ ga‹gL¤Â

cUth¡f¥gL«.

,aw;gpay;


eÅd é©btë ãiya§fŸ, é©btëæš Áy

thu§fŸ mšyJ Áy khj§fŸ mšyJ Áy tUl§fŸ

j§» MŒÎ¥gâfŸ nk‰bfhŸtj‰fhf

totik¡f¥g£lit. mšnk{, ršô£ tçir, °ifny¥,

ä® ngh‹wit Ï›tif é©btë ãiya§fshF«.

uhQt« ga‹gL¤Âa filÁ é©btë ãiya«

ršô£ 5 MF«. ÏJ 1976 k‰W« 1977 « M©oš nrhéa¤

FoauÁ‹ mšnk{ Â£l¤Â‹go ga‹gL¤j¥g£lJ.

é©btë ãiya§fŸ bghJthf ÏUtif¥gL«.

ršô£ °ifny¥ M»ait x‰iw mL¡F tifahF«.

Ïit Kjèš Vt¥g£L Ã‹ é©btë MŒthsuhš

têel¤j¥gL«.

ršô£ 6, k‰W« ršô£ 7 M»ait Áy

kh‰w§fis cŸsl¡» ÏU mL¡FKiwæš

cUth¡f¥g£ld. ÏJ, Ïu©lhtJ é©btë MŒths®

òÂa é©fy« _y« mjid¢ br‹wiltj‰F«

bghUŸfis¡ bfh©L nr®¡fÎ« têtF¤jJ.

°ifny¥ Ïu£il mL¡F tifia¢ rh®ªjJ.

Ïu©lh« mL¡F Ú©l fhy MŒÎ¡F« têtF¡F«.

Ïu©lh« tifia¢ rh®ªj ä®, k‰W« g‹dh£L

é©btë ãiya«( International space Station-ISS)

M»ait jåahf Kjèš Vt¥g£L, njitahd gFÂfŸ

go¥goahf mjDl‹ Ïiz¡f¥g£lJ.

oah§fhŒ-I v‹w é©btë ãiya¤ij 2011-

M« M©o‹ Jt¡f¤Âš Ódh Vt cŸsJ. mj‹Ã‹

cy»š é©btë ãiya¤ij Véa ehLfëš

_‹whtjhf Ódh mikÍ«.

kÂ¥ÕL

gFÂ - m

1. xU bghUë‹ KL¡f¤Â‰F¡ fhuz«

________________.

(rk‹ brŒa¥g£l éir, rk‹ brŒa¥glhj éir,

ãiyä‹åaš éir)

2. cªj khWgh£L Åj¤Â‰F¢ rkkhd Ïa‰Ãaš

msÎ ________________.

(Ïl¥bga®¢Á, KL¡f«, éir, fz¤jh¡Féir)

3. XŒÎ ãiyæYŸs fdkhd bghUë‹ cªj«

________________.

(äf mÂf«, äf¡ FiwÎ, Rê, Koéè)

4. òé¥gu¥Ãš 50 ».». ãiwÍŸs kåjå‹ vil

________________.

(50 N, 35 N, 380 N, 490 N)

5. cæç bjhêšE£g CÁ kUªJfis¡ Fëu¢

brOEÍ« Fëç bjhêšE£g mik¥òfŸ _____________.

(Ëèa«, ie£u#‹, m«nkhåah, Fnshç‹)

fz;Lgpbj;jth;fs; Gtp <h;g;G tpir> ,af;f tpjpfs; - Irf; epa+l;ld; rhh;gpay; jj;Jtk;> xsp kpd; tpisT – Id;];Bd; njhiy Nehf;fp> tpahodpd; Jizf; Nfhs;fs; -

fypypNah fypyp Nfhs; ,af;f tpjpfs; - N[hfd; nfg;sh; mZ cl;fU (Atomic Nucleus) - &jh;/Nghh;l; mZf; fUf;nfhs;if (Atomic Theory) – [hd;

lhy;ld; vyf;l;uhd;(Electron)-n[.n[. jhk;]d; GNuhl;lhd;(Proton)- Nfhy;];Bd; epA+l;uhd; (Neutron) – rhl;tpf; kpjj;jy; tpjpfs; - Mh;f;fpkpb]; kpd;fhe;jj; J}z;ly; - ikf;Nfy; /ghuNl

,bjhq;fp – ngQ;rkpd; /g;uhq;fpspd; mZitg; gpsj;jy; - Ml;Nlh`hd;> ];l;uh];Nkd; Ftp> Fop fz;zhb (bifocal lens) – ypadhh;Nlh

lhtpd;]p nraw;iff; fjphpaf;fk;(Artificial Radio Activity)-

n`d;wp ngf;nfhuy; kpd;fhe;j miyfs; (Electromagnetic Waves)-

N[k;]; fpshh;f; khf;];nty; Fthz;lk; nfhs;if – khf;]; g;shq;f;

mZTk; fjphpaf;fKk; mZtpd; cl;fUtpypUe;J mjpf Mw;wYs;s

mZj; Jfs;fSk; fjph;fSk; ntspg;gLtNj fjphpaf;fk;.

cyfpYs;s 2>300 mZf;fspy; Rkhh; 2000-f;F Nkw;gl;lit fjphpaf;fk; nfhz;lit

,aw;if fjphpaf;fj;ij gpuhd;]; ehl;ilr; Nrh;e;j n`d;wp ngf;Nfhuy; vd;w tpQ;Qhdp 1896-y; fz;lwpe;jhh;

n`d;wp ngf;Nfhuy; ANudpak; jdpkj;jpd; fjphpaf;fj;ijf; fz;lwpe;jhh;

fjphpaf;fj; jdpkq;fshd ANudpak;> Nghyhdpak; Mfpatw;iw Nklk; fpa+hp fz;lwpe;jhh;.

mZ vz; 82-f;F Nkw;gl;l jdpkq;fs; fjphpaf;fk; nfhz;lit

82-f;Ff; Fiwthd mZ vz; nfhz;l 9 vspa jdpkq;fspd; IN]hNlhg;GfSk; fjphpaf;fj;ij ntspapLfpd;wd

fjphpaf;fk; nfhz;l vspa jdpk IN]hNlhg;Gfspy; Fwpg;gplj;jf;fit 14-C6

(fhh;gd;) kw;Wk; 40-K 19 (nghl;lhrpak;) IN]hNlhg;G vd;gJ xj;j mZ vz;Zk;

NtWgl;l mZ vilAk; nfhz;l jdpkj;jpd; khWgl;l tbtq;fs;

Vohk; thpir jdpkq;fspy; ,aw;ifapy; fpilf;Fk; 5 jdpkq;fs;@ Nubak;> Mf;bdpak;> Njhhpak;> Guf;bdpak; kw;Wk; ANudpak;

fjphpaf;fg; nghUspd; miu Mas; fhyk; (half life period) vd;gJ me;jg; nghUspd; nrwpT ghjpahf Fiwtjw;F MFk; fhyk;

fh];kpf; fjph;fspYs;s epa+l;uhd;fs; tspkz;ly iel;u[id Nrjg;gLj;Jtjhy; 14C6 IN]hNlhg; cUthfpwJ.

fjphpaf;f jdpkq;fs; ‘My;gh’ fjph;fis ckpo;fpd;wd

My;gh fjph;fisf; fz;lwpe;jth; n`d;wp ngf;Nfhuy;.

gPl;lh fjph;fisf; fz;lwpe;jth; vh;d];l; &jh;/Nghh;l;

fhkh fjph;fisf; fz;lwpe;jth; gpa+hp fpa+hp fjphpaf;fj;jpd;NghJ α>β>¥ fjph;fs;

ntspaplg;gLfpd;wd. α fjph;fs; rpq;f; ry;igL> Nghpak; gpshl;bNdh

raidl; Nghd;w Ntjpg; nghUl;fis xspur; nra;fpd;wd

α fjph;fs; `Pypak; mZtpd; cl;fUit xj;jit

ve;j xU fjphpaf;fg; nghUSk; α,β fjph;fis xNu rkaj;jpy; ckpo;tjpy;iy.

rpy fjphpaf;fg; nghUl;fs; α fjph;fisak; NtW rpy nghUl;fs; β fjph;fisAk; ckpo;fpd;wd

α fjph;> β my;yJ ¥ fjpNuhL Nrh;j;J ckpog;gLfpwJ.

,aw;gpay;


α kw;Wk; β fjph;fs; fhe;j kw;Wk; kpd;Gyq;fspy; tpyf;fg;gLfpd;wd

¥ fjph; fhe;j kpd;Gyq;fspy; tpyf;fkiltjpy;iy

α fjph;fs; Neh; kpd; RikAlDk;> β fjph;fs; vjph; kpd; RikAlDk;> ¥ fjph;fs; kpd; Rikaw;Wk; fhzg;gLfpd;wd

¥ fjph;fs; kpf mjpf CLUTk; jd;ik nfhz;lit

α fjph;fs; mjpf mahdpahf;Fk; jpwd; nfhz;lit

β fjph;fs; vyf;l;uhid xj;jit α,β fjph;fs; nraw;if fjphpaf;fj;ijj;

J}z;l ty;yit α fjph;fs; GNuhl;lhid Nghy; 2 klq;F Neh;

kpd; RikiaAk;> 4 klq;F mlh;j;jpiaAk; nfhz;lit.

md;whl mwptpay;

flw;fiu kzypy; elf;f rpukkhf ,Uf;ff; fhuzk;> kzypd; Fiwe;j cuha;T tpir (Friction)

jhtuq;fs; ePiu cwpQ;rf; fhuzk; Ez;Giof; fth;r;rp (Capillarity)

tpsf;Fj; jphpapy; vz;iza; Vwf; fhuzk; Ez;Giof; fth;r;rp

gpshl;bq; Ngg;gh; ikia cwpQ;RtJ Ez;Giof; fth;r;rp

JzpapypUe;J mOf;if Nrhg;G mfw;wf; fhuzk; - gug;G ,O tpir (Surface Tension)

ePh;j; Jspapd; Nfhs tbTf;F fhuzk; - gug;G ,O tpir

ghy; ghapd;l; Ngdh nray;glf; fhuzk; - gug;G ,O tpirAk;> Ez;Giof; fth;r;rpAk;

mOj;jk; mjpfhpj;jhy; ePhpd; nfhjp epiy mjpfhpf;Fk; vd;Dk; jj;Jtj;jpy; ,aq;FtJ gpu\h; Ff;fh;.

kiyg; gpuNjrj;jpy; mOj;jk; Fiwtjhy; ePhpd; nfhjp epiy Fiwe;J czT Ntf jhkjkhfpwJ.

ePhpd; nfhjp epiy ePyfphp kiyapy; 94°C MfTk;> gpu\h; Ff;fhpy; 120°C MfTk; ,Uf;Fk;

ghjurj;jpd; Ra %yf;$W fth;r;rp> ntsp %yf;$W fth;r;rpiatpl mjpfk; vd;gjhy;> ghjurk; fz;zhbapy; xl;Ltjpy;iy

kz; ghidapy; ePh; Fsph;e;jpUf;ff; fhuzk; ghid Ez;Jisfs; topNa ePh; njhlh;e;J MtpahtNj

vz;nza;> ePiug; Nghy ghAk; jd;ik (Fluidity) mjpfkpd;wp totog;ghf ,Uf;ff; fhuzk; mjpf ghF epiy (Viscosity)

ghF epiy mjpfKs;sjhy;> ,ae;jpuq;fspy; cuha;itf; Fiwf;Fk; caTg; nghUshf (Lubricant) vz;nza; gad;gLfpwJ.

thdtpy; Vw;glf; fhuzk; xspg; gphpif (Dispersion of light)

thdk; ePykhfj; njaf; fhuzk; miy ePsk; Fiwe;j ePy epwk;> fhw;wpd; %yf;$Wfshy; mjpfk; rpjwbf;fg;gLfpwJ.

njhLthdk; (Horizon) rptg;ghfj; njhpaf; fhuzk;> miy ePsk; mjpfKs;s rptg;igf; jtpu> gpw epwq;fs; midj;Jk; rpjwbf;fg;gLfpwJ.

ePhpy; Ko;fpAs;s Fr;rp tise;jJ Nghy; njhpaf; fhuzk;> xsp tpyfy;

thdpy; el;rj;jpuq;fs; kpd;df; fhuzk;> xsp tpyfy;

ituk; kpd;Dtjw;Fk;> fhdy; ePh; njhptjw;Fk; fhuzk;> KO mf vjpnuhspg;G (Total Internal

Reflection)

fz;zhb xsp ,iofspy; KO mf vjpnuhspg;G mjpfk; cs;sjhy; mit jfty; njhopy;El;gj;jpy; gad;gLfpd;wd.

xw;iw epw xspf; fw;iwfis (Monochromatised

light) cUthf;fg; gad;gLtJ Nyrh; LASER: Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission

of Radiation Nghyuha;l; fhkpuhtpd; nray;ghl;Lj; jj;Jtk; -

xspapd; js tpisT (Polarisation of Light) kpd;dYf;Fg; gpd; ,bNahir Nfl;ff; fhuzk; -

xypapd; Ntfj;ijtpl xspapd; Ntfk; mjpfk;. ghu#l;> Gtp <h;g;G tpirf;F vjpuhf

nray;gLtjhNyNa ghu#l;by; nkJthf jiuapwq;f KbfpwJ.

Mw;W ePiutpl fly; ePhpy; mlh;j;jp mjpfk; ,Ug;gjhy;> flypy; vspjhf ePe;j KbfpwJ.

RLePh; Cw;wg;gl;l fz;zhb lk;shpd; cs;> ntsp mLf;Ffs; ntt;NtW Ntfj;jpy; tphptiltjhy; mJ tphpry; milfpwJ.

rptg;G epw xspf;F miy ePsk; mjpfk; ,Ug;gjhy; mJ Nghf;Ftuj;J rpf;dypy; gad;gLfpwJ.

#hpa xspapy; VO epwq;fs; ,Ug;gijf; fz;lwpe;jth;: Irf; epa+l;ld;

xspr; rpjwy; gw;wpa rh; rp.tp. uhkdpd; fz;Lgpbg;Gf;F uhkd; tpisT vd;W ngah;.

tpjpfs;

ePhpay; mOj;j gk;G (hydraulic pressure pump) gh];fy; tpjpapd; mbg;gilapy; ,aq;FfpwJ.

epa+l;ldpd; Kjy; tpjp epiyk my;yJ rlj;Jt tpjp vdg;gLk;

Gw tpir VJk; nray;glhj tiuapy; ,aq;Fk; nghUs; njhlh;e;J ,aq;fpf; nfhz;Lk;> epiyahd nghUs; njhlh;e;J epiyahf ,Uf;Fk; vd;gNj Kjy; tpjp.

Nghh;itia cjw> J}rp gwg;gJ epa+l;ldpd; Kjy; tpjpf;Fr; rhd;W

fy; vwpe;J> kuj;jpypUe;J khq;fhia tPo;j;Jtij Kjy; tpjpg;gb tpsf;fyhk;

XLk; NghJ jpBnud epWj;jg;gLk;NghJ Kd; rPl;by; ,Ug;gth; epiy jLkhwp Kd;Gwk; rha;tij Kjy; tpjpg;gb tpsf;fyhk;

epa+l;ldpd; ,uz;lhtJ tpjpg;gb xU nghUs; kPJ nray;gLk; tpir mjd; epiw kw;Wk; KLf;fk; Mfpatw;Wf;F Neh;tpfpjj;jpy; ,Uf;Fk;

nehpryhd njU xd;wpy; thfdk; Xl;Lk;NghJ mjpf ngl;Nuhy; nrythtij epa+l;ldpd; ,uz;lhk; tpjpg;gb tpsf;fyhk;

xt;nthU tpirf;Fk;> rkkhd> mjd; vjph;jpirapy; nray;gLk; tpir xd;W cz;L vd;gNj epa+l;ldpd; %d;whk; tpjpiaf; nfhz;L tpsf;fyhk;

fg;gy; kpjg;gij tpsf;FtJ Mh;f;fpkpb]; Nfhl;ghL.

tpkhdk; Gwg;gLtij tpsf;FtJ ngh;Ndhypapd; jj;Jtk;

Giftz;b ek;ik tpl;L tpyfpr; nry;Yk;NghJ> mjd; xyp RUjp FiwtJ Nghy; Njhd;WtNj lhg;sh; tpisT

/ghuNl tpjpfs;> nyd;]; tpjp kw;Wk; /gpskpq;fpd; tyJ if tpjp Mfpad kpd;fhe;jj; J}z;ly; gw;wpait

/gpskpq;fpd; ,lJ if tpjp kpd;Ndhl;lj;jpd; ,ae;jpu tpisT gw;wpaJ

Mk;gpah; ePr;ry; tpjpAk;> khf;];nty; jpUF tpjpAk; kpd;Ndhl;lj;jpd; fhe;j tpisT gw;wpait

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kpd;Ndhl;lj;jpd; ntg;g tpisT> [_y; ntg;g tpisT tpjpahy; tpsf;fg;gl;lJ.

/ghuNlapd; kpd;dhw;wy; gFg;G tpjpfs;> kpd;Ndhl;lj;jpd; Ntjpapay; tpisit tpsf;Ffpd;wd

kpd;Ndhl;lj;Jf;Fk; kpd; mOj;j NtWghl;Lf;Fk; cs;s njhlh;ig tpsf;FtJ Xk;.

UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

QUANTITY UNIT (SI) Length Metre, mil Time Second Mass Kilogram/ownice Area Square metre Volume Cubic metre Velocity Metre/second Acceleration Metre/second square Density Kilogram metre/cube Momentum Kilogram metre/second Work Joule Energy Joule Force Newton Pressure Pascal or Newton / sq.mtre Frequency Hertz Power Watt Weight Newton or Kilogram Impulse Newton-second Angular Velocity Radian/second Viscosity Poise Surface tension Newton/square metre Heat Joule Temperature Kelvin Absolute temperature Kelvin Resistance Ohm Electric current Ampere Electromotive force Volt Electrical conductivity Ohm/metre Electric energy Kilo watt hour Electric power Kilo watt or watt Magnetic intensity Orsted Charge Coulomb Magnetic induction Gauss Luminous flux Candela Intensity of sound Decibel Power of lens Dioptre Depth of sea Fathom Luminous velocity candela Loudness Phon Volume / Capacity Gallon Electric charge Coloumb horse power 747.7 watts Parsec Astronomical unit of distance IMPORTANT SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS Instrument Use Altimeter It measure altitude and is used in aircrafts Ammeter It measures strength of electric current (in amperes) Anemometer It measures force and velocity of wind Audiometer It measures intensity of sound. Audiophone It is used for improving imperfect sense of hearing

Barograph It is used for continuous recording of atmospheric pressure.

Barometer It measures atmospheric pressure. Binocular It is used to view distant objects Bolometer It measures heat radiation Calorimeter It measures quantity of heat. Carburettor It is used in an internal combustion

engine for charging air with petrol vapour.

Cardiogram It traces movements of the heart, recorded on a cardiograph.

Chronometer it determines longitude of a place kept onboard ship.

Cinematography It is an instrument used in cinema making to throw on screen and enlarged image of photograph.

Crescograph It measures the growth in plants. Cyclotron A charged particle accelerator which can

accelerate charged particles to high energies.

Dynamo converts mechanical energy into electrical energy Dynamometer It measures electrical power. Electrometer It measures electricity Electroscope It detects presence of an electric charge. Endoscope It examines internal parts of the body. Eudiometer A glass tube for measuring volume

changes in chemical reactions between gases.

Actinometer measures intensity of electromagnetic radiation.

Altazimuth measures altitude & azimuth of celestial bodies.

Cryometer measures low temp. Pyrometer measures very high temp. Daisy meter determines density of gas plato meter measures changes in volume of substances Geiger Muller counter – detection of radioactive radiations. Fathometer It measures the depth of the ocean Galvanometer It measures the electric current of low

magnitude. Hydrometer It measures the specific gravity of liquids. Hygrometer it measures humidity in air. Hypsometer measures boiling point of liquids. Hydrophone It measures sound under water. Kymograph It graphically records physiological

movements (Blood pressure & heart beat)

Lactometer It determines the purity of milk. Manometer It measures the pressure of gases. Mariner’s compass It is an instrument used by the sailors to

determine the direction. Microphone It converts the sound waves into

electrical vibrations and to magnify the sound.

Microscope it is used to obtain magnified view of small objects.

Odometer An instrument by which the distance covered by wheeled vehicles is measured

Ohmmeter measures electrical resistance. Phonograph An instrument for producing sound.

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Photometer The instrument compares the luminous intensity of the source of light.

Periscope It is used to view objects above sea level (used in sub-marines)

Potentiometer It is used for comparing electromotive force of cells.

Pyrometer It measures very high temperature. Radar It is used for detecting the direction and

range of an approaching plane by means of radio microwaves.

Rain Gauge An apparatus for recording rainfall at a particular place.

Radiometer It measures the emission of radiant energy Refractometer It measures refractive index. Saccharimeter measures the amount of sugar in solution. Seismograph measures the intensity of earthquake

shocks. Salinometer It determines salinity of solution. Sextant This is used by navigators to find the

latitude of a place by measuring the elevation above the horizon of the sun or another star.

Spectrometer It is instrument for measuring the energy distribution of a particular type of radiation.

Speedometer to record its speed. Sphygmomanometer It measures blood pressure. Spherometer It measures the curvatures of surfaces Stereoscope It is used to view two dimensional pictures. Stethoscope An instrument which is used by the

doctors to hear and analyse heart and lung sounds.

Straboscope it is used to view rapidly moving objects. Tachometer An instrument used in measuring speeds

of aeroplanes and mot boats. Teleprinter This instrument receives and sends typed

messages from one place to another. Telescope It views distant objects in space. Theodolite It measures horizontal and vertical angles. Thermometer This instrument is used for the measurement Thermostat It regulates the temperature at a

particular point. Viscometer It measures the viscosity of liquids. venturimeter It measures rate of flow of fluids. Voltmeter It measures the electric potential

difference between two points. Waltmeter it measures the power of an electrical circuit. Nephelometer measures the scattering of light by

particles suspended in a liquid. Rectifier device for converting AC into DC Thermopile for detecting & measuring heat radiations Electro dynamometer – measures current, voltage / power in

both DC & AC circuit. Beckmann thermometer – measures small changes in

temp.(small as 0.01) Scientific Explanations of Common Phenomena

Carbon monoxide is poisonous. The filament of an electric bulb is made of tungsten. A wick in a stove keeps burning continuously capillary action. The sky appears blue because the light of the Sun is spread or scattered by the dust particles in the air. Food cooks faster at high temperature. A man weighs more at the poles than at the equator because the polar radius of the Earth is less than the equatorial radius. Hence the gravitational pull is more at the poles that at the equator. The boiling point of sea water will be more than the boiling point of pure water. Soft iron is used as an electromagnet because it remains a magnet only while the current passes through the coil around it. An electric bulb makes a bang when it is broken because there is a vacuum inside the electric bulb. The rushing of air produces a noise generally referred to as the ‘bang’. The launching of Earth satellite should be from a place near the equator to take the fullest advantage of the Earth’s movements. The regions of the Earth closer to the equator are moving faster through space as compared to regions elsewhere. In deserts, day temperatures are very high and night temperatures are extremely low because the specific heat of sand is very low. The air escaping from a punctured tyre feels cold because the air escaping from a punctured tyre enters a region of low pressure and thus suffers a fall in temperature. It is hotter on a cloudy night that on a clear night because clouds prevent the heat radiated by the Earth from escaping into the sky. Ice wrapped in a blanket does not melt away quickly because woollen blanket is a bad conductor of heat. Steam causes more severe burns than boiling water because stem at the same temperature has more latent heat. We experience difficulty in breathing on mountains because the pressure of the air outside is less as compared to the pressure of air inside the lungs. When a gun is fired at a visible distance, the sound is heard a little after the smoke is seen because the velocity of light is much higher than that of sound.

Invention Year Inventor Country Acetylene gas 1862 Berthelot France Adding machine 1642 Pascal France Adhesive tape, (Scotch)

1930 Richard Drew U.S.A.

Aeroplane 1903 Orville & Wilbur Wright

U.S.A.

Air conditioning 1902 Carrier U.S.A. Airplane, (Jet engine)

1939 Ohain Germany

Airship (Non-rigid)

1852 Henri Giffard France

Aerosol spray 1926 Erik Rotheim Norway Artificial heart 1957 Willem Kolff Netherla

nds Atomic bomb 1945 J. Robert

Oppenheimer U.S.A.

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Atomic numbers 1913 Moseley Britain Atomic theory 1803 Dalton Britain Automatic rifle 1918 John Browning U.S.A. Bakelite 1907 Leo H. Baekeland Belgium Ballistic missile 1944 Wernher von

Braun Germany

Balloon 1783 Jacques & Joseph Montgolfier

France

Ball-point pen 1888 John J Loud U.S.A. Barometer 1644 Evangelista

Torricelli Italy

Battery (electric) 1800 Alessandro Volta Italy Bicycle 1839-

40 Kirkpatrick Macmillan

Britain

Bicycle tyres (Pneumatic)

1888 John Boyd Dunlop

Britain

Bifocal lens 1780 Benjamin Franklin

U.S.A.

Bleaching powder 1798 Tennant Britain Bunsen burner 1855 R. Willhelm von

Bunsen Germany

Burglar alarm 1858 Edwin T. Homes U.S.A. Calculus 1670 Newton Britain Camera (Kodak) 1888 Walker Eastman U.S.A. Canned food 1804 Appert France Car (steam) 1769 Nicolas Cugnot France Car (petrol) 1888 Karl Benz Germany Carburetor 1876 Gottlieb Daimler Germany Cassette, (Audio) 1963 Philips Co Holland Cassette (Videotape)

1969 Sony Japan

Celluloid 1861 Alexander Parkes Britain Cement (Portland) 1824 Joseph Aspdin Britain Chemotherapy 1909 Ehrlich Germany Chronometer 1735 John Harrison Britain Cinema 1895 Nicolas & Jean

Lumiere France

Clock (Mechanical)

1725 I-Hsing & Liang Ling – Tsan

China

Clock (Pendulum) 1656 Christian Huygens

Netherlands

Cloning, (DNA) 1973 Boyer, Cohen U.S.A. Cloning (Mammal)

1996 Wilmut, et al U.K.

Compact disc 1972 RCA U.S.A. Compact disc player

1979 Sony, Philips Japan, Netherlands

Computer, (Laptop)

1987 Sinclair Britain

Computer (Mini) 1960 Digital Corp. U.S.A. Crossword puzzle 1913 Arthur Wynne U.S.A. CT scan 1973 Hounsfield Britain Diesel Engine 1895 Rudolf Diesel Germany Disc broke 1902 Dr. F. Lanchester Britain Disc, (Video) 1972 Philips Co. Holland DNA, (Structure) 1951 Crick-UK, Watson

–US, Wilkins- UK U.K. / U.S.

Dynamo 1832 Hypolite Pixli France Electric flat iron 1882 H. W. Seeley U.S.A. Electric lamp 1879 Thomas Alva

Edison U.S.A.

Electric motor (DC)

1873 Zenobe Gramme Belgium

Electric motor (AC)

1888 Nikola Tesla U.S.A.

Electric iron 1882 Henry W. Seely U.S.A. Electric washing machine

1906 Alva J Fisher U.S.A.

Electro-magnet 1824 William Sturgeon Britain

Electron 1897 Thomson J Britain Electroplating 1805 Luigi Brugnatelli Italy Electronic computer

1824 Dr. Alan M Turing

Britain

Facsimile machine 1843 Alexander Bain Britain Fibre optics 1955 Kepany Britain Film (Moving outlines)

1885 Louis Prince France

Film (Talking) 1922 J. Engl, J. Mussolle & H. Vogt

Germany

Film (Musical sound)

1923 Dr Le de Forest U.S.A.

Floppy disk 1970 IBM U.S.A. Frequency Modulation (FM)

1933 E.H. Armstrong U.S.A.

Frisbee 1948 Fred Morrisson U.S.A. Fountain pen 1884 Lewis E.

Waterman U.S.A.

Galvanometer 1834 Andre-Marie Ampere

France

Glider 1853 Sir George Cayley Britain Gramophone 1878 Thomas Alva

Edison U.S.A.

Helicopter 1924 Etienne Oehmichen

France

HIV 1984 Martagnier French Holography 1947 Denis Gason Britain Hydrogen bomb 1952 Edward Teller U.S.A. Intelligence testing

1905 Simon Binet French

Jet Engine 1937 Sir Frank Whittle Britain Laser 1960 Theodore

Maiman U.S.A.

Launderette 1934 J.F. Cantrell U.S.A. Lift (Mechanical) 1852 Elisha G. Otis U.S.A. Lighting conductor

1752 Benjamin Franklin

U.S.A.

Locomotive 1804 Richard Trevithick

Britain

Logarithms 1614 Napier Britain Loom, (power) 1785 E. Cartwright Britain Loudspeaker 1900 Horace Short Britain Machine gun 1718 Richard Gatling Britain Magnetic recording tape

1928 Fritz Pfleumer Germany

Match, (safety) 1826 John Walker Britain Microphone 1876 Alexander

Graham Bell U.S.A.

Microprocessor 1971 Robert Noyce & Gordon Moore

U.S.A.

Microscope (Comp)

1590 Z. Janssen Nether lands

Microscope (Elect) 1931 Ruska knoll Germany Microwave oven 1947 Percy LeBaron

Spencer U.S.A.

Motor cycle 1885 G. Daimler Germany Movie projector 1893 Thomas Edison U.S.A. MRI 1971 Damadian U.S.A. Neon lamp 1910 Georges Claude France Neutron 1932 Chadwick Britain Neutron bomb 1958 Samuel Cohen U.S.A. Nylon 1937 Dr. Wallace H.

Carothers U.S.A.

Optical fibre 1955 Narinder Kapany Germany Paper A.D.1

05 China

Pacemaker 1952 Zoll U.S.A. Pasteurization 1867 Louis Pasteur France Pencil 1792 Lacques-Nicolas France

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Conte Periodic table 1869 Mendeleyev Russia Photocopier 1938 Carlson U.S.A. Photoelectric cell 1893 Julius Elster,

Hans F Geitel Germany

Photo film, (celluloid)

1893 Reichenbach U.S.A.

Photo film, (Transparent)

1884 Goodwin Eastman

U.S.A.

Photography (On metal)

1826 J.N. Niepce France

Photography (On paper)

1835 W.H. Fox Talbot Britain

Photography (On film)

1888 John Carbutt U.S.A.

Piano 1709 Cristofori Italy Pistol, revolver 1836 Colt U.S.A. Plutonium fission 1940 Kennedy, Whal,

Seaborg, Segre U.S.A.

Pop-up toaster 1927 Charles Strite U.S.A. Printing Press 1455 Johann

Gutenberg Germany

Printing (Rotary) 1846 Richard Hoe U.S.A. Printing (Web) 1865 William bullock U.S.A. Proton 1919 Rutherford N.

Zealand Quantum theory 1900 Plank Germany Radar 1922 A.H. Taylor & Leo

C. Young U.S.A.

Radiocarbon dating

1947 Libby U.S.A.

Radio telegraphy 1864 Dr. Mohlon Loomis

U.S.A.

Radio telegraphy (Trans Atlantic Rayon)

1901 1883

G. Marconi Sir Joseph Swan

Italy Britain

Razor (Electric) 1931 Col. Jacob Schick U.S.A. Razor (Safety) 1895 King C. Gillette U.S.A. Refrigerator 1850 James Harrison,

Alexander catlin U.S.A.

Relativity theory 1905 Einstein Germany Rubber (Latex foam)

1928 Dunlop Rubber Co

Britain

Rubber (Tyres) 1846 Thomas Hancock Britain Rubber (Vulcanised)

1841 Charles Goodyear U.S.A.

Rubber (Waterproof)

1823 Charles Macintosh

Britain

Safety pin 1849 Walter Hunt U.S.A. Safety razor 1903 King Camp

Gillette U.S.A.

Seat belt 1959 Volvo Sweden Self-starter 1911 Charles F.

Kettering U.S.A.

Ship (Steam) 1775 I.C. Perier France Ship (Turbine) 1894 Hon Sir S.

Parsons Britain

Silk manufacture 50 B.C.

China

Skyscraper 1882 W. Le Baron Jenny

U.S.A.

Slide rule 1621 William Oughtred Britain Spinning frame 1769 Sir Richard

Arkwright Britain

Spinning jenny 1764 James Hargreaves

Britain

Spinning mule 1779 Samuel Crompton Britain Steam Engine 1698 Thomas Savery Britain Steam engine(Piston)

1712 Thomas Newcomen

Britain

Steam engine (Condenser)

1765 James Watt Britain

Steel (stainless) 1913 Harry Brearley Britain Stethoscope 1819 Laennec French Submarine 1776 David Bushnell U.S.A. Super computer 1976 J.H. Van Tassel U.S.A. Synthesiser 1964 Moog U.S.A. Tank 1914 Sir Ernest D.

Swington Britain

Tape recorder 1899 Fessenden Poulsen

Denmark

Telegraph 1787 M. Lammond France Telegraph code 1837 Samuel F.B.

Morse U.S.A.

Telephone, (Cellular)

1947 Bell Labs U.S.A.

Telephone (Imperfect)

1849 Antonio Meucci Italy

Telephone (Perfected)

1876 Alexander Graham Bell

U.S.A.

Telescope 1608 Hans Lippershey Netherlands

Television (Mechanical)

1926 John Logie Baird Britain

Television (Electronic)

1927 P.T. Farnsworth U.S.A.

Television (Colour)

1928 John Logie Baird Britain

Transformer 1831 Michael Faraday Britain Transistor 1948 Bardeen,

Shockley & Brattain

U.S.A.

Transistor radio 1955 Sony Japan Uranium Fission, (Atomic reactor)

1942 Szilard Fermi U.S.A.

Vacuum Cleaner (Elec)

1907 Spangler U.S.A.

Video tape 1956 Charles Ginsberg U.S.A. Velcro (Hook and loop fastener)

1948 Georges de Mestral

Switzerland

Washing machine (Elec)

1907 Hurley Machine Co

U.S.A.

Watch 1462 Bartholomew Manfredi

Italy

Welder (Electric) 1877 Elisha Thomson U.S.A. Windmill 600 Persian Corn

grinding

Wireless (telegraphy)

1896 G. Marconi Italy

X-ray 1895 W.K. Roentgen Germany Zip fastener 1891 W.L. Judson U.S.A.

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