avner, ancient water management in the southern negev, aram 14 (2002)

8/10/2019 AVNER, Ancient Water Management in the Southern Negev, ARAM 14 (2002)

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U. AVNER 403ARAM, 13-14 (2001-2002), 403-421

ANCIENT WATER MANAGEMENT IN THE SOUTHERN NEGEV

UZI AVNER

INTRODUCTION

The southern Negev is an extremely arid area, with summer temperatures

above 400C, an average annual precipitation of 28 mm, and an annual potential

evaporation rateof 4000 mm. This negative water balance causes the area to

be poor in water sources and limits the Saharo-Arabian vegetation almost to-

tally to wadi beds. Certainly, the desert presents several obstacles to the devel-

opment of human communities, the foremost of which is the scarcity of water,

for drinking, for everyday uses, for animals and for agriculture. Considering

the environmental conditions, one would expect the Southern Negev to be al-

most devoid of ancient remains of human presence and activity.

However, the harshest part of this area, from Uvda Valley and southward

(see Map 1), is surprisingly rich in archaeological sites. A complete sequence

of settlement is found during the last 10,000 years, with a wide range of activi-

ties such as hunting, grazing, agriculture, trade, copper production, some goldproduction and others (Avner et al1994). In this article I will describe several

methods of water exploitation in the region. The first will concern the early

agricultural settlement in Uvda Valley, 6th to 3rd millennia B.C., the others

relate to the Nabatean and the Early Islamic period.

AGRICULTURAL SETTLEMENT IN UVDA VALLEY

Uvda Valley (Wadi Uqfi in Arabic), 40 km north of the Gulf of Aqaba

(Fig. 1), was first briefly described by A. Musil (1907:180-182, 1926:85). Hedescribed the aiwat Beduin cultivating the eastern side of the valley and rent-

ing plots to the residents of Aqaba. Musil also recognized ancient remains on

this side of the valley. The first archaeological survey was made by

Rothenberg (1967b:303-307) who documented 15 sites, while citing others

distinguishable from the air. During 1978-1982 I led a survey team which was

part of the Negev Emergency Survey, under the auspices of the Israel Depart-

ment of Antiquities (today the Israel Antiquities Authority). The survey was

intended to precede the redeployment of the Israeli army from Sinai, while

Uvda Valley itself was selected for a new air base. The survey was nevercompleted. The western side of the valley was only briefly surveyed and re-

vealed a small number of sites. However, one third of the area on the eastern


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404 ANCIENT WATER MANAGEMENT IN THE SOUTHERN NEGEV

side was meticulously surveyed, resulting in the documentation of approxi-

mately 400 sites in an area of 50 sq km (Fig. 2). This site density was unex-

pectedly high considering the present environment. The remains in the valleypresent a complete sequence of settlement, from the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B

(PPNB) to the present. A major excavation operation took place in February

1980, when 22 sites were excavated by 20 archaeologists and 180 volunteers.

These were later followed by smaller scale excavations, and conservation

works (Avner 1998 with references).1

Most surveyed sites were dated to the 6th-3rd millennia B.C., i.e. the Pot-

tery Neolithic, Chalcolithic and the Early Bronze Age. They included 154

habitation sites, 32 corrals, 40 tent camps, 30 threshing floors, water installa-

tions of various types, and many cult sites (Fig. 2). Ample agricultural tools

were collected during the survey and excavations, among them flint adzes,

hundreds of sickle blades and grinding stones, and two stone plough tips, the

earliest found in the Near East. Botanical remains included a few olive pits and

grains of domesticated cereal, while indications of other crops were also

found. Quite surprisingly, grazing was only of secondary importance to the ag-

riculture in this area. A demographic study demonstrated that ca. 3000 people

lived in the area at the settlements climax, in the 3rd millennium B.C. (Avner

1998).

THE CULTIVATED FIELDS AND FLOOD IRRIGATION

A unique combination of environmental conditions, fertile soil and hydrol-

ogy situation, made this vast agricultural settlement possible. The soil along

the eastern side of the valley contains lime-sand, which is rarely found in the

world. It makes the soil light, well-ventilated, easily tilled, and highly water

absorbent. At a depth of 0.5 m it consists of 50-70% lime-sand, 20-40% silt

and 10-14% clay. The soil is slightly alkaline (Ph 7.8-8.35), with a low level of

salinity, only 0.9-2.3 milimo (units of electrical conductivity). The water ab-

sorption capacity is very high, up to 39% of its volume.2The clay percentage

increases with depth, reaching 18-23% at a depth of 1.2 m, a situation which

minimizes water loss through seepage. This fact, along with the high water

content capacity, enabled excellent watering of the soil at the efficient root-

depth, for cereal, bushes, and even trees. These qualities are well demon-

1 Initial plans for the air base required destruction of 104 sites. However, after long negotia-tions, the plans were re-adjusted so that all but one site remained outside the base perimeter. TheU.S. Army Corps. of Engineers constructing the base also displayed a high sensitivity to the an-cient sites and avoided damage. Today, the sites are accessible and an archaeological park is inan advanced stage of planning.

2 I thank Igor Mindel, of the Jewish Agency in Beer Sheva, who provided this information.Mindel tested the soil during 1983-1986.


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U. AVNER 405

strated by fairly dense plant growth on the eastern side of the valley, outside

the wadi channels, in contrast to the rest of the southern Negev. Sand Worm-

wood (Artemisia monosperma) a Mediterranean plant, remains large and greeneven through the summer, and White Saxaul (Haloxilon persicum) reaches 5 m

in height, the tallest known in the Negev and Sinai.

In a situation of low precipitation, as in Uvda Valley, only floods can sup-

ply the amount of water necessary for cereals. The drainage area ofUvda Val-

ley is ca. 400 sq km, mainly to the south, 550-892 m above sea level. Most of

the surface is barren rock which absorbs a comparatively small amount of the

rain water. In addition, most desert rains fall in a concentrated way (Shanan et

al1967; Finkel & Finkel 1979; Sharon 1979), so that even a small amount is

often enough to create floods (Fig. 3). Here, another element becomes impor-

tant. The gradient of the valley is moderate, from 500 m above sea level in the

south to 415 m in the north. The gradient is 1% in the south and only 0.3% in

the northern part. The flood water flow is slow, does not wash the soil away,

and is well absorbed.3Since the eastern side is lower than the western by 20

m, all wadis merge on this side, which is better irrigated (Fig. 4).Following a

flood, a thick growth of wild cereal appears (Fig. 5).

These natural conditions were successfully exploited by the inhabitants of

the valley. Observation of surface and aerial photographs reveals a system of

low earth embankments perpendicular to the water channels, sometimes with

one layer of rocks on top(Fig. 6). These embankments mayhave contributedgreatly to the quality of the cultivated land. They retarded the flow of water,

further increased the amount of water absorbed by the soil, prevented soil and

seed erosion, increased the sedimentation of new soil enriched with organic

material with each flood, and widened the irrigated strip. Another long em-

bankment running south-north is discernible, west of the water channels

(Fig. 6), most probably constructed to limit the irrigated strip to approximately

500 m. This actually turned the east-west embankments into a series of

limans. This produced an important result, that the inhabitants were able to

plough and sow the land before the first flood, not 2-3 weeks later as practicedby the Beduins. In addition, the enrichment of the soil with organic material

brought by the flood, as well as dung from animals grazing on the stubble, al-

lowed cultivation year after year, with no need to lay the fields fallow.4

The embankments in Uvda Valley were not well dated. However, several

arguments favor early dates: 1.The Neger Beduin did not attempt to control

3 The total drainage area of N. Hayun, including Uvda Valley, is 1116 sq km, and the annualaverage flood water volume in the northern end reaches 1,000,150 cu m. This is the second larg-est amount of flood water in the Negev, after N. Paran, with 2,005,000 cu m (Finkel & Finkel1979:134).

4 Repeated cultivation of fields without fallowing or overuse of the soil is described by Marx(1988:90) in connection with Beduin agriculture in the Beer Sheva area, even though in this caseit was not flood agriculture, and the only source of fertilization was the animal dung.


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flood water in any way (see Avner 1998:175-177). 2. Flint and pottery of the

5th-3rd millennia B.C. predominated in every surface collection of finds near

the embankments (on their eastern end), and this is the period of most of theagricultural remains. 3. In N. Paran, 40 km north of Uvda Valley, I discovered

the remains of an agricultural field based on rectangular limans and water con-

duits (Figs. 7, 8). The limans are surrounded by embankments identical in

technique to those of Uvda Valley. The present remains cover seven hectares,

and on the surface many flint adzes were collected (Fig. 9), dated to the late

Neolithic and Chalcolithic.5The site, its function and date, indicate that water

management and engineering already existed by the 5th-4th millennia B.C.,

and this could well have been the case in Uvda Valley.6

The cultivated strip in eastern Uvda Valley is 12 km long and averages 500

m wide, equal to 600 hectares (Fig. 2). Another plot in the south-center of the

valley provides an additional 150 hectares. Remains of low stone terraces in

the wadis to the east of the valley indicate another 250 hectares of cultivated

fields, and embankments in Nahal Hayun, which drains the valley to the north,

add approximately 200 hectares. Altogether, these cultivated fields covered at

least 1200 hectares. This brings to light a special aspect of Uvda Valley.

While in the Negev Highland cultivated plots are divided into relatively small

wadis, Uvda Valley provides large, uninterrupted fields with high quality soil,

efficiently irrigated by floods.

DRINKING WATER

The availability of drinking water for people and animal is critical to the ex-

istence of any settlement, especially in the desert. Five natural water sources

are found around Uvda Valley, within a half days walk from the heart of the

settlement, but only one, the Yotvata Oasis, supplies abundant water (see be-

low). Nonetheless, during the survey we encountered three different methods

of collecting rain water and utilization of underground water:

1. In 36 sites, a series of dams was found in small wadis (Fig. 10). Usually

only limited remains of 3-6 dams are visible, but in one site, 17 dams were

found in a single wadi channel. All dams are situated near dwelling sites of the

5th-3rd millennia B.C. Since these dams are generally in a poor state of preser-

5 For the dating of the adzes see S. Rosen 1997:98; Barkai 1996:25-35, 52, and for the occur-rence of adzes in the LN in the Negev see Forenbaher 1997, Fig. 4:9. Barkai examined the adzesfrom N. Paran, and dated them to LN-Chalcolithic in general, with no indication of preference foreither.

6 For a possible Chalcolithic flood irrigation method in the Beer Sheva Valley, based on wa-ter conversion walls and micro-catchments see Levy 1987: 55-58, 77-78. Support for the pos-sibility of flood water irrigation at Shiqmim was found in the morphology of phytoliths (A.Rosen 1987, 1999).


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U. AVNER 407

vation, one may assume that many others were totally eroded or covered. An-

other variant of this method was the conveyance of flood water into caves,

which has been detected in two sites.2. Along the cliff edges east of the valley a series of closed depressions de-

veloped from vertical faults in the rock, filled with marl and clay soil. These

naturally collect and retain rain water. Inside or near most of these depres-

sions, dwelling sites of the 5th-3rd millennia B.C. were built, enabling utiliza-

tion of the accumulated water (Fig. 11). Beduins also used to dig cisterns to

collect and store rainwater in some depressions. They cleaned the cisterns be-

fore winter, and when full, they covered them with plants, to minimize evapo-

ration. It is highly likely that similar cisterns were also excavated in these de-

pressions in the past.

3. In the same area east of the valley, four wells have been found to date,

two were incomplete. One was fairly well preserved, enabling a study of how

it functioned. The well's neck is 0.8 x 1.4 m, cut into a hard and cracked layer

of limestone which has a low gradient from east to west (Fig. 12). At a depth

of 1.5 m the rock changes to a soft chalk where the well widens to a bell

shape, presently filled with debris. The cracks in the hard rock enable drain

water to seep down, while the chalk layer blocked the seeping water, causing it

to flow slowly and drip into the well. Flint and pottery collected from around

the well date it to the 5th-3rd millennia B.C., and today the wells face still

remains moist.The well in Uvda Valley is one of the earliest dated in the Near East. The

oldest known are two wells in Hailar, Anatolia (Mellaart 1970:35) and in the

submerged Neolithic village near Atlit, northern Israel (Galili & Nir 1993).

Both sites have been dated to the 6th millennium B.C. A well, in the site of

Abu Hof, central Israel, was dated to the Chalcolithic period (Levy & Alon

1987:59; Alon 1988), as was the well in Wadi Sirhan, northern Saudi Arabia

(Zarins 1979:76). This date is also suggested for the wells in Uvda Valley

based on the collected artifacts.

Another well was discovered by A. Shapira on Ma'aleh Shaharut (Avner1989). It is covered by clay soil (of Ora formation), but the fill is moist even

during the summer. A few flint pieces were collected near the well in addition

to recent Ghaza ware. In May 1989, a flow of water appeared 20 m below the

well, with a supply of 100 litres per hour, while another spring appeared 500 m

to the south. Both are still active today and have created a narrow grove of

tamarisk trees.7 Ancient remains located below the springs indicate activity

during the 5th-3rd millennia B.C.

7 The springs were first noticed by N. Minkowski, from the Maaleh Shaharut settlement.Shortly thereafter, the flow measurement was taken by A. Greenberg from the Agricultural Re-search Center in Yotvata.


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Of the three artificial means for water collection described above, the series

of dams are the most important quantitatively. An average series of dams can

contain at least 100 cubic metres. If, in the past, annual water consumption percapita was 1 cubic meter (Rosenan, in Amiran et al 1978:14) this amount of

water could support 100 people. If we consider water loss due to seepage and

evaporation, and use for the herds, it could be estimated that a series of dams

would support one extended family, ca. 25 people with their herds. If so, the

36 series of dams identified during the survey could supply water for 900 peo-

ple. As stated above, however, the original number of dam sites could have

been much higher. If the dams became depleted, the inhabitants could have

walked to one of the natural water sources every four days to water the herds,

returning to their home with filled water bags.8In general, we may assume that

utilization of all water sources, natural and artificial, could support a consider-

able population, even throughout the summer.9

NABATEAN TO EARLY ISLAMIC IRRIGATION SYSTEMS IN THE

SOUTHERN ARABA

Several sites in the southern Araba Valley belong to the Nabatean-Roman

period, and previously, many more sites were identified as Byzantine (Rothen-

berg & Cohen 1968:29-30). Since 1971, however, it became clear that mostByzantine sites should be dated to the Early Islamic Period (see discussion

in Avner & Magness 1998). Little information is available today on the precise

dates of the sites, but it seems that a Nabatean population maintained continu-

ity of settlement long after the annexation of their kingdom to the Roman Em-

pire, until the Early Islamic era. In Uvda Valley alone, Nabatean pottery was

found in more than 100 Nabatean dwelling tent camps and in most threshing

floors, indicating that the economy of the population included agriculture, as

in the earlier periods. One public building, excavated by Cohen (1980), prob-

ably served as an administrative center. Hundreds of tent camps are also found

throughoutthe southern Negev and Sinai, but unlike in Uvda Valley, most of

them represent a pastoral population.

The Yotvata Oasis is an important water source in the southern Araba Val-

ley, 40 km north of the gulf of Aqaba. Archaeological sites known to date

cover a sequence of the last 7000 years, including Nabatean remains and three

8 In Sinai, Beduin shepherds camp and graze their herds up to 15 km from water sources, or adistance of two grazing days. The black desert-goat can survive on dry food, and drink wateronly once every 4 or more days. The water and food demands of sheep are much higher. For theunique physiological adaptation of the goat see Shkolnik 1977:109-112.

9 Accumulating evidence on the paleoclimate shows that the area was a desert during the dis-cussed periods, but somewhat moister than today. See discussion with references in Avner1998:182-187.


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U. AVNER 409

fortresses: Iron Age, Late Roman and early Islamic.10Water wells, water holes

and sometimes even a flow of water over the surface were described by sev-

eral researchers (Kitchener 1884:209-210; Hull 1885:82-83; Musil 1907II:183-185, 253-256; Frank 1934:231-241, 263; Glueck 1935:40).

Two different irrigation systems are distinguished in the Oasis. One was

based on 11 water pools spread along a north-south strip of 3 km. Each one

was excavated to a depth of 3-4 m and penetrated a high water table, the larg-

est is ca.40 x 40 m (Figs. 13, 14). In the past, the water was probably elevated

from these pools into channels by means of a wooden arm (shaduf), and ran

into the cultivated fields (Fig. 15).11The time of the original construction of

this system is unknown, however, Nabatean, Late Roman and Byzantine pot-

tery scattered over a large area, indicates its main use during these periods.

Aerial photographs (Fig. 16) show the ancient water channels, emphasized by

vegetation lines of Bunchgrass (Desmostachya bipinnata), a nonindigenous

Sudanian plant, introduced to the area through cultivation. Probes into these

lines revealed simple, unlined water channels, dug ca. 50 cm wide and 50 cm

deep into the original surface (Porat 1985:134).

The second irrigation system at Yotvata is based on Qanat (=Fogga-

rasorKarez) which are series of underground water tunnels dug into the

alluvium, several km long, with a minimal gradient of ca. 0.2%. On the sur-

face rows of circular dirt mounds are usually visible, 10-20 m apart (Fig. 17).

A depression in the center of each mound denotes the location of a verticalshaft which reached the tunnel, but is filled today by dirt. During the tunnels

construction, the shafts allowed ventilation for the workers and elevation of

the excavated material, and later they served for maintenance of the system.

The deeper end penetrated the aquifer, while water surfaced by means of

gravitation at the other end.

The main Qanat system in Yotvata is 4.5 km long, aligned north-south,

partly paralleled by a second tunnel and with several tributary tunnel joining

from the west (Figs. 13, 17). Calculations show that the deepest shafts in the

north are ca.15 m. Another independent system, ca.2 km long, was built inNahal Aragaman, south of Yotvata, reaching a total length of over 10 km. This

is the longest known system in Israel (but still short when compared to those in

10 Limited excavation was made by J. Porat (unpublished) in a large Nabatean public buildingnear the spring, which may be a good candidate for a temple shown in the TabulaPointingeriana, most probably dedicated to the goddess Diana. The three fortresses were partlyexcavated by Meshel (1990, 1993).

11 In Porats opinion (1985:132-137, 1987:109-111) these are mother wells of Qanat sys-tems, but this needs correction. First, in the better preserved Qanats at Yotvata and Evrona, nosuch large depressions are observed. Second, in probes made by Porat in the channel of systemC2 (Fig. 14) manyMelanopsis andMelanoides, fresh water snails, were found. These were alsofound in large quantities in open channels in Yotvata and Evrona (Fig. 24), but were not found inthe excavated Qanat at Evrona, since they do not live in the dark. Their presence in the probesindicate that this was an open channel, not a tunnel (see also note 12).


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Iran, see e.g. Wulff 1968; Lambton 1992). One shaft was re-excavated by

Evenari et al (1971:175) it reached the water table and the tunnel at a depth of

6 m. This tunnel was found lined by stones, but collapsed.Open channels distributed the water from the outlet of the tunnels to the cul-

tivated plots. These channels are also emphasized by vegetation lines (Fig. 16),

and several ancient plots are seen as a checkerboard pattern indicated by

present vegetation. This pattern of ancient fields was still in a much better state

of preservation in 1956, it covered 400 hectares and resembled modern culti-

vated fields (Evenari et al 1971:176, Fig. 108).

It was previously suggested that the Qanatsystems were introduced into the

Levant during the Roman-Byzantine period (Rothenberg 1971:212, 218) or

even the Persian period (5th-4th century B.C., Evenari et al 1971:178). How-

ever, excavation in Qanat sites in Israel, in Fatsael, Ein Yahav and Evrona,

demonstrated that they were all established during the Umayad period (Porat

1987:114). In three different locations at Yotvata the Qanatsystems are inter-

secting or overlapping the Nabatean-Byzantine water installation. Therefore,

they were later and match the date of the other Qanat sites.12The Qanats had

several advantages: They exploited the aquifer without exposing it to evapora-

tion (through open pools), and thereby saved water, minimized the water and

soil salination, and made the managment of the complete irrigation system

possible without the need of man-power to elevate the water. Today, it is not

possible to distinguish between the Nabatean-Byzantine and the Early Islamiccultivated fields. Most probably, the earlier fields continued to be cultivated,

but they reached their maximum dimensions during the Early Islamic period,

with the advantage of the Qanat systems,

The farm in Evrona was constructed on typical desert ground, with no previ-

ous cultivation. It is based on a high water table, as indicated by the Evrona

well 3 km to the north, but only the Qanatirrigation system enable its devel-

opment. The total length of the Qanat remains unknown due to insufficient

preservation of surface remains. The main line consists of two parallel tunnels,

observed to a length of 600 m (Fig. 18), but an unfinished survey by groundradar (by U. Basson) added 500 m to the previously known length. Another

branch, 400 m long, joins the main tunnel from the western side. A section of

the eastern channel, 18 m long, was re-excavated by Porat and Avner between

two shafts (Porat 1987:111). It was dug into the stony solid soil of the Araba

12 The distinction between the two water systems at Yotvata and their relative chronology es-caped the attention of the earlier scholars (Frank 1934:250-263); Evenari et al(1971:173-178),Rothenberg (1967a:139-144, 1967b:291-293), Porat (1985:132-137) and Meshel (1990:33).Porat interpreted the remains as two stages of construction of the Early Islamic Qanats.

Until recently it was not clear enough whether Qanats were known outside Iran before theEarly Islamic period, 7th century A.D. Now, reports from Libya indicate that water systemssafely identified as Qanats. became obsolete during the 5th century A.D. (Mattingly et al1998:137-142) I thank A. Wilson for the information and the reference.


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U. AVNER 411

Valley, 5 m below surface in this section, unlined but well preserved (Fig. 19)

and now open to visitors.

The southern part of the system, which is closer to the surface, consists of aroofed channel built of stones, into an open ditch, and then covered (Fig. 20).

The lower part of this channel is lined by hydraulic plaster, with sedimentation

of travertine indicating the original water level, 40 cm from the bottom.

A stone valve was found in situ in an open section of the roofed channel

(Fig. 21), placed for regulating the flow of water into the reservoir. The roofed

channel reaches a reservoir, 17.5 x 13.5 m, and only 0.8 m deep, built at the

northwestern corner of the cultivated field (Figs. 18, 22). Three sides of the

reservoir were sloped and lined with clay and cobbles (Fig. 23), the southern

side was built as a vertical stone wall, lined by hydraulic plaster. A stone slab

with a circular hole 12 cm in diameter, incorporated in this wall, served as a

water valve for irrigating the field. During excavation of the reservoir, ample

Melanopsis andMelanoides, fresh water snails, were found (Fig. 24), indicat-

ing sweet water (Avner in press).

The cultivated field was well prepared, carefully leveled, cleared of rocks

and surrounded by a stone and mud brick wall. On the western side a rampart

was built which provided protection against floods. An aerial photograph (Fig.

25) shows the remains of narrow irrigation channels crisscrossing the field.

Only 2 hectares of the field are preserved today; the rest was gradually washed

away by floods once the farm was abandoned in the 11th century A.D. How-ever, additional remains of the rampart, found 1.5 km to the south, indicate

that the original field covered ca.300 hectares, close to that of Yotvata. The

entire irrigation system was based on gravitation only, i.e.opening and closing

the valves; no elevation of the water was necessary.

The remains of crops found in the excavation included many date pits, as

well as olive and peach pits, almond shells, carob seeds, wheat and barley. An

attempt at pollen analysis was unsuccessful, and therefore the list of crops is

surely incomplete. Based on the botanical finds, circular depressions barely

observed in the aerial photo, and comparisons with present, traditional desertagriculture, it is possible to imagine double story agriculture (Fig. 26). A

plantation of date and other fruit trees may have covered most of the area,

while other crops, such as vegetables and legumes were grown underneath and

between the trees.

Three buildings were preserved in the farm. The main one, adjacent to the

reservoir, originally contained only two rooms, but with later additions gradu-

ally extended to 26 x 29 m. At some point, one of the two original rooms was

converted into a mosque. The farmhouse most probably served the overseers

family and the professional staff, while the majority of the workers lived intents. During the excavations, which remain unfinished, several notable finds

were discovered, including seven Umayad coins and a few ostraca. The most


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complete ostracon (Fig. 27) is inscribed with a list of names and sums of

money in derhams, apparently a list of salaries or debts. These ostraca repre-

sent the bureaucratic order of the farm.The farms at Yotvata and Evrona present a picture of intensive and success-

ful early Islamic agriculture in the extreme desert conditions of the southern

Araba Valley. This picture concurs with the overall view of intensive early Is-

lamic attempts of agricultural development across their empire. In addition,

many new crops, especially from the Far East were introduced and spread over

the empire, including spinach, eggplant, sorghum, sugar cane, banana, coco-

nut, mango and several citrus varieties. Other crops, such as watermelon, rice

and cotton, previously known only in limited areas, now became common-

place (Watson 1983, Amar 1996). The products from the farms in Yotvata and

Evrona, as well as near the city of Ayla, supported the cities inhabitants, the

population of the villages on the western side of the Araba Valley, the work-

ers of the copper and gold mines and production camps, and the caravan mer-

chants and pilgrims (Avner & Magness 1998).

SUMMARY

This paper presents several examples of ancient water management in the

harsh desert of the southern Negev and southern Araba Valley. The first werelate-prehistoric, indigenous solutions for the need of water, for everyday use

and for agriculture. The embankments of Uvda Valley, and especially those in

Nahal Paran, are the earliest well preserved remains of runoff water harvesting

systems known to date in the Near East, beginning in the Chalcolithic or even

Late Neolithic. This innovation, and others, enabled the population to develop

a large scale, sustainable and durable settlement, in an area that today enjoys

only 28 mm of an average average annual precipitation and some 4000 mm of

annual potential evaporation. The Qanats, on the other hand, represent an im-

ported technological solution. In Yotvata they enabled more efficient irrigation

and a better water supply, which allowed irrigation of a larger area. In other

places, however, as in the case of Evrona, the use of Qanats, most probably

imported from Iran, enabled the establishment of agricultural farms and settle-

ments where they were not previously possible.

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ern Shefela, Israel.Pp. 84-89. Giv'ataim (Hebrew).Amar, Z. 1996.Agricultural Production in the Land of Israel During the Middle Ages.

Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Bar-Ilan University (Hebrew).


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Fig. 1. Map of the southern Negev, with location of sites mentioned in the paper.


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Fig. 2. Survey of Uvda Valley (due to the map scale, not all sites are shown).


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U. AVNER 417

Fig. 3. Waterfall in N. Issaron, eastern UvdaValley, following a short rain.

Fig. 4. Flood in eastern Uvda Valley, from north.

Fig. 5. A growth of wild cereal in eastern UvdaValley, following a flood.

Fig. 6. Remains of enbankments in eastern Uvda

Valley.

Fig. 8. Ground plan of limans in N. Paran.

Fig. 7. Remains of limans in N. Paran.


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U. AVNER 419

Fig. 14. An aerial photo of a Nabatean-Byzan-tine water pool north of Yotvata (temporarily filled

with rain water).

Fig. 15. A water pool at Yotvatan, with a chan-nel leading to the cultivated fields.

Fig. 16. An aerial photo of vegetation lines atYotvata, indicating ancient water channels (inter-sected by a modern road.

Fig. 17. An aerial photo of Qanats at Yotvata, asection of the main line.

Fig. 18. Map of Evrona Farm. Solid line denotesexposed or excavated elements, broken line de-notes below surface or conjectured elements.


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Fig. 19. A reexcavated sectionof the water tunnel at Evrona.

Fig. 20. A section of the roofedchannel at Evrona. With a plas-tered bottom..

Fig. 21. Water channel atEvrona, with a regulation valve,temporarily filled with rainwater.

Fig. 22. Water channel at Evrona, crossing thefield's fence and reaching the reservoir (during

excavation, from north).

Fig. 23. Remains of the clay and stone lining inthe Evrona reservoir.

Fig. 24. Fresh water snails from the Evronareservoir.


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Fig. 25. Evrona farm, an aerial photo of the cultivated field, from west, showing the surrounding fence,the rampart for protection from floods, the reservoir (before excavation), remains of irrigation chan-nels and the main building (during excavation).

Fig. 26. Traditional double story agriculture innorthern Sinai.

Fig. 27. An ostracon from the main building inthe Evrona Farm, apparently with a list of salaries(Porat 1987:112).

avner, ancient water management in the southern negev, aram 14 (2002)

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