Aurangzeb (Alamgir), 1658/9-1707

Factions in Shah Jahan’s Court

Shah Jahan

Dara ShukohHeir

AurangzebGov. of Deccan

Princess Jahan Ara

Jaswant Singh Holkar(Rajput-Marwar)

Princess Raushan Ara

Mir Jumla,Minister, Golconda

Qutub Shahis (r. Golconda)

Sulaiman ShukohSon, army commander

3 sons, all able

Jai Singh of AmberRajput, c. of imperial army

Switches sides

(switches sidesTo Shuja)

Succession Struggle of 1658

Aurangzeb

Dara Shukoh

Murad Baksh Mhmd. Shuja

The 1658-9 War of Succession

• Aurangzeb moves north, keeping track of changes at court via Princess Raushan Ara

• Murad forcibly takes treasury in West, agrees to a compact with Aurangzeb

• Aurangzeb and Murad’s forces defeat the Imperial Army under Jaswant Singh Rathor, Feb, 1658—Same month Sulaiman Shukoh defeats the Bengal army of Shuja

• By June, Aurangzeb triumphs over brothers.

Wrapping up “loose ends”

• Jaswant Singh Rathor defects to Shuja, who had retreated east. Both are defeated, but Shuja will continue to resist till 1660 in the east.

• Murad Baksh taken prisoner in June, 1658, will be tried for murder, ex. In 1661.

• Dara captured in summer of 1659, put on trial for apostasy and idolatry, executed.

Impact of Succession Struggle, 1658-59

• Nobility picked different sides—Aurangzeb continued to hold suspicions about Jaswant Singh and supporters of Dara—such as the Sikh Guru, Har Rai

• Much disruption in the collection of revenue for two years—possible impact on peasants a cause of debate– Imperial wealth spent ends up in hands of peasants and soldiers

• Continued imprisonment of Shah Jahan leads to criticism by Safavid Emperor and the guardian of Mecca. Allegations made about Aurangzeb’s morality.

• Allies and nobility view new emperor with trepidation

The polarization of history

• Aurangzeb’s period has become polarized and mythologized

• Some myths:– Banned music,

painting, etc at court– Actively discriminated

against all non-Muslims

– Tried to create an Islamic theocracy

Same cautionary remarks:

• Important to view Aurangzeb’s policies as rising out of complex motivations and factors, not merely due to his personality

• Sources from secondary literature (particularly older ones) are highly suspect, since 19th-20th c. was marked by Hindu-Muslim tensions

• Crucial to see the changes in policy since the Emperor’s own attitudes towards Rajputs, Marathas, conversion, jizya changed over time

• An important dividing factor is the earlier part of the reign spent in the north v. later reign in Deccan (before and after 1681) retrenchment after 1681.

Early Campaigns, 1659-81

• 1661-63 Mir Jumla’s campaign against Kuch Bihar and Ahoms

• 1667-75 Afghan tribes rebel: Afridis, Yusufzai, Khataks

• 1678-79 rebellion in Mewar and Marwar

• 1681 Prince Akbar’s rebellion

• Continuing trouble with Marathas forces Aurganzeb to leave for the Deccan

Eastern Border secured

Afghan revolts contained

Incentives offered

Pay tribute, but Not annexed

OngoingRebellion From 1650s onFor Marathas,After 1678 forRajputs

Important shifts in Religious Policy

• 1659 office of Muhtasib created• 1665 differential taxes for Hindu and Muslim

traders imposed, but only sporadically enforced• 1669 official histories discontinued, order for

temples clarified• 1672 Hindu religious grants resumed• 1675 Sikh Guru, Tegh Bahadur executed• 1679 Jizya reimposed (revoked in 1704/deccan)• 1690 land grants to Muslim ulema made

heriditary

Problems of Enforcement

• Aurangzeb’s own application of these laws was inconsistent—ex. Support of non-muslim religious establishments/figures

• Mansabdars flooded the Emperor with protests, applications for the reduction/revocation of taxes or simply did not comply in some areas

• Jizya was revoked in the Deccan in 1704• Aurangzeb’s personal bigotry is undeniable;

however, his policy shifts also seem to be in response to key events at times

Rajputs and Aurangzeb

• Some of the contradictions in these policies is clearer in the case of the Rajputs– Jaswant Singh’s conduct in 1658-59 and later

as an ally of Shivaji put him under suspicion– Rajput officers were exempted from the Jizya– Aurangzeb continued to patronize and

support other Rajputs during the war with Mewar/Marwar. Raja Jai Singh was entrusted with the Deccan Campaign until 1666.

The Marwar-Mewar Rebellion

• Has longer subtext—Jaswant Singh was a younger son who gained the throne of Marwar due to Shah Jahan’s patronage

• His behavior during 1658-59 aroused Aurangzeb’s suspicions, upon his death in 1678, Aurangzeb tried to manipulate succession and failed.

• The Marwar and Mewar clans rallied around the infant Ajit Singh, guerilla warfare begins

• Mughal army subdues urban areas, dynastic temples are destroyed, tensions are aggravated

• Prince Akbar joins Rajputs, criticizes policies• Rebellion contained, but trust of two major clans broken

Pressure from Marathas

The Emperor’s growing frustrations with the Maratha insurgency had an impact on both administrative and religious policies

• During suc. Struggle of 1658-59 Shivaji and allies capture forts on the Konkan coast

• Raid Deccani and Mughal territory demanding revenue• 1664 Shivaji raids Surat• Captured by Jai Singh in 1665, escapes in 1666• 1667 raids Surat again• 1680 Shivaji dies, sons and wives fight over succession

Maratha Advantages

• Clan-based confederacy, with tight links to local peasants, Bijapur

• Bases in remote fortresses in Western Ghat hills

• Use guerilla tactics, not conventional warfare

• Use money from raids and piracy to create revenue

How are we to assess this early period?

• Keep in mind that despite dramatic political events the revenue system in fact continued to expand and be reformed under Aurangzeb

• Greater urban expansion necessitated a change in taxation and administrative systems—merchants had been lightly taxed till now

• Despite battles the bulk of the peasantry—especially khud kasht peasants and pioneering zamindars continued to profit from economic expansion

• Their success, in fact, was both beneficial and problematic for the empire—Why?

• Emperor needed greater cooperation from administrative officials to capitalize on these expansions—yet ran into political problems due to clumsy policies

How did Aurangzeb fail to build support?

• It is not clear if Aurangzeb always understood the complicated power-sharing between Hindus and Muslims– Bijapur Sultanate and Marathas– Arrangement between Hindu financiers and Muslim pioneer

farmers in Bengal, an example also found elsewhere– Attitudes of a mixed nobility towards an increasingly hybridized

culture

• Reactions to Imperial policy were unexpected—many Muslim mansabdars critical of these shifts

• Hindus continue to join system, largest numbers by end of Aurangzeb’s rule